ecological determinants of parenting

Ecological Determinants of ParentingAuthor(s): Janet Reis, Linda Barbera-Stein and Susan BennettSource: Family Relations, Vol. 35, No. 4 (Oct., 1986), pp. 547-554Published by: National Council on Family RelationsStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/584516 .

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Ecological Determinants of Parenting*

JANET REIS, LINDA BARBERA-STEIN, AND SUSAN BENNETT**

An ecological model of human development was used to assess the interrelation- ship between psychological determinants of parenting, parental age, and parenting skill for a sample of 210 parents. Parents' race was found to be significantly related to attitudes toward childrearing, knowledge of child development, and perceived social support. Punitive attitudes toward childrearing and parental race were significant predictors of the quality of parenting with more punitive and younger parents having less supportive and less nurturant home environments.

The quality of family life, particularly parent- child relationships, has become a national concern. The desire to enhance family functioning has resulted in the proliferation of program of- fering family support programs and parent education (Clark-Stewart, 1978; Zigler, Weiss, & Kagan, 1984). As these programs have grown, it has become clear that more information is needed on why parents behave the way they do. This information is necessary so that interventions aimed at changing parenting behavior are maximally effective and so that parents at risk for suboptimal parenting may be identified and helped as early as possible.

Potential parenting problems among adolescent mothers are of special interest since parental age is widely viewed as a proxy for parents' sensitivity for a child's maturational process and needs. Younger parents are hypothesized to be less knowledgeable and, therefore, less sensitive than an older parent. Cumulative evidence supports the theoretical link between adolescent parenthood and inadequate levels of knowledge and unrealistic developmental expectations (DeLissovoy, 1973; Jarrett, 1982; Linde & Engelhardt, 1979; Ragozin, Basham, Crinic, Greenberg, & Robin-

*The research reported here was supported in part by a grant from the Illinois Department of Children and Family Serv- ices and the Pittway Charitable Fund.

**Janet Reis is Assistant Professor, Department of Graduate Education, School of Nursing, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214. Linda Barbera-Stein is Assistant Professor, Center for Health Services and Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60201. Susan Bennett is Research Associate, Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60201.

Key Words: parenting, parental age, parenting skill.

(Family Relations, 1986, 35, 547-554.)

son, 1982). Documentation of adolescent parents' gaps in knowledge of child development has led service providers to recommend programs in parent education for pregnant and parenting teens (Sparling, 1980).

Review of the evidence linking parents' knowledge of child development with their attitudes toward childrearing and their actual parenting behavior, however, reveals that such information is virtually nonexistent for parents of any age. A recent test of the relationships between parents' knowledge and ability to design a quality home learning environment found that mothers in a sample of 243 low income families who knew more about critical environmental factors and normative infant development scored higher on a measure of parenting skill (Stevens, 1984). No comparable study examining the same sequential components of parenting for adolescent parents could be located. The closest approximation to a systematic examination of the knowledge- attitude-practice sequence appears in an assessment of adolescents' awareness that parenting influences the present and future well-being of the infant and mother (Parks & Smeriglio, 1983).

The purpose of this study was to replicate and expand upon predictive models of parenting, with particular attention given to factors related to the parenting behaviors of adolescents. An extensive literature exists on the influence of socioeconomic and cultural differences on parenting behavior (Goslin, 1973; Whiting & Whiting, 1975). Beyond these macro level analyses, however, there has been little integrated work on the role of specific parental personality factors in shaping childrearing techniques or quality of caretaking. Review of existing models suggests that the most de-

October1986 FAMILY RELATIONS 547

tailed and comprehensive are taken from research on child abuse and neglect, and that the best explicated of these models is based on ecological theories of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1977).

The conceptual framework for the determinants of parenting used to organize the hypotheses and analyses for this study draws together disparate data on family functioning, childrearing practices, etc. in order to better explain why parents parent the way they do (Belsky, 1980, 1984). According to the tenets of this model of parenting, the three factors most influential in shaping parenting behavior in descending order of importance are the parents' psychological resources, sources of stress and support, and the temperamental and behavioral characteristics of the child. Ideally, all three domains linked with parenting would be assessed simultaneously. Evidence that the risk characteristics of the child are relatively easy to overcome led to the choice of the first two elements-i.e., parental psychological resources and level of social support as being most important for measurement. These global factors were further operationalized to address the specific needs and life circumstances of the "average" volunteer sought for participation in the study.

Within the domain of psychological resources, two aspects were selected for measurement, i.e., level of depressive symptoma- tology, and parental knowledge of and attitudes toward child development. Level of depression was chosen as a key measure of psychological health based on previous research identifying depressive states as modulating an individual's ability to empathize with others and behave in a nurturant fashion (Belsky, 1984). Developmental theory suggests that depressive states may be exacerbated by the stresses of parenting (Weissman & Kler- man, 1977). Surveys of young mothers have shown that they are particularly susceptible to depression (Hall, Williams, & Greenberg, 1985; Tangerose & James, 1984).

Problems in parenting have also been found to be related to unrealistic expectations of child development (Burgess & Conger, 1978; Twentyman & Plotkin, 1982). Knowledge of developmental milestones has in turn been found to be correlated with parental age, with younger parents being less knowledgeable than older parents. It was hypothesized in this study that the pregnant and parenting adolescent would be less knowledgeable and less lenient, and less likely to have good parenting skills than their older counterparts. In sum, a nondepressed parent, knowledgeable and tolerant of child development was equated with a sensitive parent attuned to children's

capabilities and to the developmental tasks children face.

The third factor tested in this study for its relationship with parenting behavior was the type and amount of social support perceived as available to the parents. Theories on the context of parent-child relations postulate that the marital relationship is the first order support system. Since most of the parents available for participation in the study were known to be single, it was hypothesized that the broader network of kin, friends and social and health care providers would constitute the principal sources of support. The hypothesis is bolstered by a substantial literature on the important buffering role of social networks for families under stress (Wilcox, 1981).

These three elements of the process model of parenting were used as predictors of parenting behavior as assessed with the Home Observation Measurement for the Environment (Caldwell & Bradley, 1979). In addition to the measures of parents' psychological resources, three sociodemographic variables were included in the predictive model. The relative ordering of the psychological variables versus the sociodemographic characteristics of parental age, race, and parenting status as determined by the analysis was of interest since the ecological theory of parenting does not clearly specify which are most important in influencing parenting behavior.

Both parental age and parenting status were construed as markers for the maturity of the mother. Parental race was included as a potential predictor because of the impression of the service providers working at the agencies that the mother's behavior differed according to race. Other variables such as educational level, marital status, and income were also seen as candidates for factors potentially influencing parenting. The sample reported here was, however, quite homogenous along each of these dimensions. Additionally, respondents were reluctant to give their income level (see sample description) precluding testing of this important factor in our model.

The contribution of each of these potential predictors of caretaking was empirically tested using multiple linear regression analysis with stepwise selection (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Stein- brenner, & Bent, 1975). This statistical pro- cedure is designed to produce the most parsi- monious yet complete predictive model for the dependent variables being studied (Norusis, 1983). Hierarchical regression analyses were also conducted and are available upon request from the first author.

The results of the analysis provide additional evidence to policy makers and program planners as to the aspects of parenting most

548 FAMILY RELATIONS October1986

amenable to change through family support programs and similar interventions. Recast in developmental theory, assessment of predictors of parenting further refines our understanding of the continuum of influence shaping parents' behavior, and therefore enhances our ability to develop more effective and effi- cient programs for improvement of family functioning.

Method

Subjects

Two hundred and ten volunteer mothers par- ticipated in the study of the determinants of parenting. These subjects were recruited from three agencies in the Midwest. All of the agencies provided preventive services to families, ranging from health care to family support services. Eighty-two subjects (39%) in the sample were white and 128 (610%) in the sample were black.

At the time of administration of the parenting measures and the HOME inventory, 88% (188) of the parents were not pregnant and had one child. Sixteen (7.6%) of the parents were pregnant and had one child with the remaining 6% not pregnant and with two children. The battery of measures assessing psychological resources and perceived social support was administered to each study participant when she appeared at the service agency and after consent for participation in the study had been obtained. Data were collected between March, 1984 and March, 1985. Refusal rates for participation in the study were low, ranging from 5 to 10% of all mothers approached.

The average age of the sample was 17.92 years (SD = 2.12 years). Seventy-six percent of the sample had not completed high school; 22% were high school graduates, and the remaining 2% had some additional education beyond high school. The majority (82%) of the sample was not married. The modal income category reported by the 84 participants responding to this question was $5,000 or less per year (47% of sample), 26% had an income of $5,000-$10,000, and 12% were on public aid. The remaining 15% of the sample was dis- tributed between $10,000-$15,000 per year (13% of sample) and $15,000-$20,000 per year (2% of sample). Employment status was reported by only half of the sample. For those mothers responding to the question about work position, 26% were unemployed, 2% were working part time, and 12% were working full time. The majority of nonrespondents to the employment question came from the site serving a preponderance of nonworking mothers and therefore, it is safe to assume that most of the sample was not working at the time of the interview and HOME observation.

Upon completion of the four measures, the research associate at each agency made ar- rangements with the mother for a follow-up home visit. Appointments were scheduled within 2 weeks of completion of the question- naires. The HOME inventory was administered by a staff member from the agency. Each staff person had attended a training session for use of the HOME inventory prior to collecting data for the formal study. Interrater reliability was established to be a minimum of .80 by the con- clusion of the training session.

Instruments

CES-D Depression Scale. The CES-D is a self-report measure designed by the Center for Epidemiological Studies of the National In- stitute of Mental Health to study depressive symptoms in the population (Radloff, 1977). The CES-D consists of 20 symptoms rated on a 4-point scale in terms of frequency of occurrence during the previous week. A score of 0 means the symptom occurred rarely or none of the time and a score of 3 means the symptom occurred most of the time. Total scores may range from 0 to 60. High scores suggest being "at risk" for depression. The usual cut-off to indicate "clinical depression" is 16. Cronbach's alpha was calculated to be .88 for the study sample (Cronbach, 1951). The level of internal consistency of the CES-D observed in this sample compares favorable with estimates obtained in previous studies (Roberts, 1980; Ross & Mirowsky, 1984).

Developmental Childrearing Attitudes and Expectations. The Field instrument is a self- report measure designed to evaluate knowledge of the average age of occurrence of developmental milestones and attitudes toward childrearing (Field, Widmayer, Stringer, & Igna- toff, 1980). The instrument has two sections, the first measuring parental attitudes through presentation of 15 childrearing situations in which parents are asked to choose one of two or three childrearing situations. Total scores ranging from 15 to 30 with higher scores indi- cating a more punitive attitude. The last 10 items concern expectations of the age by which a baby attains certain developmental milestones (e.g., "smile," "be fully potty trained," "obey when you say 'no' "). Respon- dents are asked to select 1 of 7 age categories ranging rom 0-5 months to 30-36 months cor- responding to the period in which a child would be able to perform the specific task. Total scores ranged from 10 to 20. Correct answers to appropriate developmental milestones were scored according to the original criterion. Cronbach's alpha for the study sample was calculated to be .30 for childrearing attitudes and .22 for developmental expectations. No pub-

lished reliability measures are available for comparison with the internal consistency of the responses for the sample discussed here. The instrument was originally selected based on recommendations of developmental psy- chologists who believed this instrument to be a reliable and valid tool. Suggestions for future instrument development of scales assessing parents' knowlege of developmental milestones are presented in the discussion sec- tion.

Perceived Social Support. A self-report social network scale designed to measure the presence, extent and functioning of an individual's perceived social support was used to assess the third facet of the process model. This tool is considered to be one of the more internally consistent measures of global, func- tional social support (Cohen & Wills, 1985). The major question asked is the extent to which parents have personal and community based relationships for advice or assistance in their daily lives.

The instrument consists of 18 binary-choice items (True-False) regarding the types of things people feel they can ask of others. As a measure of each participant's primary source of social support, respondents also are asked to indicate which person(s) they most often have in mind while completing the survey. Total scores may range from 18 to 36. Cron- bach's alpha was calculated to be .72 for the study sample. The reliability of the social support scale for this sample, though in the accep- table range, is somewhat lower than the .92 reported in the 1981 Wilcox study.

All of the instruments for assessment of the components of the process model of parenting were administered to the study participants during the course of their involvement in an ongoing program. Services received ranged from well-baby exams, prenatal care, and parent support sessions. Participants were given the package of instruments during a period when they had time to complete them without inter- ruption.

Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME). The HOME is a 45 item interview/observation scale which has been ex- tensively validated across a variety of research settings (Caldwell & Bradley, 1979). The inventory contains six subscales: emotional and verbal responsivity, avoidance of restriction and punishment, organization of the environment, provision of play materials, maternal involvement, and variety in daily stimulation. Cron- bach's alpha was calculated to be .76 for the total inventory. The level of internal consistency observed in the HOME are comparable to the alpha values reported by the HOME test

Table 1.

Standard

Deviations of

Process

Measures of

Parenting,

Parenting

Behavior

According to

Parent's

Parenting

Status,

Demographic

Punitive

Social

Caretaking

Characteristics

Attitudes

Development

Support

Depression

nventory

Parenting

Status

pregnant-one

pregnant-two

children

Race black

developers and other researchers (Caldwell & Bradley, 1979; Stevens, 1984).

In addition to the items on the HOME inventory, seven items from the Childhood Level of Living Scale were used to assess the quality of household maintenance, potential negligence, general positive child care, and quality of child's grooming (Child Welfare League of America, 1980). Cronbach's alpha for this short scale was calculated to .52.

Results

Descriptive Analysis

The means and standard deviations on the measures of parenting and HOME scores according to parent's age, parenting status, and race are shown in Table 1. The analytic plan presented here is divided into two parts. First, the interrelationships between the participants' sociodemographic characteristics and their standing on the correlates of parenting were examined. This analysis indicated whether certain subgroups of parents were significantly different from each (from a statistical perspective) on depression, attitudes toward childrearing or social support. The second component of the analysis examined the contribution of each of the seven potential predictors of parenting to actual parenting behavior. The full model tested in this analysis combined sociodemographic variables with psychological and knowledge variables as predictors of parenting.

A hierarchical 2 x 3 x 2 Analysis of Vari- ance was used for tests of significant main effects and interactions between the factors of parent's age, parenting status, and parent's race on knowledge, attitudes, and depression. Given the authors' interest in parental age as a proxy for level of knowledge of developmental milestones, attitudes toward childrearing, and level of depression, this variable was entered first in the hierarchical analysis. Parenting status was entered as the second factor, and race was entered third.

The results of the Analysis of Variance indicated no statistically significant effects of parents' age or for parenting status. In contrast to parent's age and parenting satatus, a statistically significant main effect was obtained for parent's race on attitudes toward childrearing (F(1, 176) = 4.92, p < .05) and knowledge of child development (F(1, 176) = 22.33, p < .001). In addition, a statistically significant two-way interaction was found between parenting status and race on knowledge of child development (F(2, 176) = 3.26, p < .05). Inspection of subgroup means revealed that black pregnant women with no other children had the lowest knowledge scores of child development.

Test of the Ecological Model of Parenting

Table 2 summarizes the results of the stepwise regression analyses. Included in the table are the independent variables identified as statistically significant predictors from the original set of seven tested, the multiple correlation coefficients, unadjusted and adjusted R2 (both measures of the goodness of fit of the model), the F value for the test of the statistical significance of R2 change, and the correlation coefficients between each statistically significant predictor and the criterion variable with the linear effects of the other independent variables removed from both.

Regression analysis was first performed for the total HOME score. Two significant predictors of this total HOME score were found; parental race entered the equation first (r2 =

.11), followed by parent's attitudes toward childrearing (r2 = .16; r2 change = .05). None of the other five potential predictors of parenting were found to be significant contributors under the conditions of this model. Both predictors included in the model were negatively correlated with the total HOME score.

A total of 11 statistically significant predictors were identified in the stepwise analyses of the six HOME subscales and are summarized beginning with the sociodemographic predictors. Parental race entered the regression equation as the first predictor for provision of play materials (r2 = .10) maternal involvement (r2 = .14), and variety in daily stimulation (r2 =

.08). Race entered as a second significant predictor for emotional and verbal responsivity (total r2 = .10; r2 change = .03) and organization of the environment (total r2 = .06; r2 change = .03). Parenting status was the first predictor to enter the equation for avoidance of restriction and punishment (r2 = .04) and organization of the environment (r2 = .03). Paren- tal age was the second statistically significant predictor of avoidance of restriction and punishment (total r2 = .06; r2 change = .02).

The psychological variables included in the model were found to be predictive of three subscales. The punitive attitudes variable was the strongest predictor of emotional and verbal responsivity (r2 = .07). Level of depression was predictive of maternal involvement following race as the first predictor (total r2 = .11; r2 change = .03). Perceived social support was predictive of variety in daily stimulation, again following race as the first predictor (total r2 =

.11; r2 change = .03). In the regression analysis of the caretaking

environment score, parent's age entered the equation first (r2 = .07) with attitudes toward childrearing accounting for a 4% increase in

Table 2.

Summary of

Stepwise

Regression

Analyses

Predictors of

Parenting

Behavior.

Variables in

Multiple

Adjusted

Partial

Dependent

Variables

Equation'

Squared

Change2

Correlation

Punitive

Attitudes

Emotional

Verbal

Responsivity

Punitive

Attitudes

Avoidance

Restriction

Parenting

Status

Punishment

Parental

Organization of

Environment

Parenting

Status

Provision of

Material

Maternal

Involvement

Variety in

Stimulation

Social

Support

'Seven

predictors

tested

relationships

subscales.

potential

predictors

include

parental

parenting

status,

parental

knowledge of

development,

punitive

attitudes

toward

childrearing,

depression,

perceived

social

port. 2All

reported F

values

achieved a

minimum

level of

statistical

significance of

values of R2

change

reported

exception of F = 5.

43 p <

calculated

for R2

change

race as a

predictor of

organization of

environment.

amount of variance explained (r2 = .11). Ex- amination of the patterning mean scores tested in Table 1 shows that the older mother is less punitive in her attitudes toward childrearing, and in the context of the regression analysis, has created the most supportive home environment.

A different perspective on the interrelation- ship between determinants of parenting, parental age, and quality of parenting is seen in the intercorrelations calculated among the variables; these are in accord with the tenets of the ecological theory used to guide the analysis. Age was significantly related to punitive attitudes toward childrearing (r = -.16). The HOME and caretaking scores were negatively correlated with punitive attitudes toward childrearing (r = -.33 and -.25 respectively). The total HOME score was significantly related to knowledge of child development (r = .20), age (r = .21), and perceived social support (r = .19). Each of these correlations achieved a minimum level of significance of .05.

Discussion and Implications

The results of this test of the ecological model of parenting provide information on the interrelationships between factors predictive of parenting, as well as the contribution of these factors to parenting behavior for a self selected sample of mothers. With regard to the profile of the sample of participating parents, the direction and strength of the correlation coefficients speak to the validity of the parenting model. Parents who were punitive in their perspective on childrearing practices were also less knowledgeable of children's developmental milestones, had less social support, and were more depressed. Furthermore, parents following this pattern tended to be younger in age, although age per se did not emerge as a significant predictor of parenting skills.

Returning to one of the questions shaping this study, the apparent unimportance of parental age as a predictor of parenting raises further doubts about the appropriateness of equating chronological age with poor caretaking skills. Some adolescents are undoubtedly insufficiently prepared to assume a parental role, but as suggested in this analysis, this problem is not unique to teenagers. Older parents may also lack the psychological skills prerequisite to successful execution of their parental role.

Needless to say, the results of this analysis do not give an indication of the cause-effect relationship between depression, knowledge, expectations, attitudes, and perceived social support. The configuration of these variables does suggest, however, that they should be considered as an interrelated set of factors

which contribute to the quality of family functioning and potentially to the well-being of the individual child. From a service delivery perspective, the intercorrelations add weight to the suggestion that programs dealing with isolated families should recognize the personal psychological needs of family members as well as trying to augment social networks. While such reminders may be gratuitous for providers with a wholistic philosophy of service delivery, the history of early childhood programs attests to how we may lose sight of the interrelated, comprehensive needs of high risk families when we become preoccupied with an individual child and/or specific problems (Travers & Light, 1982).

Contrary to original expectations, these low income participants with relatively little education were high in reported levels of social support. Further research is needed to determine if the Wilcox scale accurately reflects a parents' perceived support network, if the scale is trun- cated by the number of items and/or choice of items, or if the parents' reports are accurate but the level of support received is inadequate from the perspective of service providers. This last hypothesis is particularly plausible in light of recently reported findings from interviews with adolescent mothers which found that the major coping response of these mothers was to ask others for assistance (Colleta, Hadler, & Gregg, 1981). The response of the older mothers in this sample suggests that they too seek external assistance, perceiving them- selves as having adequate levels of social support.

Additional psychometric work is also clearly called for with instruments for assessing parents' knowledge of child development. The low internal reliabilities obtained on the Field Knowledge and Attitude scales underscore the importance of more work on this front (Stevens, 1984). Recent reports on sources of information used by parents (Vukelich & Kilman, 1985) and scale construction of measures of parental views on factors related to child well-being offer a basis for future research (Smeriglio & Parks, 1983).

Despite possible attenuation of the relationship between parenting skill and attitudes toward childrearing because of the low reliability of the second measure, punitive attitudes emerged as the second best predictor of parenting as measured by the total HOME score. This finding is again in line with the process of model of parenting which specu- lates that the parent who provides care leading to emotionally secure, socially competent, and intellectually achieving children is one who "is able to decenter and to appraise accurately the perspective of others, is able to empathize with

them, and in addition, is able to adopt a nuturant orientation" (Belsky, 1984, p. 85). That level of depression did not enter any of the models, with the exception of maternal involvement, suggests that depression may have a specific modulating role in the complex parent- child dynamic. The contribution of this and other factors influencing the quality of parenting are worthy of further investigation.

The prominent role of parent's race as a predictor of the quality of parenting may be of special interest to researchers and program planners. Professionals working with families may wish to examine the fuller economic and cultural ramifications of minority status as it relates to parenting behavior. The basis for this type of inquiry was laid with earlier sociologi- cal work, but is now dated by 10 years (Stack, 1974). Ongoing societal change recommends that this work be updated so that the results of statistical analyses such as those reported here can be put in an appropriate context. Such observational studies would further expand and refine our understanding of the continuum of influence of parenting, a necessary step in building knowledge of family functioning if we are to be truly effective in helping parents with the challenge of caring for their children.

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ecological determinants of parenting

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