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DueDiligence,ClimateMitigationMeasures,theLawoftheSeaandtheParisAgreement
ProfessorRonán LongDirector,GlobalOceanInstitute
WorldMaritimeUniversity,Sweden
ClimateChangeandLawoftheSea:AdaptingtheLawoftheSeatoAddresstheChallengesofClimateChange
CentreofInternationalLaw,NationalUniversityofSingapore,Singapore.13-14March2018.ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
Questions
1. Whatisthecontentoftheobligationofduediligencetoprotectandpreserve themarineenvironment?
2. DoestherequirementofduediligenceunderPartXIIoftheLOSCcreateanobligationtomitigatetheadverse impactsofhuman-inducedclimatechangeonthemarineenvironment?
3. Whatarethelegaldutiestoimproveclimateresiliencebyrestoringthemarineenvironment?
• Photosource:Shutterstock
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
• Question1 Whatisthecontentoftheobligationofduediligencetoprotectandpreserve themarineenvironment?
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
Overview1. Preliminary remarks
2. Jurisprudence&ILAStudies
a. PulpMillsontheRiverUruguay(ArgentinavUruguay)
b. ITLOSCases17&21c. AnnexVIISCSArb.Awardd. CostaRicav.Nicaragua (compensation)e. ILAStudyGrouponDueDiligencein
InternationalLaw(Reports2014,2016)• Photosource:Shutterstock
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
DueDiligence
1. Duediligenceisanobligationofconduct onthepartofasubjectoflaw
2. Thecriterionappliedinassessingwhetherasubjecthasmetthatobligationisthatoftheresponsible citizenorresponsiblegovernment
• MaxPlanckEncyclopediaofPublicInternationalLaw
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
Purpose
• Duediligenceisconcernedwithsupplyingastandardofcareagainstwhichfaultcanbeassessed
‘Itisastandardofreasonablecare,… thatseekstotakeaccountoftheconsequencesofwrongfulconductandtheextenttowhichsuchconsequences couldfeasiblyhavebeenavoided bytheStateorinternationalorganisationthateithercommissioned therelevantactorwhichomitted topreventitsoccurrence’
• ILAStudyGroupSecondReport(2016),p.2
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
Duediligenceisakeycomponentoftheobligationtopreventharm ininternationalenvironmental law
• CaseConcerningPulpMillsontheRiverUruguay, ArgentinavUruguay,Judgmentonthemerits, ICGJ425,20thApril2010.
1. Noharmprincipleentailsanobligation topreventharmtotheenvironment
2. Theobligation to‘preservetheaquaticenvironment,andinparticulartopreventpollution byprescribingappropriaterulesandmeasures’isanobligationtoactwithduediligenceinrespectofallactivitieswhichtakeplaceunderthejurisdictionandcontrolofeachparty
3. Mustadoptrules,exerciseenforcement andadministrativecontroloverpublicandprivateoperators.
• PrincipleofnoharmbreachedwhenaStatehasnotacteddiligentlyoveritsownactivities,stateownedenterprisesorprivateactivities[ILAStudyGroupSecondReport(2014),p.25]
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
Case No. 17.ResponsibilitiesandobligationsofStatessponsoringpersonsandentitieswithrespecttoactivitiesintheArea(Requestfor
AdvisoryOpinion)[2011] ITLOS Rep 10
• ExaminedthenatureofanobligationimposedonStates‘toensure’thatcontractorsengagedinseabedminingactivitiesintheAreacomplywiththeirobligationstoprotectthemarineenvironment
• Obligation‘toensure’ isnotanobligationtoachieve,ineachandeverycase,theprescribedresult.Ratheritisanobligationofconduct andduediligence
• MeansthatStateisobliged‘todeployadequatemeans,toexercisebestpossibleefforts,todotheutmost,toobtainthisresult’[paras110-111]
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
Attributesofduediligence
a. Context:varyovertime&newscientificknowledgeandtechnology
b. Relativeness:riskertheactivitythehigher thestandardofduediligence
c. Precautionaryapproach isanintegralpartofduediligence…once thereareplausibleindicationsofpotentialrisks [para.131]
d. ‘BestEnvironmentalPractices’[para.136]
e. Generalprovisionsonresponsibilityandliability applyequallytoallsponsoring States,whetherdevelopedordeveloping [para.158]
f. Stateonly liablefordamagescausedifitfailed tocarryoutduediligence[paras184-189]
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
CaseNo.21.Request foran advisoryopinionsubmitted bythe Sub-RegionalFisheriesCommission (SRFC), [2015] ITLOS Rep 10
• ObligationofflagStatestoensuretheirvesselsarenotIUUfishing isanobligationofduediligence
• Statesmustdeploy‘adequatemeans,toexercisebestpossible efforts,todotheutmost’topreventIUUfishing[para129]
• Ensurecompliancewithlawsandregulations[para129]
• Dutytocooperate=generalruleofinternational law(Mox Plantcase][para.140].
• LiabilityofflagStatearisesfromitsownfailuretocomplywithduediligenceobligations.
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
SCSArbitrationAward
1. Contentoftheobligationofduediligenceisinformedbyotherapplicablerulesofinternationallaw
2. Duediligenceincludestheobligationtoprotectandpreserveendangeredspeciesandthehabitatoffragileandvulnerablespeciesaswellasbiodiversity
3. Todeterminethataspeciesis‘endangered’oranecosystemis‘rareorfragile’,thetribunalconsideredCITES’annexes,aswellastheevidencepresentedbyscientificexperts,IUCNredlistandpeer-reviewedarticles
4. Theobligationto‘ensure’isanobligationofconduct.
5. Duediligencerequiresadoptionofappropriaterulesandmeasures, enforcement andtheexerciseofadministrativecontrol
6. Receivereportsofnon-compliance,mustinvestigate,remedythesituationandreport
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
• Question2 DoestherequirementofduediligenceundertheLOSCcreateanobligationtomitigatetheadverseimpactsofhuman-inducedclimatechangeonthemarineenvironment?
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
Mitigatingsourcesofpollution
• Lexspecialis – globalclimateregime
• AnnexVI1973/78MARPOL
– Setslimitsonsulphur oxide,nitrogenoxideemissionsandozonedepletingsubstancesfromshipsexhausts.
– Amendmentsweremadein2011toaddressoperationalandefficiencymattersaimedatreducingGHGemissionsfromships.
– IMOinitialstrategyforreductiongreenhousegasemissions,roadmap&long-termstrategy2023
– Othermeasures
Source:shipinsight.com
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
1982UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea
• Pollution - Article 1(1)(4)
• ‘the introduction by man, directlyor indirectly, of substances orenergy into the marineenvironment, which results or islikely to result in such deleteriouseffects as harm to living resourcesand marine life, hazards tohuman health’
• Definition wide enough to coverGHG [Boyle, Rayfuse, Oral, Scott,Stephens]
• Article192(Dutytoprotectandpreservethemarineenvironment)
• Article194(1)(fromany source)
• Art194(2)obligationtoensurethatactivitiesunderjurisdictionorcontroldonotcausedamagetootherStates=obligationofduediligence
• Article194(5)(includesrareorfragileecosystems)(coralreefs)
• Article194(3)Allsourcesofpollution
• Article207(land-based)
• Article212(onorthroughtheatmosphere)
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
Regulating&ControllingMarinePollution=obligationofduediligence
• Whataretheduediligencerequirements?
– Prevent,reduceandcontrolsourcesofpollutionthatcausemarineenvironmentaldamage,regulation,EIA,BAT,precautionaryapproach,andenforcement
• Whataretheapplicablerulesofinternationallaw?
– 1992UNFCCCobjectiveofstabilisationGHGintheatmosphere isbroadenoughtoapplytotheocean
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
WhatobjectivesapplyundertheParisAgreement?
• Article2(1)
– Holding theincreaseintheglobal averagetemperaturetowellbelow2°Cabovepre-industriallevelsandpursuingeffortstolimitthetemperatureincreaseto1.5°C
• Article4
– EachPartyshallprepare,communicateandmaintainsuccessivenationallydeterminedcontributionsthatitintendstoachieve.Partiesshallpursuedomesticmitigationmeasures,withtheaimofachievingtheobjectivesofsuchcontributions. =obligationofconduct
– Allowsflexibility inrelationtowhichGHGemissionsaretobereduced.
– ‘Ambitiousefforts’and‘demonstrateprogressionovertime’
– NDCs- 161mentionocean;14coastalStatesdonotmentionocean.
OceancommitmentsundertheParisAgreementGalloetal.NatureClimateChange7(11),833
WhatdoestheduediligencerequirementsundertheLOSCrequireinrelationtomitigationmeasures?
• StandardofconductundertheLOSCisverygeneralunderArticles194&212
• DuediligencemeansthataStateisobliged‘todeployadequatemeans,toexercisebestpossibleefforts,todotheutmost’[paras110-111]
• Statesmusttakemeasuresthatare‘reasonablyappropriate’[para.120] inrelationtomitigation
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
DoesPartXIIoftheLOSCrequireStatestogofurtherthantheParisAgreement inrelationtomitigation?
• RejectedsimilarargumentsintheMox PlantthattheLOSCsetsahigherstandardthattheOSPARConventioninrelationtoland-basedpollutionofthemarineenvironment
• Alsoneedtoovercomeeconomicdevelopment&sovereignrightsovernaturalresourcearguments[UNFCCC,ParisAgreement&LOSCArt193]
• However,
• Article14- GlobalStocktaking
• Duediligencevariableconcept,varywithtime,newscientific knowledgeandtechnology
• MuchdependsonhowfarStatesgotoadoptspecificmeasurespertainingtoclimatechangeandtheocean
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
Somegoodnews!
• PeterThomson,UNSpecialEnvoyforOcean,introducesthelaunchoftheOceanPathwayPartnershipandcallsgovernmentsaroundtheworldforacommonactionontheprotectionofoceans.
• BringoceanintoUNFCCCprocessesandsustainaction
• BetterintegrationofoceanintheNDCs
• ROCA :Roadmapforoceanandclimateaction&OceanandClimateInitiativesAlliance
• 2019IPPCSpecialReportOceans,Climate andthe Cryosphere
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
• Question3 • Whatarethelegaldutiestoimproveclimateresilience byrestoringthemarineenvironment?
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
ImprovingClimateResilienceandDutytoRestore:NormativeBasisInternationalLaw
HardLaw HardLaw• ResponsibilityofStatesandinternationalorganizations✔
– CaseNo17,AreaAdvisoryOpinion(2011)ITLOSRep10,paras 195and198.• willdependonbothactualdamageandthe
technicalfeasibility ofrestoringthesituationtothestatusquoante
– CaseNo21,SRFCAdvisoryOpinion,Apr.2,2015(para208)
• Liability[UNCompensationCommission…developmentofnovelapproachesincludingabstracthabitatequivalencyanalysisforthelossofecologicalservices]✔
• DraftArticlesonStateResponsibilityforInternationallyWrongfulActs[Arts34&35Reparations&Restitution]✔
• UNFCCC[Art4(4))ParisAgreement–Preamble&Art5✔• StateandRegionalPractice[USA:EstuariesRestorationAct
2000][France:)• Emergingprinciplesofnon-regressionandecologicalintegrity• CostaRicav.Nicaraguacompensationcase
• UNCLOS[Art61(3)][Arts192,194(5),197] [Art235,139(2)]✔
• 1994ImplementationAgreementEironm ent al
– Draftminingcode– EnvironmentalManagementandMonitoringPlan
• UNFSA[Arts5(e),6(4),AnnexIIArt4]✔• CBD[Art8(f)(e)]✔
– Rehabilitateandrestore degradedecosystemsandpromotetherecoveryofthreatenedspecies,interalia,throughthedevelopmentandimplementationofplansorothermanagementstrategies
– CBDDecX.33,XI/21• OSPARConvention✔
– …conservemarineecosystemsand,whenpracticable,restoremarineareaswhichhavebeenadverselyaffected...[Art2(1)(a)]&AnnexVArt2]
• CMSArtV.1- restore themigratoryspeciesconcernedtoafavourableconservationstatus
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
CertainActivitiescarriedoutbyNicaragua intheBorderArea(CostaRicav.Nicaragua) - Questionofcompensation
2February2018
• Suchcompensationmayincludeindemnificationfortheimpairmentorlossofenvironmentalgoodsandservices andpaymentfortherestorationofthedamagedenvironment
• Paymentforrestorationaccountsforthefactthatnaturalrecoverymaynotalwayssufficetoreturnanenvironmenttothestateinwhichitwasbeforethedamageoccurred.
• Insuchinstances,activerestorationmeasuresmayberequiredinordertoreturntheenvironmenttoitspriorcondition,insofarasthatispossible.
• Internationallawdoesnotprescribeanyspecificmethodofvaluation
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
HowcantheBBNJ ImplementationAgreementnegotiationsmainstreamecologicalrestoration?
PrincipleCross-sectorialmanagementapproaches
AreaBasedManagementToolsincluding
MPAs
EIA/SEA/TBEA Capacity
Building&TechnologyTransfer
Liability&Compliance
Restoration
Options
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
Conclusions
• Duediligenceisakeycomponentoftheobligationtopreventharm
• Lawoftheseajurisprudencehascontributedsignificantlytoourunderstandingoftheconceptofduediligenceincludingthecontextualcircumstancesandparameterspertainingtoitsapplication
• Inordertodemonstratethatithasacteddiligently,a Statemustpreventforeseeable significantdamage,oratleasttominimise theriskofsuchharmfromhuman-inducedclimatechange
• Statesmusttakemeasures thatare‘reasonablyappropriate’inrespectofmarineenvironmenttomeetclimatechangeobjectives
• PartXV– DisputeResolution/AdvisoryJurisdiction
ProfessorRonánLong,rl@wmu.se
“…thattheoceans’carryingcapacityisnearoratitslimit.Itisclearthaturgentactiononaglobalscaleisneeded toprotecttheworld’soceansfromthemanypressurestheyface.”
FIRSTGLOBALINTEGRATEDMARINEASSESSMENT(2014)
ForewordbytheSecretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNations,
UNGA70/235,23December2015
ProfessorRonán Long,rl@wmu.se
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