e s s ay american dreamers - encyclopedia...

E S S AY

32 B O S T O N R E V I E W

a m e r i ca n d r e a m e r sPeteSeeger,WilliamF.Buckley,Jr.,andpublichistory

William Hogeland

Theeighty-nine-year-oldmusicianandactivistPeteSeeger,whoislargelyresponsibleforconnecting

folkmusictotheAmericanleft,joinedtheCommunistPartyinhistwenties.Seegerhasbeencandid,ifattimesself-serving,abouthisearlysupport forStalin,buttherecentPBS“AmericanMasters”doc-umentaryonSeegerissodisingenuous,whenitcomestohisandtheParty’sactivi-ties,thatitgivesanimpressionof1930scommunismasaprogramfornothingmorethanpeace,equality,anddown-homemusic.TheyoungSeegercomesacrossasacheerleadernotforStalin’sRussia,butonlyforthesortsofsocialreformsanyprogressivemightadvancetoday.

EquallymisleadinginitsportrayalofanunsettlingearlypositionhasbeenpresscoverageofthecareerofWilliamF.Buck-ley,Jr.,whodied inFebruary.Buckleymadehisnamebyprovidingintellectualleadershiptothosewhodidmuch,inthe1940sand’50s,topunishSeeger,otherformerPartymembers,fellow-travelingliberals,andcertainbystanders.Apprecia-tionsofBuckley’scontributiontoconser-vatismblurnothisembraceofMcCarthy-ism—someofhisadmirersremainfairlyproudofthat—buthissupportforwhiteSoutherneffortstopreventblackcitizensfromvoting.

BuckleyandSeegershare,alongwithfake-soundingaccentsandpreppieback-grounds,aproblemthatinspiresforget-fulness,falsification,anddenial intheirsupporters.Firedbyopposedandequallyferventpoliticalpassions,bothmenoncetookactionsthattheirculturalprogenyfinduntenable.

But these twomen—their careersstrangely linked in thehunt forcom-munists, thestruggle forequal rights,andtheemerging“culturewars”ofthepostwarera—areworthyofconsider-ationwithoutair-brushedreminiscence.Theirnamesalonemayevoke,forthosewho lived through it, theanxietyandturmoil thatmarkedAmericanculturalandpolitical lifeduringtheColdWar.MutualhostilitybetweenSeegertypesandBuckleytypesdevolvedonfearsofimminent,world-endinginvasions;plansforpreventingevilfromeverrecurringonamassscale;andstarkdisagreementsoverwhatislegitimatelyAmerican.WhentheSovietUnionwasannexingitsneigh-bors,fillinggulags,andmakingswagger-ingpredictionsofworlddominance,andtheUnitedStateswastopplingelectedleaders in favorof authoritariansandhoundingdomesticdissenters,allamidthestockpilingofnuclearweapons,thedivisionamongAmericanscouldfeel,tothoseonbothsides, likethe lastbattleforhumanity’ssoul.WhatSeegerandBuckley’syouthfulactionsmeantintheir

time,deliberatelyobscuredby today’slionizers,continuestomeansomethingcrucialnow.

PeteSeegerinheritedcommunismfromhisfather,adecisiveeventinthehis-

toryofAmericanvernacularmusicthathasnoplaceinthe“AmericanMasters”doc-umentary.CharlesSeeger,anarch-WASPbohemianbornin1886,taughtmusicologyatHarvardandBerkeley.DuringhistimeinCalifornia,heformedanalliancewiththeInternationalWorkersoftheWorld,orWobblies,anespecially lively labor-organizingeffort,whichplannedglobalworking-classtakeoverthroughone,vast,generalstrike.Soon,likemanyothers,hewasconnectinghisradicalismtothemoretangiblesuccessoftheMarxistrevolutioninRussia.HejoinedtheCommunistPartyandstartedaradicalgroupcalled,intheexcitingnewlingo,theComposersCol-lective,whichencouragedpiecesbyleftcomposerslikeAaronCopelandandMarcBlitzsteinandpublishedamagazinecalledMusical Vanguard.

AmericanleftistslikeCharlesSeegerdidnotinterprettheexpression“interna-tionalcommunism”tomean“Sovietdic-tatorshipandexpansion.”TheysawtheyoungSovietstateasthefirstinaseriesofconcertedrevolutionsthroughwhichworkerswouldtakeownershipofthemeansofproductionandhumankindwouldad-vancetowardafuturewithouttheawfulpovertythatwasdestroyingthelivesofso

manylaborers,blacks,andpoorpeopleinAmericaandelsewhere.Americancommu-nistswantedtobuildahomegrownmove-mentthatwouldbringtogetherfactorylaborers,dirtfarmers,mineworkers,fruitpickers,andsharecroppers.Theyhopedtoshattereliteprivilege,endracediscrimina-tion,anddistributefairlythewealthoftheUnitedStatesandtheworld.

CharlesSeegeralsowantedtoconnectMarx-Leninismtohisowndiscipline.TheWobblieswerefamousforsingingonpicketlines,butSeegerwastrainedinthehighclassicaltraditionandcalledformodernistconcertpieces—inaSovietof-ficial-culturevein—celebratingthework-ers’collectivevirtue.HewrotearticlesonmusictheoryforThe Daily Worker,thepaperthroughwhichthePartyup-datedcommunistsandsympathizersonCommunistInternational,orComintern,policy.Bythelate1920s,andespeciallyinpartnershipwithhissecondwife,thecomposerandmusicologistRuthCraw-fordSeeger,hebeganseeingintraditionalAmericanmusicanartformalreadyownedbythemasses.Folkmusic,Seegerthought,existedoutsidethecorruptionandalien-ationofbourgeoisculture;itneededonlyintegrationwithPartyideologytobecomeameansofworkerempowerment.Bythelate1930s—whenhissonPetewasbe-comingapoliticallypassionateHarvardstudent,andtheGreatDepressionwasdeepeningAmericanleftists’desireforchange—theelderSeegerwasdiscovering

muchofvalueinoldballads,worksongs,blues,andtraditionaldancemusic,stillthrivingmainlyinthesouth.

TheAmericanfolkrevivalwasnot,however,theexclusiveprovinceoftheleft.InEurope,folkcollectingandthepromo-tionoftraditionalartshadlongbeenem-blematicofnationalistpatriotism.IntheUnitedStates,anearlypromoteroffolkmusicwastheinveteratereactionaryHenryFord,whosawthemusicasunsulliedbytheimmigrantandurbancultureshedespisedandthesalaciousnessheassociatedwithjazzandvaudeville.Americanfolkmusicanddance,whichFordbelieved,fancifully,tobeessentiallyAnglo-Saxon,wouldbethemusicalcomponentofthehygienicculturehewantedtopromoteamongworkersinfactorytowns—placeswhere,forthesup-posedgoodoftheworkersandcompanyefficiency,everythingfromlabortoedu-cationtorecreationwastobecontrolledandsupportedbytheowner.Tothatend,Fordinvestedinthefirstfiddlers’contests,communitysings,andsquaredancesfromwhichanimportantstrainoftheAmericanfolkrevivalemerged.

Forleftists,too,folkmusicwasfreeofcorruption,butthatmeantfreeofFord-stylemassproduction,whichwas, intheirview,oppressiveinawaythatSovietmassproductionwasnot.Oldsongsandtunes—whichsomeoftoday’sfolkiesstillimaginebeinghandeddownfromtimeimmemorial inbackcountrycommuni-ties—seemedtoembodytheinherentlycooperativespiritofthepeople,anatu-ralsenseofunion.Tothem,radiopopseemedaestheticallyvapidandsociallyregressive.

Yetmostofthemusicheardinhomesinthesouthernbackcountryactuallyhadrootsincommercialpop—themedicineandminstrelshows,TinPanAlley,Victo-rianparlorsheetmusic,ragtimeandjazz,and,bythe1930s,downmarket“race”and“hillbilly”seventy-eight-rpmrecordingsandclear-channelbroadcastsof“barndance”radioshows.Thegeniusofpeoplelivinginneglectedpartsofcountryoftenlayinadaptingpopmusictocheap,some-timeshandmadeinstrumentsandwhoop-ingitup.Onecanonlywonderwhatthebottleneck-guitar-pickingsharecropperorthefiddlingminer,steepedinafecundmixtureoftraditionandcommercialismoldandnew,mightmakeofthearrivalofaleft-wingacademic,completewithnote-padandgianttaperecorder,eagertopre-servesouthernmusic’ssupposedpurity.

That strangerelationshipbetweenhomemademusicandleftpoliticswasfur-thercomplicatedinthe1930sbychangesinboththeU.S.governmentandtheCo-mintern.In1935Stalinannounced“ThePopularFront”—aworldwidecoalitionofcommunismwithliberalpoliticsthatthe

LU

IGI

AN

ZIV

INO

33

Partyhadformerlyexcoriated.AgoalwastorestraintheriseofNazi-alliedfascismatanycost.The Daily Workerstartedencour-agingcommuniststocollaboratewithlib-erals.Manyleftists—someofwhomweredisaffectedbyStalin’snationalismanddictatorshipinRussia—foundaplaceintheNewDealgovernment.AmongthemwereCharlesSeegerandAlanLomax,aleft-wingfolkloristwhogavePeteSeegerajobattheLibraryofCongress.

Butthecoalitionofcommunistsandliberalsdidnotlast.In1939StalinmadeanonaggressionpactwithHitlerandre-pealedthePopularFront,leadingmanytofleethePartyindisgustatthealliancewithfascism.Inthisnewideologicalenvi-ronment,PeteSeeger’scareerblossomed.HavingtraveledintheSouthandbecomeadeptatfive-stringbanjo, theyoungerSeegerputhismusic to theserviceofthenewPartyline,whichnowopposedbothNewDealliberalismandU.S.waragainstGermany.In1940and’41,withtheapprovalandguidanceofPartyelders(againstwhosedictatesSeegersometimeschafed), thegroupthatwouldbecomeknownastheAlmanacSingers,mostno-tablyfeaturingSeegeronbanjoandWoodyGuthrieonguitar,yoked“people’ssongs”tothePartyagendainawaythatneitherthephilosophyofCharlesSeeger,northemusiciansoftheSouthernbackcountry,evercould.AsstarsofParty-inspiredor-ganizing,playingforstrikersandatNewYorkrentparties, theAlmanacSingersinventedthemusicthatleftistshadfailedtofindamongtheactualfolk.

TheAlmanacsgave theold songsnewlyrics,celebratingunionsandmock-ingFDRasawarmonger.(InhisbookWhere Have All the Flowers Gone,Seegerisrefreshinglyself-deprecatingabouthis“peace”verses’doggerelandthinsatire.)Theybeganthevogueforwearingworkclothes—overalls,jeans,denimshirts—todenotemembershipinthepeople.Accord-ingtoJoeKlein,inhisdefinitivebiogra-phyofWoodyGuthrie,theyadoptedfakeSouthernaccentsandconcoctedbiogra-phiesofhardtravel.MostimportantlyforAmericanmusic,TheAlmanacsinvestedtheirsound,whichwasfarsmootherthantherealthing,withamoodofauthenticitythattherealfolkneveraspiredto.Headsthrownback andmouthswideopen,strummingand“singingout”withrous-ing,clean-cutintensity,theyconjuredacommunistAmericanfuturethatwasafantasyoftheruralAmericanpast.

SeegerwasplayingarentpartyinJuneof1941whensomebodyrushedinwiththenews:GermanyhadinvadedRussia.Thepactwasbroken.Anotherreversalof theParty line immediatelyensued.TothereliefandbemusementoftheAl-manacs,theywerenowrequiredtosingagainstHitler.Inhisbook,SeegerrecallshishilariouslyrushedconversationwithGuthrieabouthowtoadjusttosupportingChurchill.“‘Why,Churchillsaid“Allsup-porttothegallantSovietallies!”’‘Isthisthesameguywhosaidtwentyyearsago,“WemuststrangletheBolshevikinfantinitscradle!”?’‘Yep.Curchill'schanged.Wegotto!’”Seeger,Guthrie,andtheAlma-nacsstartedwritingandsingingpro-warsongsfullofglibjingoismthatmayhavesurpassed,forsheerdumbness,theiranti-warditties:“RoundandroundHitler’sgrave/RoundandroundIgo.”

Forsixmonths,thegroupralliedtheU.S.toenterthewar,perthePartyline.Then,withthebombingofPearlHarborinDecemberandthedeclarationofwar,theybegansingingrah-rahsongsforvictory.SoonSeegerwasintheArmyandGuthriewasamerchantmarinerandthepre-warphaseofSeeger’scareer,andoftheAmeri-canfolkrevival,cametoanend.

Themajor themeof thedocumen-taryisthe lifelongconnectionbetweenSeeger’smusicandhissocialactivism.Yetiterasesthatconnection’sformativemoment—formativenotonlyforSeeger,butalsoforleftistpoliticsandAmericanmusic.EvenapassingreferencetoCharlesSeeger’sradicalismwouldseempertinenttoPeteSeeger’searlydevelopmentasbothartistandactivist.Trulydisastrous,though,arethefewmomentsthatpurporttodealwithPeteSeeger’scommunism.WeseefootageofHitler,andthenseeSeeger,inarecentinterview,recallingcollegiateargumentsoverwhattodoaboutNazism.Somearguedforpacifism,Seegersays,but“communistssaidthewholeworldshouldquarantinetheaggressor.AndIthoughttheywereright.”SnippetsofSeeger'sin-terviewsthengetstitchedintoahastyandvacuoussummaryofhisPartyactivities.Overastillofan“InternationalofYouth”pamphlet,whichgiveswaytoashotofHarvard’sgates,Seeger’svoiceoverruns:“IendedupjoiningtheYoungCommu-nistLeague,andletmymarksslip,andIlostmyscholarshiptoHarvard.Fewyearslater,”—nowoverastillofyoungSeegerplayingforadance,withagroupsinging“SolidarityForever”inthebackground—“justbeforeWorldWarTwo,IthinkI—”cuttingbacktoSeegerbeinginterviewed“—actually joinedandbecameacard-carryingmember.”Overfootageofcom-munistpicketers,hesays:“Iwasagainstracediscrimination,andCommunistswereagainstracediscrimination.Iwasinfavorofunions,andCommunistswereinfavorofunions.”

That’sprettymuchallthefilmhastosayabouttheroleofcommunismandglobalpoliticsinSeeger’searlymusicandcareer.TheAlmanacSingersareintroducedoverstillsofhandbillsfortheirperformances(onereads“leadingAmericanBalladeersinaprogramofsongsforpeace”),followedbyastillofthegroupitself,withSeegersayinginchoppyvoiceover:“ThegoaloftheAlmanacs—ifanybodyasksus—‘wewanttobuildasinginglabormovement.’Butwe’dbarelygotstartedonthat jobbeforeWorldWarTwobrokeout.”Then,overastillofpeoplereadingaboutthePearlHarborattackinnewspapers,andafaint,cracklingvoiceoversaying“Re-memberPearlHarbor,”Seegersays,“Alltheideaofstrikesandeverything[acutoramumble],‘afterthewariswon,thenwecanthinkaboutthat.’”

Intheedit,thereisnomentionoftheParty’sdecisiverole,whichhadSeegersingingagainstthewar,thenhadhimsing-inginfavorofit,wellbeforePearlHarbor.Lostwithallsalientfactisanyfeelingforthehighpoliticalemotionoftheperiod.NoristhereanymentionofStalinorthepact,althoughSeegerhimselfhasnotbeenafraidtodiscusstheseissuesbefore.Whenhesays,forexample,thatthecommunistswantedtoquarantineHitler,heisprob-ablyrevivinganargumenthemadeinhisbook:thegreatpowerswereactuallyhoping

Harvard Review publishes poetry, fiction, essays, drama,

graphics, and reviews. It is published twice yearly, in

spring and autumn, and is available by subscription and

from select bookstores.

Visit us online at hcl.harvard.edu/harvardreview

Harvard Review

Lamont Library, Level 5

Harvard University,

Cambridge, MA 02138

Ph: 617-495-9775

Fax: 617-496-3692

SUMMER 2006FALL 2006

FICTION

ALICE HOFFMAN &ALAN HEATHCOCK

ESSAYS

LYDIA DAVIS &TONY HORWITZ

POEMS

MARILYN CHIN &BRENDAN GALVIN

FICTION

KATHERINE VAZ &ANTHONYVARALLO

ESSAYS

BLAKE BAILEY &MELVIN BUKIET

POEMS

TOMAZ SALAMUN& GEORGE SEFERIS

SPRING 2006

FICTION

GORE VIDAL &KAREN BENDER

DRAMA

THERESA REBECK

POEMS

DENISE DUHAMEL, COLE SWENSEN &LAURIE SHECK

University of Massachusetts Amherst

P O E T R YF I C T I ONM EMO I R

JAMES TATELYDIA DAVISMARK DOTY

CHARLES D’AMBROSIODARAWIER

NOY HOLLANDNICK FLYNN

PAUL LISICKYMATTHEW ZAPRUDER

CHRIS BACHELDERTHOMAS SAYERS ELLIS

PAUL FATTARUSOLISA OLSTEINLENI ZUMAS

ALEX PHILLIPS

SUMMERWRITINGINSTITUTE

JUNE 22∫28, 2008

SCHOLARSHIPS AVAILABLEwww.umass.edu/juniperinstitutejuniperinstitute@hfa.umass.edu

T E L (413) 545-5510

And announcing the 3rd annualINSTITUTE FOR YOUNG WRITERS

see website for details

I N I T I AT I V E

Workshops � Craft SessionsManuscript Consultations

Readings � Q &As

M AY / J U N E 2 0 0 8

A M E R i C A N D R E A M E R S

E SS AY

3� B O S T O N R E V I E W

HitlerwouldknockoutcommunistRussia;whenambassadorLitvinovasked,inthelate1930s,foraplantobottleHitlerup,theliberaldemocraciesturnedtheirbacks.WhilesomemighttakeamorecriticalviewofStalin’shopeforquarantine,inthebookSeegerismakingapointwithabasisinfact.AnauthorizedbiographybyDavidKingDunaway(whoappearsasatalkingheadinthefilm)presentstheyoungSeegerasunhappyaboutthepactbuttakinga“wait-and-seeattitude.”Asrecentlyaslastyear,inawidelypublishedlettertotheconservativeRonaldRadosh,Seegerdiscussedhisdelu-sionsaboutStalin.

In the filmSeeger’scommentsbe-comemeaningless.Hisdeclarationthatstrikeswouldhavetowaituntilafterthewaronlymakessenseinacontextthatthefilmcannotgive,asdoingsowouldrevealSeeger’stailoringhismusictoCommu-nistPartyinstructions.WhenFDRaskedU.S.laborunionsforawartimeno-strikepledge,thenon-communistpartoforga-nizedlaborgaveit.SignificantforSeeger’scareeristhattheCominternsentwordtotheradicalendofthelabormovementtosupporttheno-strikepledgetoo.SeegermighthavehadsomethinginterestingtosayaboutambiguitiesinPartylaborpolicy.Dunaway’sbiographysuggests thathefoundtheParty’ssupportfortheno-strikepledgefrustrating:strikerswereakeyAl-manacsaudience.

WhatSeegerhassaidbeforeabouttheAlmanacs’anti-warstance,theknee-jerkrelationshiptoPartyprescriptions,andhisownsupportofStalinareallabsent.Cleansingthestoryofanythingpossiblyupsettingorevennuanced,thefilmmak-ersmustbehopingtocertifySeeger,de-spite formerSovietattachments,asanunimpeachablygreatAmericanculturalfigureof thekindoftencelebratedonPBS“AmericanMasters.”Gainedatthecostoffalsehood,certificationnotonlydoesnogood,itweakensourgrasponthetruth.Thereprobablywillnotbeanotherwell-funded,closelyresearched,carefullyedited,widelybroadcastdocumentaryonPeteSeeger,completewith interviews.Thisonehasfailedeachoftheastonishingthingsitpurportstocelebrate:thefolkre-vival,Americanactivists’passions,thepastcentury’sidealisms,andthelong,strangecareerofPeteSeeger.Thefilmdegradesourunderstandingoftheman,hisideas,andhisera.

WilliamF.Buckley, Jr.,whodiedthisyearateighty-two,enjoyeda

busyandinfluentialcareerasthemostfamousgalvanizerofAmericanconserva-tivethought.BuckleymadeThe National Review—themagazinehefounded,edited,andpublished—akindofthinktankforpostwarconservativeideology.Initspages,heandhisideologicalcompatriotschampi-onedstrictlylimitedgovernment,assertivelawenforcement,rollbackofthewelfarestate,freemarkets,andceaselesswaroncommunismathomeandabroad.Asare-sult,friendsandfoesalikehavecreditedhimlatelywithendingliberalism’sintel-lectualhegemony,whichprevailedintheU.S.politicalestablishmentfromFDR’saccessionin1932until1968,thebitterendoftheJohnsonadministration.

TheyoungBuckley’shopeslaypartlyinknockingoutthethen-vibrantliberalwingoftheRepublicanParty.AsGeorge

Will,oneofthemanyleadingconservativewriterswhoonceworkedatThe National Review,eulogizedhiminThe Washington Post:“BeforetherecouldbeRonaldRea-gan’spresidency,therehadtobeBarryGoldwater’scandidacy.Itmadeconser-vatismconfidentandplacedtheRepub-licanPartyinthehandsofitsadherents.BeforetherecouldbeGoldwater’sinsur-gency,therehadtobeNational Reviewmagazine.”

Theaccelerationofconservatismin-volvesanirony:inthemagazine’swidelyquotedinauguralessay,Buckleydescribedthepublicationstanding“athwarthistory,yellingStop.”Hewantedtostopthemod-erntendencyofgovernmenttoengageinwhathecalled“radicalsocialexperimen-tation”intheformofsuchthingsastheNewDealandtheUnitedNations,whichhesawasproductsofamoralrelativismthathadbecomemonolithicinthehallsofAmericanpower.Whathemostwantedto

stopwastoleranceforwhatheconsideredmodernerror’sextremeform,theMarx-Leninistviewofhumanity’sadvancement,throughphilosophicallydiscerniblestages,towardaconditionofperfectequalityfosteredbyanall-powerfulstate.LikeCharlesandPeteSeeger,BuckleylookedtotheSovietUnionasthefulfillmentofanidea—onethathecalledsatanic.

BuckleyoftenreferredtotheSovietempirebyasingleword,“gulag.”OnTVinthe1960sand’70she’dpurrthesec-ondsyllable,eyebrowsshootingpasthishairlinetoshow-stoppingeffect.Bythen,almosteverybodywaslookingattheSo-vietUnioninmoodsrangingfromconcerntofearandloathing.PeteSeegerquittheCommunistPartyinthelate1940s.Evenheandmuchofhisprewarcohorthadgrownpainfullyawareoftheawfulop-pressionimposedonRussiansandmoreandmoreEuropeans.TheIronCurtain,asChurchilldubbedit,hadfallen; the

nuclearbuilduphadbegun;Soviettankshadrolled.Internationalcommunismnowmeant,flagrantly,Soviettakeoveroftheworld,including,inthefamouswordsofPresidentKhrushchev,thegrandchildrenofAmericans.Today,Khrushchev’swordsmayseemdefensivebraggadocio.Fewtookthemthatwayatthetime.

ToBuckleyandlikemindedothers,thesocialistthreattoAmericanlibertylaynotonlyinmassiveprogramslikeSocialSe-curity,butalsointheNewDealpracticeofgivinggovernmentjobstosemi-secretcommunistsandmoreopen“fellowtrav-elers”—theAlanLomaxesandCharlesandPeteSeegersand,moreseriously,theircounterpartsinsectorsinvolvingnationalsecurity.Afterthewar,communistswereofficiallyincludedamongsubversivesseek-ingtobring,inthewordsoftheMcCarranActof1950,“totalitariandictatorship”totheUnitedStates.Partymembersandoth-ershadlongbeeneagerlyacceptinginstruc-tionsfordomesticrevolutionfromapolicestatewithwhichtheU.S.nowvergedonwhatseemedawarforthefutureofhuman-ity.HavingquitthePartywasnodefense,hencethefamousquestion“areyounoworhaveyoueverbeen...?”

DespitehisavowedreservationsaboutSenator JosephMcCarthy, theyoungBuckleygavestrongsupport,asdidmuchoftheliberalestablishment(inBuckley’sviewweaklyandperhapsinsincerely),forwhatMcCarthyandtheHouseUn-Ameri-canActivitiesCommitteedefinedasahuntforRussianspies,Partymembers,andcommunistsympathizersingovernment,entertainment,thearts,andbusiness.

Buckley’s inaugural essay forThe National Reviewascribedsuchgreatandentrenchedpowertoliberalism,andsuchfrailtytonascentconservativism,thatevensmall successescouldbegreetedwithshoutsofastonishedjoy.Andfewwouldnowdeemconservativesuccessessmall.WhilewelfareandentitlementprogramsthatBuckleyitesattackedappearlikelytosurvive,theambitiousyoungBuckleyofthe1950sturnedouttobeon,andtoplayapartindetermining,whatsomeconsiderthewinningsideofhistory.

Butinonearea—thecivilrightsmove-ment—Buckleyconservativesweredeci-sivelynotonthewinningside.“WhytheSouthMustPrevail”isthetitleofa1957editorialbyBuckleyaddressingeffortstoenforcefederallawsensuringblackstheabilitytovote.Thepiecearguedinpart:

TheNAACPandothers insistthattheNegroesasaunitwantintegratedschools.Othersdisagree,contendingthatmostNegroesapprovethesocialseparationoftheraces.WhatiftheNAACPiscorrect,andthemattercomestoavoteinacom-munityinwhichNegroespredominate?TheNegroeswould,accordingtodemo-craticprocesses,wintheelection;butthatisthekindofsituationtheWhitecom-munitywillnotpermit.TheWhitecom-munitywillnotcountthemarginalNegrovote.Themanwhodidn’tcountitwillbehauledupbeforeajury,hewillpleadnotguilty,andthejury,upondeliberation,willfindhimnotguilty.Afederaljudge,inasimilarsituation,mightfindthedefendantguilty,ajudgmentwhichwouldaffirmthelawandconformwiththerelevantpoliti-calabstractions,butwhoseconsequencesmightbeviolentandanarchistic.

Thecentralquestionthatemerges—anditisnotaparliamentaryquestionora

WhenthemoonComesup

DearSufficiency,perhapsyou’llloseyourbestfriend,partner,apartmentMaybethepowergridfails—plant,quadruped,bird,sea,earth,air,soundAndunderpain,pleasure.MaybejuicedrippingfromaveinwillnotoccurInjured,alone,onceyouwereafraid,nowyouknow:withinpresence

Epiclies.Saltandbasalt,treeandlichen,ape,sea-lion,bird,reptileFifteenmillionpurchasedLouisianainthefulltideofsuccessfulexperimentNowcapableofunlimitedexpansionfromCanada’sbordertothemouthOftheMississippi,fromtheGreatRivertoShiningMountainsalmost

Oregon,fromMissouritostatesnowcalledAbandoned,overnightWedoubled,airportsclosed.Toscythe,regret,abolish,refuseTherighttosleep,yourwhitesadnesstothingsindifferentseemsAbominableornecessary,beingneither,astreesorsheeptonight-walkers

Haveunpropershape.Tumultsre-electJefferson.Master,I’llbeplain.Mypoemscanbefoundinrecentorforthcomingeditionsofthe15,000VolumesloadedatMonticello,thelargestinAmerica,hand-collectedWithammunition.Whatfarmer,whatmechanic,whatlaborereversees

Atax-gatherer?MostcitizensknoworangessqueezedthroughmesharebestGrowninclay,lime,gravel,orgranite,deceptivelyfairweathergivenThedevastatingrumors,partmoonlittreachery,partgracecallssalineIntotheWest.DearCaptainLewis,dearLieutenantClark,evenathreat

BadlymaderusheslikeacometintothePacificaswhentherearisesAnew,irregularmeter.Althoughyoucoulddonothingtowardsitsbegetting.WhenIconsiderhowmuchofyourlifecanfallIfindelegies,continualTempestswhereonefoothathovertakenanother,everydeclension

Accompaniedbyleaks.Thusarrivesthesnow,theopal-coloreddaysAs,irritatedbynoliteraryaltercation,Iread:“HereliestheRepublicWhoseschemeofrepresentationopensadifferentprospect,promisesAcure.”JohnAdams.ImaginenothavingtoapologizefortheUnitedStates.Lethistorydecidewhichmattersmost,theweedsortheearth.

—Barbara Claire Freeman

35

questionthatisansweredbymerelycon-sultingacatalogueoftherightsofAmeri-cancitizens,bornEqual—iswhethertheWhitecommunityintheSouthisentitledtotakesuchmeasuresasarenecessarytoprevail,politicallyandculturally,inareasinwhichitdoesnotpredominatenumeri-cally?Thesoberinganswer isYes—theWhitecommunityissoentitledbecause,forthetimebeing,itistheadvancedrace.

Atthetime,BuckleyhadbeeneditingThe National Reviewforonlytwoyears,havingfoundedhismagazineattwenty-nine.Thoughtheeditorial isunsigned,therecanbelittledoubtthatitishiswork:editorialpolicywashisdomain;moretell-ingly,itsidiosyncraticblendofeleganceandprovocationwasalreadybecomingaBuckleytrademark.

TheNational Reviewwouldrejecttheveryterm“civilrightsmovement”as“ludi-crous,”insistinginsteadon“theNegrore-volt”aslateas1964.Notonlydidtheefforttokeepblacksfromvotingfail,Buckley’scarefullyarticulatedjustificationforille-gallydenyingthemthevotefailedtoo,soutterlythattoday’sBuckleyites,celebratingthegreatsweepoftheman’spervasiveinflu-ence,can’tseemtorecallathingaboutit.

TheNew York Times obituarydidmention,briefly,thatBuckleysupportedthesegregationistSouthonthegroundsofwhiteculturalsuperiority.Moretypicalofmainstreamassessmentwasthelongsum-mationofBuckley’scareerinNewsweek,whichsaidonlythatBuckley“tolerated”segregationandsupportedwhitesouth-erners’“protesting.”Thatcharacteriza-tion,misleadinginitsvagueness,softenstheconservativepositiononintegration—thedefiningissueoftheday,alongwiththeColdWar.ReadersofrecentarticlesonBuckley’scareercouldbeforgivenforhavingnoideathatThe National ReviewdescribedMartinLutherKingJr.asa“rabble-rousingdemagogue”whotaught“anarchyandchaos”andidentifiedinte-grationwithSovietcommunism.

Themore textured, less temperatediscussionofBuckley’spoliticsdevel-opedonline,wheresomebloggersandcommentersloudlycelebratedBuckley’sdeathastheendofanevilphony,whomsomecalled,amongotherthings,aracist,citingpartofthe’57editorial.Buckleyfansrespondedthatthecivil-rightsposi-tionwasaglaringexceptiontoatough,notbigotedprogram;thatthepositionamountedtostates-rightsadvocacy,notracism;thatBuckleylatertookamoreen-lightenedview(Newsweeksaidthattoo);andthathe’dacknowledgedandtakenre-sponsibilityforhiserror.ManydefenderscitedBuckley’sanswertoaquestionina2004Timeinterview:“Haveyoutakenanypositionsyounowregret?”Buckley’san-swer:“Yes.IoncebelievedwecouldevolveourwayupfromJimCrow.Iwaswrong:federalinterventionwasnecessary.”

ThereBuckleyadmitstohavingbeenwrongaboutapositionfardifferentfromtheonehetookin"WhytheSouthMustPrevail,"quotedabove,whichassertsaright—evenaduty—ofsouthernwhitestopreserveJimCrow,onthebasisofthewhiterace'ssupposedlygreateradvance-ment.WhileBuckley'sessaymaythere-forestrikereaderstodayastypicalof1950sracistobjectionstocivil-rightslegislation,itsimpactlayinhowsharplyitdeparted

fromthetypical,whichcanberevisitedinastatementbyRobertByrd,todayaU.S.Senatorandin1945atwenty-eight-year-oldmemberoftheKuKluxKlan:"RatherIshoulddieathousandtimes,"youngByrdsaid,inthecadencesthathavelatelymadehimadarlingofanti–IraqWarliberals,"andseeOldGlorytrampledinthedirtnevertoriseagain,thantoseethisbelovedlandofoursbecomedegradedbyracemongrels,athrowbacktotheblackestspecimenfromthewilds."ThatcommentappearedinalettertothesegregationistSenatorandformerGovernorofMississippiTheodoreBilbo,alsoaKlansman,whowroteabookentitledTakeYour Choice, Separation or Mongrelization,andfilibusteredananti-lynchingbillbyinvokingthe“bloodoftherapedandoutrageddaughtersofDixie.”(AperioddittysungbyPeteSeegerwascalled“Listen,Mr.Bilbo”—“Well,youdon't likeNegroes,youdon't likeJews,/Ifthereisanyoneyoudolike,itsureisnews.”)WearingwhitesheetsandfollowingExaltedCyclopsesandGrandWizards,theKlandidnotmakesustainedargumentsinpolishedprose.Asanti-intellectualastheywereanti-black,JimCrowsupporterscouldbereadilydismissedbyeducatedliberalsandmadeunappealingalliesforeducatedconservatives.

UntilthearrivalofBuckley.His1957essay,amasterpieceofintellectualagilityandverbalconfidence,soundedlikeThe New Republic,notThe Fiery Cross.Theessay'soccasionwastherecentsuccessofSenateconservativesinpreventingpassageoflegislationthatwouldhaverequiredfed-eraljudges,notjuries,torenderverdictsinprosecutionsofpoliticaloperativeswhofailedtocountblackvotes.Thelawwasmeanttohamperwhite juries' tenden-ciestofreesuchdefendantsregardlessofevidence.AstrikingfeatureoftheessayisBuckley'soutrightsupportforjurynulli-fication.Evenmoredaringlyheidentifiesarightforwhitesoutherners,whenintheminority,to“takesuchmeasuresasarenecessarytoprevail.” Hepresentsthatrightasbeyondthelaw,whichheassociateswith“politicalabstractions,”andbeyondeventheConstitution,whichhecallsnotadequatetocopewithissuesraisedbyJimCrowandthestruggleagainstit.

Buckleyismakingthekindof“natu-rallaw”argumentforrightstranscendingcharterandlegislationthatlate-18th-cen-turyAmericansmadeagainsttheBritishParliament'sincursionsontheirliberties.ItwasacasethatBilboandByrd,sunkinhysteriaandignorance,neededaYalemantomakeforthem.Insteadofdenyingorglossingovertheconsequenceofthebill'sdefeat,Buckleyannouncesit:“Theeffectofitis—andletusspeakaboutitbluntly—topermitajurytomodifyorwaivethelaw.”Buckleycallsthesupposedfactthatwhitesaremorallyentitledtoprevailbyanymeansnecessarya“sobering”one,admitsthatitis“unpleasanttoadducestatistics”provingthewhiteracesuperior(anddoesnotactu-allydoso),andappealstothebetterangelsofsouthernnature,closingwithaveiledthreatthat,iftheSouthdoesnotbehaveasBuckleyexpectsitto,hissupportmayhavetobewithdrawn:

[TheSouth]mustnotexploit the factofNegrobackwardnesstopreservetheNegroasaservileclass. It istemptingandconvenienttoblocktheprogressof

A M E R i C A N D R E A M E R S

M AY / J U N E 2 0 0 8

E SS AY

3� B O S T O N R E V I E W

aminoritywhoseservices,asmenials,areeconomicallyuseful.LettheSouthneverpermititselftodothis. Solongasit ismerelyassertingtherighttoimposesupe-riormoresforwhateverperiodittakestoeffectagenuineculturalequalitybetweentheraces,andsolongasitdoessobyhu-maneandcharitablemeans,theSouthisinstepwithcivilization,asistheCongressthatpermitsittofunction.

ThatistheevolutionBuckleywascall-ingforin1957:notthat"wecouldevolveourwayupfromJimCrow,"ashesaidin2004,butthat"theNegro"might,duringsomeperioddeterminedandoverseenbythesuperiorrace,evolveupwardfromthebackwardnessthathadmadeJimCrownotonlypermissiblebutnecessary.

WhilethisearlyentryischaracteristicofBuckley’s lifelongapproachtoargu-ment,hisfansandprotégéscannotclaimandcelebrateit,becauseitsmostimpor-tanttheme—aboutwhichBuckleyisalsoblunt,andwhichbearsonhisconservatismasawhole—comesdowntothethree-partstatementthatundergirdstheessayandthatfewconservativestodaywouldwanttoaffirm:

Theclaimsofcivilizationsupersedethoseofuniversalsuffrage . . . If themajor-itywillswhatissociallyatavistic,thentothwartthemajoritymaybe,thoughun-democratic,enlightened. . .sometimesthenumericalminoritycannotprevailex-ceptbyviolence:thenitmustdeterminewhethertheprevalenceofitswillisworththeterriblepriceofviolence.

Civilizationoverdemocracy,evenatthecalculated,possibly tragicpriceofviolence,takenupmoreinsorrowthaninangerandthenfoughttothefinish.ThatisthestancewithwhichBuckleybegancreatingapersonathatmaybeuniqueinourculturalhistory.Buckleyordainedhimself the leisure-classwarrior-phi-losopher,rousedtomilitancybyubiqui-tousbarbarism,defendingonbehalfofconservatismnotmereintellectbutthehighestculturalsophisticationandre-finement.Thatpersonawouldmakehimnotonlyaconservativeleaderbutalsoahouseholdname.OnhisTVshow“Fir-ingLine,”whichranfrom1966to1999,hedidtheeasternestablishmentonebet-ter,atonceaparodyandepitomeofup-per-crustmanner,withanover-the-tophot-potatodrawlthatmadeFDRsoundsalt-of-the-earth.Buckley’sperfectlyphrasedinsultsandlanguorouspolysyl-laberymadehimthepop-culturemodelof intellectual,cultural,andverbalad-vancement,anunflappableconnoisseur,guardianof thebestever thoughtandsaidbyman.Delightinginthejoysofra-tionality,beauty,hierarchy,imagination,humor,andawe,asexpressedespeciallyinthemusicofBach,heseemedcalledfromhisfigtreebyanAtheniansenseofcitizenship,battlingtopushbackboththemobandtheweak-willedmob-enablerswhowereruiningthecivilizationthathadproducedhisowngorgeousness.

Henceacontradiction,whichseemstohavebecomeevidenttoBuckleyearlyon:Southernworkingmenouttoprevent“mongrelization”madepoorexemplarsofadvancedculture.Soonhewaslettinggoofhishopesforthewhitesouth.

Atafamous1965OxfordUnionDe-

batewithJamesBaldwin, forexample,fightingwhatwasalreadya rearguardactiononcivilrights,BuckleytooktheopportunitytoargueagainstwholesalecondemnationofAmericancivilizationforfailingtoliveuptowhatBuckleynowcalleditshighestideals.Heaverredthateverybodyagreedthatraceprejudiceisevil;accusedthecivil-rightsmovementofnolongerseekingequalitybutthere-gressionofthewhiterace(thoughhealsocontinuedtocallslowprogressonequalrightsnecessary);announcedthatiftheissuemustcometoracewar,hewaspre-pared(echoingChurchillforhisOxonianaudience)tofightitonthebeaches,inthehills, inthemountains;andsuggested,foralaugh,thatwhathereallyobjectedtowasanyuneducatedsoutherner,blackorwhite,beingallowedtovote.Thatjokedistilledanunusualmixofstates-rightspopulismandupper-classprerogativeputforthatlength,thatsameyear,byJamesJ.KilpatrickinThe National Review:fed-eralismwillbedestroyedunlessstatesarefreetoimposevotingqualifications,butthosequalificationsmustdiscriminateequally,notonthebasisofrace.

It is not clear what requirementsBuckleythoughtpoorblacksandpoorwhites below the Mason-Dixon lineshouldfulfill,orbedeniedaccesstothefranchise.WhatisclearisthatBuckley’slaterthinkingonintegrationwasnot,ashisdefendersclaim,aturnaboutonracebutaretreattoamorelogicallyconsistentsnobbism.The National Review lost itsall-outfightsagainstschoolintegrationandtheVotingRightsandCivilRightsActs,butracelongremainedadefiningconservative issue.Amongmanyexam-

plesisa1969columninwhichBuckleyhymnedtheresearchofArthurJensenonraceandIQ ,whichshowedblackstest-inglowerthanwhitesonabstractreason-ingskills,afindingfromwhichBuckleydeducedaracialimperviousnesstoim-provementbyeducation.Inthe1970sThe National ReviewpersistentlydefendedapartheidSouthAfricaonthesamebasisthatithadoncedefendedJimCrow.

AlegacyofBuckley’sdevelopmentonraceistoday’sconservativeoppositiontoprogramslikeaffirmativeaction.Nobodytodaybasesthatoppositiononadutytopreservewhiteprivilegeandpreventan-archy;opponentsjumpthroughhoopstoshowdedicationtoequalityanddemoc-racy.Yetcriticismofaffirmativeaction,howeveraltereditstone,isadirectinheri-toroftheideologicalcontributionsBuck-leymadetoconservatisminthe1950s.Today'spositionrepresentsafallback,notabreak,fromBuckley'searlyideas,whichwerenever renounced,onlydefeated.Theimportantissueisnotthepossiblepersistenceofracist ideas inBuckley’sownthinkingbutmodernconservatives’huge—andhugelyconvenient—erasure,whenitcomestorace,oftheintellectualoriginsofmodernconservatism.

Seeger and Buckley were roman-tics.When theywereyoung, and

without regard forconsequence, theybroughtcharisma,energy,andcreativitytodreamingupworlds theywanted—possiblyneeded—to live in.Becausetheymadethoseworldsseemsorealandbeautifulthatotherpeoplewantedtoliveinthemtoo,theybecamelarger-than-lifecharacters,instantlyrecognizablealong

Hover,Coo

Thisdreamofabirdstrange,tangledup.Ahybrid:abuntingandanowlwiththosesadweteyes,clackingbill,moony

face,featheredwithalltheshadesofindigo,lichen,gray,lazulirainbowofoilasifdippedin,iridescent,paintedlikesusans

andpredatory,ofsongandcoyness,perch,aflit,hover,barkacooacry,warble,anundulatingsigh.Thisbirdtangled,netted,

istrappedagainstthescreenclinging,panting,canflybutwithoutjoy,cansee,butthroughacloud,afog

ofitsownbreathing.Carnivore,youwanttoputitinyourmouth.Justaslipof,apocketof,anenvelopeofskin,feather,bone.

Hypnotizewithsmoothingthewild,thefussingandgnashing.Itsfeetunperchanditsleeps,unblinkingother,uncanny

whentheunrealbecomesreal.Pluckthesuffocationout.Laythebirddowninascatteringofdun-coloredleaves

whichthenbecomebird,likeanimationbutmoreadreambroughttolife,thefrighteningofwhatisknownandlongfamiliar.

—Frances Justine Post

wayoff,notquiterealcloseup,andneverquitegrownupevenwhenold.Hence,perhaps,theirdecisiveinfluence.SeegergaveAmerican folkmusicapurisminnowayessentialtoit,afunctionofNewEnglandabstemiousnessinSeeger’sownmakeup,whichalsoconnectedhimtoSovietcommunism.TheSovietUnionisgone,butourmusicwillnevershakethepurism.Seegeroncesaid,withwitandaccuracy,“I’mmoreconservativethanGoldwater.Hejustwantedtoturntheclockbacktowhentherewasnoin-cometax.Iwanttoturntheclockbacktowhenpeoplelivedinsmallvillagesandtookcareofeachother.”Thoseyearn-ingsbeganinhisfather’sdreamsforthefuture,butitwasadreamaboutthepastthatmadehimPeteSeeger.InBuckley’sdream,somebodyisgoingtoliveinthecastleabovethevillage—betterforevery-bodythatitbehe.Thateachinhisownwaydreamedsouthward,withfatefulre-sults,madethemromanticsinaspecialAmericantradition.

An importantdifferencebetweenSeegerandBuckleyisthatSeegersufferedforhisbeliefs.Thefilm’sinnocenceabouthisStalinistprovocationsaside,hebravelyriskedjailbyrefusingtoanswersomeofHUAC’squestions;hewasblacklisted,hiscareerruinedforalongtime.ThefilmshowshisconcertsbeingangrilypicketedbyYoungAmericansforFreedom—Buck-ley’sorganization.YeteveninSeeger’spersecutionliesatellingreminderofwhatthetwomenshared:asensethattherearecertainrightsofwhichonlythequestingindividualhimselfcanbearbiter.WhenrefusingtogivenamestoHUAC,SeegerchosenottorelyonhisFifthAmendmentrightagainstself-incrimination,claiminginsteadatranscendentliberty,thatofas-sociation,whichhecouldnotprovebutbelievedwasnatural,pre-existinganyclaimsmadebyacommitteeoffederalgovernment.

LiberalsmayconcurincallingSeeger’sStalinismromantic, ifunfortunate(al-though“AmericanExperience”viewersarenotsupposedto;theStalinismisnotsupposedtoexist).Butliberalsmayalsofeelthat“romantic”softensthevirulenceofBuckley’sraceideas,lettinghimofftooeasily.Buckleyites,fortheirpart,cannotcallsegregationismromantic,sincetheyhave left itscentral importanceoutoftheirstory—andtheyarelikelytofeelthattheadjectiveunderstatestheevildonebySeeger’sSovietloyalties.Eachsideinthisstoryhasbecomeadeptnotonlyatfalsi-fyingitsownnarrativebutalsoatpickingaparttheother’sfallaciestoexposevenalmotives.Itisunfortunatethateachside,inaccusingtheotherofbadfaith,sooftenseemstoberight.

Buckley’s andSeeger’s sharedat-tractiontoextremesdidhavetheeffectofcondoningawfulcrimes:lynchingofblacksandmurderofcivil-rightsworkersontheonehand,Stalin’smassmurderontheother.Sortingoutkindsanddegreesofawfulnessisasproblematicasdetermin-ingwhethercondoningthosecrimesalsocontributedtothem.(Thementhemselvesremainedprofessionallyinnocent.)Moreimportantisthatthetwowerefarfromalone.Foriftheirdreamswerenotourdreamstoo,wewouldneverhaveheardthenamesPeteSeegerandWilliamF.Buckley,Jr.©