drama in education: key conceptual · pdf filedrama in education: key conceptual features ......

46 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2014 GökçenÖzbek

Gökçen Özbek

Dramaineducation:keyconceptualfeatures

Abstract: Themainaimofthisarticleistopresentthekeyconceptualcharacteristicsofthemeth-odsofdrama,particularlyinaneducationalcontext.Inthefirstpartofthearticle,wediscusswhatdramaisandpresentashortoverviewofitsmainconceptualfeatures.Next,differentapproachesinthefieldofdrama(dramaasanartform,dramaineducationandanintegrativeapproachtodrama)arepresentedbyexplainingthemaintheoriesandtheoreticiansinthisdiscipline.Afterestablishingacomprehensivebackground,weprovideinformationregardingthestructureofdramaineducation,whichhassomedistinguishingcharacteristicsincomparisontotraditionalteachingmethods.Basedontheconclusionsdrawn,weconsiderthepossibleimplicationsofusingdramaincurriculumplan-ningandinstruction.

Keywords: dramaineducation,creativedrama,curriculum,instructionalmethods

UDC:37.091.3

Scientificarticle

Gökçen Özbek, Oluşum Drama Institute, Büklüm Sokak 22/5, 06680 Kavaklıdere, Ankara, Turkey;e-mail for correspondence: gokcen_ozbek@yahoo.com

JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2014,46–61

Dramaineducation:keyconceptualfeatures 47

Introduction

Theapplicationofanartformwhichhelpsyoungpeopletodevelopinsightsandunderstandingthroughsearching,planning,shapingandpresentingdramaticmaterialcanbeoneofthemostthrillingeventsinschool life(Somers1995).Dramaticmethods,whichhavethepotentialtoarouseexcitement,curiosityandinteresttowardasubjectmatter,canbequiteeffectiveincapturingtheimaginationsandattentionofyoungpeople.Sincetheresponsibilityofteachingandlearningacrossthecurriculumshouldbesharedbybothstudentsandteachers, it isimportanttoallowyoungpeopletoacceptresponsibilityfortheirownlearning.Inordertoachievethis,anenvironmentwheretheteachercancooperatewithwell-motivatedstudentsshouldbeestablished;onewaytodothismaybeviatheuseofdramaticmethods.

Theartformintroducedinthisarticleis“drama,”termed“dramaineducation”whenitexplicitlyaddressesdrama’sfunctionincurricula.Thisdramaticform,popularizedatthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,isnottobeunderstoodasasubstitutemethodfortraditionaldidacticstrategies,butratherasacomplementaryteachingactivitywhichmaybeusedproductivelyinordertoachievecertaineducationalgoalsandobjectivesmoreefficiently.Therefore,it isimportanttoinvestigatetheuseofdramaineducation,includingtechniques,roots,structures,applicationareasandapproaches.

Drama: definition and main conceptual features

Thequestionofwhatdramaishasoftenbeenansweredbyeducationalistsanddramaspecialiststhus:“dramaisdoing”(Bolton1979).Inthispaper,wefollowBolton’sdefinitionofdramaas“seemstobedoing” (ibid.,p.21).Thisexplanationleadsustotheessenceofdrama,understoodas“make-believeplay,”inwhichtheparticipantpretendsthatheorsheissomeoneelse,orsomethingelse,throughroleplayinginanimaginaryenvironment.Fromthisperspective,

48 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2014 GökçenÖzbek

dramais“thought-in-action;itspurposeisthecreationofmeaning;itsmediumistheinteractionbetweentwoconcretecontexts”(ibid.).Thefirstoneisanimaginarycontextconstructedbycreatingadramaticworldboundinspaceandtime,andaworlddependentontheconsensusofitsexistence(O’Neill1995).Thesecondcontextistherealworldthatweexperienceeveryday.Inthisinteraction,theselectedcontentishandledinanimaginarydramaticcontext,butusingreal-lifefeelings.Whenthechosencontentis inaccordancewithcurriculargoalsandobjectives,dramamayserveasanauthenticmethodineducation.Viathisartform,“notpresentationbutexplorationofideasandsituations”ispossiblewithinthecurriculum(BrownandPleydell1999,p.4).

Inordertodevelopawiderperspectiveontheusageofdramaacrossschoolcurricula,itisimportanttoappreciateanoverviewofthemainconceptualfeaturesofdramaanditstheoreticalbackground.Drama,whichincludes“movement”and“rehearsaloflife,”couldalreadybeseenasthepartof“bacchanal,”theritualsofancientcommunities(Fischer-LichteandRiley2004).Forinstance,inHatti(1730B.C.),peopleuseddramainfestivals:theyworeanimalpeltryandpretendedtobeanimals(BrandauandSchickert2004).Similarly,inAthens,thefestivalofDionysuswascelebratedwithplaysandimitationsofgods.Theseactivitiesevolvedinto“make-believeplay,”whichconstructedtheessenceofdrama(Turner1982).

Thiskindofplaywas–andstillis–perceivedasanimportantactivityinthedevelopmentofachild.EvenasearlyasAncientGreece,Platon(2005)mentionedusingplayineducation.Hestatedthatbyorganizingandstructuringchildren’sgames,itispossibletocreateasenseofrulesandidealgovernmentorganization.AnotherexampleisHerbertSpencer(cf.Courtney1989),whoconsideredplayvitaltoachild’sdevelopmentandshowedthat“theformofplaydependsonthelevelofdevelopmentoftheplayer:thestructuralcomplexitybringsanincreaseddiversityofplay”(ibid.,p.44).Furthermore,KarlGrosshighlightedtheimportanceofplayinthe“growthofintelligence”(ibid.,p.50).Itfollowsthatifplayisvitaltoachild’sdevelopment,opportunitiesfor“increaseddiversityofplay”shouldbeusedinclassrooms(ibid.,p.44).

Piaget(1962),Vygotsky(1978)andLewin(1936)allproposedplayasanadaptive,organizedmeansbywhichchildrenlearntomakesenseoftheirphysicalandsocialenvironment.Theyagreedthatwiththehelpofplay,childrengainafeelingofcontroloverthecomplexlifeissuestheyconfront.Moreover,theylearnhowtostrugglewithdifficultiesandsolveproblems.Piaget(1962)dividedplayintocategoriesinordertoanalyzeitand,referringtothedeclineofsymbolicplayinchildhood,maintainedthatmake-believeplayismerelyastageintheevolutiontowardgameswithrules(cf.Lewin1936).Ofcourse,thisdoesnotmeanthatsuchmake-believeplaydoesnotcontinueevenafterachildbeginstoplaygameswithrules,aswellasitistruethatmake-believeplayalreadyhasitsownrulesintheimaginaryworld–rulescreatedbythechild.AsLewin(ibid.)interpreted,thiskindofmake-believeplayis“necessaryinpracticingsocialrulesandinternalizationofthem”(ibid.,p.176).

Piaget(1962) justifieddramaticplayingasimportantinachild’ssocial,creative,cognitive,moralandaffectivedevelopment.Piaget’stheoriesaboutlearning

Dramaineducation:keyconceptualfeatures 49

emphasizedtheneedforchildrentoexploreandexperimentforthemselves,theprocessdependentontheextenttowhichsymbolscanbemanipulated.Socialsymbolicplaywasseenasa“usefulbridge” forthechildtotryoutdifferentpossibilitiesina“nopenalty”zone(Bolton1984,p.39).

UnlikePiaget’shierarchicaldevelopmentinplay,Vygotsky(1978)didnotproposeasimilardevelopmenttheory,ratherheemphasizedtheimportanceofsocialcontextinplay,theconstructionofknowledgeandlanguagedevelopment.Vygotsky(ibid.)wasalsointerestedinhowplayisasteptowardabstractthinking.Oneofthepurposesofplay,fromVygotsky’spointofview,wasthatitenableschildrentocreatemeaningsforthemselves.Hesawsymbolicplayasawayforachildtopracticesymbolicrepresentationofobjectsandeventsinordertoconstructknowledgeandsupportlanguagedevelopment.

Whendiscussingtheconceptualfoundationsofdrama,particularlyinaneducationalcontext,itisalsoimportanttoexploretheideaof“individuality”ineducation.Thedevelopmentofdramawouldnotbepossiblewithoutacceptingtheideaofindividuality,bywhicheveryindividualisperceivedasunique(Way1968).Thisalsoaffectstheperceptionofthechild.Theplaceofachildinsocietystartedtochangefrombeing“miniatureadults”to“aspecialpartoflife”wherethereisneedforspecialunderstanding,treatmentandeducation(Carey1985,p.21;cf.alsoAries1973).Rousseaucontributedtothisnewidea:“considerthemaninthemanandthechildinthechild”(inCourtney1974,p.21).Thischangesignificantlyinfluencedthedevelopmentofprogressivechild-centeredtheoriesofeducation.Dewey(2008,p.34)summarizedoldeducationbystatingthat“thecenterofgravitywasoutsidethechild.Itwasintheteacher,thetextbook,anywhereandeverywhereyoupleased,exceptintheimmediateinstinctsandactivitiesofthechildhimself”.However,hedefinedthechangewhichwascomingintoeducationasshiftingthecenterofgravity.Thechildwasbecominglikeasun,aboutwhichtheinstrumentsofeducationwouldrevolve;hewasthecenteraboutwhichtheywereorganized(inBolton1984,p.21).

Whenchildrenbecamethecenterofeducation,theirfeelingsalsogainedimportance.AsRousseau(1984)highlightedtheimportanceofachild’sownthoughtsandfeelings, theothertheoreticiansconstructedtheir ideasaboutfeelingsaswell.Slade(1954)rejectedaneducationenvironmentwherethereisnoplaceforemotions.Elias(2007)statedthateachchildhashisownfeelings,andaneducationenvironmentshouldbeconstructedregardingthesefeelings–effectiveandlong-lastinglearningcanoccurwhenemotionsareactivatedduringtheprocess.Aslan(1999)declaredthatinadramaticcontext,experiencesareconstructedwiththehelpofemotions,thereforeparticipantsofdramacannoteasilyforgetwhattheyhaveexperiencedindramaclass.Additionally,theideasofVygotsky(inHeathcote1982)leadtoconstructingadramaticworld.TwocontrollablecomponentsofemotionsindramacanbecategorizedaswhatVygotsky(inBolton1979p.87)calls“thedualaffect”and“intensity.”Dualaffectisthetensionwhichexistsbetweentheconcreteworldandthe“asif”world,sometimesleadingtocontradictoryemotions;intensityissimplythestrengthoftheseemotions.Ontheotherhand,Piagetattemptedtointegratesocialandemotionaldevelopmentwith

50 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2014 GökçenÖzbek

thestudyofcognition(Suizzo2000).Onthatpoint,Courtneystatedamoreholisticview,whichhighlightedthatnoeducationalenvironmentispurelycognitiveorsimplyemotional:“Eacheducationcontextiswhole–cognitive,affective,moral,aesthetic,empathicandpsycho-motor–anditisexpressedwholeindramaticaction.”(Courtney1980,p.44)

Drama,whichcaresaboutboththecognitiveandemotionalaspectsoftheindividual, isaprocessof learningwhereparticipantscanbetaughtthroughcarefullystructuredexperienceswhichincludeplays,re-organizedplaysanddramaticcontext(Henry2000).Theideaofdramaticexperienceisbasedonthe“learningbydoing”theory.Dramaconstructsalearningbydoingprocessinwhich,asVygotsky(1978)stated:“Learningawakensavarietyofinternaldevelopmentalprocessesthatareabletooperatewhenthechildisinteractingwithpeopleinhisenvironmentandincooperationwithhispeers.”(Ibid.,p.90)BrunerenthusiasticallyendorsesthisaspectofVygotsky’sconcept,focusingparticularlyontheimportanceofsocialcontextindeepeningunderstanding(BowerandHilgard1981).EntwistleandHounsell(1975)acknowledgethatBrunerviewsthelearner“asanactiveparticipantintheknowledgegettingprocess,onewhoselectsandtransformsinformation,whoconstructshypothesesandaltersthosehypothesesinthefaceofinconsistentordiscrepantevidence”(ibid.,p.106).EntwistleandHounsell(ibid.)goontosaythatBrunerrecommendsteachersandstudentsworkcooperativelywithrespecttothetransmissionanddiscoveryofknowledge.Bruneralsostatedthatdramaaimsforachildto“becomeapartytothenegotiatoryprocessbywhichfactsarecreatedandinterpreted.Hebecomesatonceanagentofknowledge-makingaswellasarecipientofknowledge-transmission”(inMalczewski1988,p.35).

Therootsofdramaeducationhavebeenuncoveredinthissectionviaadiscussionoftheoriesaboutplay,make-believeplay,child-centerededucation,theemotionsofindividualsandlearningbydoing.Theseideasshapedcontemporarydramaineducationapproachesinthefirstpartofthetwentiethcentury,whichspreadquicklyaroundtheworld(Courtney1980).Today,dramacanbedividedintomanysub-sections(creativedrama,socio-drama,psycho-drama,etc.),andtheuseofdramaasaneducationmethodiswidespreadandfrequentlystudied.Inthefollowingsections,bothacreativedramaapproachandadramaineducationapproachwillbediscussed.

Approaches in drama

Indrama,therearetwokeyapproaches:dramaforsupportingpersonaldevelopment,oftennamedcreative drama,andusingdramaasapartofteachingmethodology,calleddrama in education.Thissecondapproachinvolvesthecreationofadramaticenvironmentwherestudentslearnthesubjectbyplayingrolesandusingotherdramatictechniqueswhileconductingatopic-relatedinvestigation(Sağlam1997).Inthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,somedramatheoreticians(suchasGavinBolton)constructedideasincludingbothidentifiedapproaches.Accordingtothem,dramaticprocessesshouldbeusedforbothteachingasubject

Dramaineducation:keyconceptualfeatures 51

andpromotingpersonaldevelopment(Taylor1992).Inthefollowingsections,thesethreedifferentapproaches(i.e.dramaasanartform,dramaineducationandanintegrativeapproach)arediscussedwiththeirpredominantrepresentativesinthefieldinordertodrawaframeworkfordramaineducation.

Drama as an art form

Dramaasanartform,istheapproachwhichhasbeenusedwidelytosupportpersonaldevelopmentandself-actualization(Taylor1992).Inthisapproach,ratherthanhandlingacurricularsubject,thefocusisondevelopmentofawholepersonthroughdrama.Ward(1957), influencedbyDeweyandMearns,arguedthatcreativedramadevelopsthe“wholeperson”inthatitbenefitschildren’sphysical,intellectual,socialandemotionalwelfare:“Itsobjectivesaretogiveeachchildanavenueforself-expression,guidehiscreativeimagination,provideforacontrolledemotionaloutlet,helphiminthebuildingoffineattitudesandappreciationsandtogivehimopportunitiestogrowinsocialcooperation.”(Ibid.,p.4)

Duetothenatureofdramaticenvironments,childrencangainconfidence,expressthemselvesdramatically, feelthesatisfactionofworkingsuccessfullywithagroupandlearnhowtocontroltheiremotionsandbehaviors(Erion1996).AsBlatner(2006)stated,throughbalancingthemodernworld’sover-emphasisonreasonandlogic,integratingtherealmsoflanguage,emotion,imaginationandprofoundfeelingsofthebodyinactionanddoingratherthanjustpassivelywatchingandhearing,dramacanhelpchildrenreachgoalssuchasdevelopingempatheticunderstandingandconcentration,fosteringhealthiercommunicationandimprovingtheirabilitiesincooperationandcriticalthinking.

AcontemporaryofWard,PeterSlade(1954),introducedtheconceptofchild dramawithsimilargoals.However,furtherthanemphasizingskillsoraparticularsequencingofactivities,Sladestressedthechild’simpulsestocreate.ForSlade,childdramawasauniqueartform:“Theredoes,then,existsaChildDrama,whichisofexquisitebeautyandisahighArtForminitsownright.Itshouldberecognized,respectedandprotected.”(Ibid.,p.68)Thespontaneousimpulsesofachildtoplayshouldbenurturedbytheteacher;thelatterbeingcastintheroleofa“lovingally”(ibid.,p.85).Slade’suniqueobservationofchildrenallowedhimtorealizethatababy’searlyexperimentswithmovementandplayareembryonicformsofdrama,artandmusic.

Bydrawingawedgebetweenthedifferenttypesofschoolplayandchildplay,Slade’sworklitthewayforthestudiesofBrianWay.Wayinfluencedbytheprogressiveeducationmovementofthe1960s,promoteddramaonthebasisthatitdevelopedwhathecalledthe“individualityoftheindividual”(WayinBolton1998,p.148).LikeSlade,Way(1968)concentratedonthenaturaldevelopmentoftheindividualandsupportingitwithstructureddramaexercises.Heemphasizedthepersonaldevelopmentofindividuals,throughappropriatedramaexercises,insevenareas:speech,concentration,emotions,senses,imagination,physicalselfandintellect.Way’sphilosophyofthe“uniquenessoftheindividual”directedhimtoemphasizepersonalandsocial“lifeskills”(ibid.).

52 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2014 GökçenÖzbek

Drama in education

Dramaineducationistheapproachwhichusesdramaasateachingandlearningmedium(Wessels1987).Dramahasthepotentialtocaptivatelearnersbecauseitbuildsonthespontaneityandmake-believeactionofdramaticplay(Poston-Anderson2008).Itfocusesonparticularsattheconcretelevelratherthanonabstraction:“Learningthroughdramaiscontextual.”(Bolton1986,p.36);forexample,insteadofaskingchildrentoexplainaconcept,suchasfreedom,studentsmayfirstexperiencetheideawithinanimaginedsituationtounderstandwhatismeantbyfreedom.Itisthroughthisprocessofdirectparticipationandcriticalreflectionthattheycometounderstandwhatismeantbytheconceptthroughsocalledinductiveeducationalapproach(cf.Kroflič2011).Usingdramaineducationcanleadtothedevelopmentofbroaderunderstandingthrough“generalizingandmakingconnections”viathepersonal involvementthat initiallyengagesandmotivatesstudentsintheirlearning(Fleming1995,p.40).

Bytheearly1950s,andwiththeinfluenceofDorothyHeathcote,usingdramatoteachacurricularsubjectbecamepopular (Bolton1984).Heathcote (1967)maintained:“Dramaisnotstoriesretoldinaction.Dramaishumanbeingsconfrontedbysituationswhichchangethembecauseofwhattheymustfaceindealingwiththosechallenges.” (Ibid.,p.48)Heathcote(ibid.)wasparticularly interestedinhowtheartformcouldbeexploitedbytheteacherandtheirstudentstoexploreimportantissues,eventsorrelationships.Thisnotionofdramaasexploration,orasalearningmedium,wasaprominentaimofherworkanddistinguishesitfromthatofherpredecessors(Wagner1985).DuetoHeathcote’spioneeringroleinthefield,anemphasisoncontentindramaticartwasproduced,theeffectivenessofdramaineducationwasstudiedmoreseriouslyandthelinksbetweeneducationaltheoriesanddramabegantobeestablished.Forinstance,BowellandHeap(2001)linkedBruner’s(1967)theoryofactiveparticipationwithdrama.Bruner(ibid.)highlightedtheimportanceoftheactiveparticipationofachildinthelearningprocessinordertopersonalizetheknowledge.Further,drama,byitsnature,offersaninteractivelearningexperiencethroughcreatinganimaginaryworldwherechildrencanincorporatetheirfeelings,fantasiesandvaluesintothecontentofalesson.

Incontrasttothisviewofdramaasanartformwhichoffersthesubjectmatterasanisolatedsubjectinthecurriculum,theapproachofdramaineducationisfullyadoptedtothecurriculumwithitstechniques.Forinstance,MantleoftheExpert(MoE)isadramatic-inquirybasedapproachforteachingandlearning(Courtney1989).MoEisafullyintegratedmethodinwhichchildrenlearnacrossallcurriculumareasbytakingontherolesofexpertsengagedinahighstatusprojectforafictionalclient.Inthistechnique,powerandresponsibilitymovefromteachertogroup,learnersfeelrespectedbyhavingexpertstatus,insightandunderstandingofdifferentexpertoccupationsareexploredanditprovidesdistancefromexperiencethroughprofessionalcodes(Neelands1990).

Dramaineducation:keyconceptualfeatures 53

Integrative Approach

Asaresponsetothedualitiesinthefieldofdrama,themid-twentiethcenturysawthearrivalofanapproachwhichintegratedbothperspectives.Mostofthetheoreticiansanddramapractitionersdirectedtheirstudiestoplacedramaatthecenterofthecurriculum,andtheirideasprovidedsolidargumentsfortheuseofdramabothasatoolforteachingandlearningandasanartformtosupportpersonaldevelopment(Bolton1998).AccordingtoBolton(inSağlam2006),aforerunnerinthetheorizationofthefield,agreatdepthoflearningtakesplacewhendramaticexperienceisstructuredinawaythatsimultaneouslymeetstherequirementsofeducationalobjectivesandtheartform.

Inthisintegrativeapproach,twokindsofgoalsareaimedforthroughdramaticmethods.Thefirstone,asindramaforeducation,isthattheobjectivesofthechosencurricularsubjectareatthecenter.Forexample,iftheSecondWorldWaristheselectedcontent,thentheteacheristryingtoachievetheobjectivesofhis/herhistoryclassusingdramaticmethods.Thisgoalshouldbetheoutcomeattheendoftheinstruction.Thesecondkindofgoalisrelatedtopersonaldevelopment,suchasimprovingempatheticunderstandingandcriticalthinkingskills,reinforcingpositiveself-concept,increasingself-awarenessandawarenesstowardothersandpromotingcommunicationskillsandtheabilitytoworkcooperatively.

Dramais“seemstobedoing”anditis“thoughtsinaction”(Bolton1979,p.21).Itspurposeisthecreationofmeaning.Bolton(1979)believesthatmeaning-makingindramaisoftenunobservableandtheactionswhichchildrenchoosetorepresentinthecontextofdramaaremostsignificantindeterminingpersonalmeaning.Bolton(1986)pointsoutthatdramateacherswhostateobjectivesonlyinbehavioraltermsmaylackthisawareness.Dramais“asocial,interactiveartprocess,andalsoitcreatesexperienceswhichenablethedevelopmentofcognitive,emotional,socialandcreativeunderstandingandskills,” (Bolton1979,p.21)thereforeitcanbeperceivedasacornerstonerequiredineducation(BowellandHeap2001).

Structuring a Drama Session

Whenstructuringadramalesson,therearenospecificrulesnorexactformula.Thus,therearelotsofapproachesdetailedinliteratureforstructuringthedramaticprocess.Inthissection,wewillexploresomeofthestructuringstrategiesproposedbytheorists.

W.Wardrecommendedaclearstructureforplanningdramasessionsthatadoptsalinearapproach;sheproposedasequentialseriesofactivitieswhichchildrenwouldtypicallyencounter:“Thesequenceproceedsfromsensory/concentrationactivitiestomovement/pantomime,dialogue,characterizationandimprovisation/storyplaying.”(WardinWright1985,p.205)Wardplacedanemphasisontheexternalskillswhichchildrendisplaythroughthatprocess:characterization,developmentofplot,theenrichingofdialogueandaction,ensembleworkandtempo(tobefurtheremphasizedinclasscriticism),withvoiceanddictionunderstoodtobevitallyimportant(WardinHeinigandStillwell1981,p.31).

54 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2014 GökçenÖzbek

Ward’sstructureofadramalessoncanbeclassifiedaswarm-upactivities,planningthesceneswhichwillbeplayed,playingthescenes,evaluatingtheplayedscenesand,finally,cool-downactivities(Kase-Polisini1989).Inthislinearandquiteprimitivewayofconductingadramaclass,aftersomewarm-upenergizersinordertomakestudentsmorerelaxedandreadyforacognitive,physicalandemotionalexperience,Wardindicatesplanningascenefromachosentextwithstudents,asiftheyaregoingtoperformit.Althoughthepreparedscenesarenotgoingtobeseenbyanaudience,thepreparationprocessisconductedasseriouslyaspossible.Afterplayingthescenes,thestudentsevaluatethemselves,describingthestrongandweakerpartsoftheirplay.Afterimprovement,theyreplaythescenes,ifnecessary.Thisprocessfinisheswithsomerelaxation,evaluationofthewholeclassandthencool-downexercises(Bolton1984).

CecilyO’Neill,incomparison,hassuggestedaprocess-oriented,spontaneousandimprovisation-baseddramastructure.Thisinvolves“making,shapingandappreciatingadramaticevent,anexperience thatarticulatesexperience,”demands“perception,imagination,speculationandinterpretation”andexercisesthestudents’“dramatic,cognitiveandsocialcapacities”(O’Neill1995,p.1).Increatingadramaticworldfacilitatingallthefeatureslistedabove,aparticular“pre-text”isused.Pre-textinthiscontextmeansa“source”or“impulse”forthedramaprocessand“areasonforthework”(ibid.,p.xv).Instructuringadramasession, firstapre-text isselected,then, insideoroutsidethedramaworld,theprocessisshapedto“developapastfortext”bythehelpofthecomposedorimprovisedactivities;duringtheseactivities“reflectiontakesplacetolearntheideasandinterpretationsofchildren,”andfinallytheprocesscomestoitsend(ibid.,pp.1–4).

Heathcote(1978)believesthatdramaineducationprovidesuswithmetaphorsforourreallives,whichinturnallowustoreflectonlife’sexperiences.Thisstatedoesnothappenbychance;reflection,Heathcote(ibid.)argues,occursthroughthecareful“sequencing,orstructuringofactivities”(ibid.,p.149).Heathcote’splanningofdramasessionstendstofocusonmomentsintimewhichthegroupdevise (Heathcote inO’NeillandLambert1982).Developingunderstanding,however,doesnothappenbychance.Ifdramawasaboutdiscovery,thenactivitiesorstrategieswouldneedtobedeliberatelyandconsciouslyfolded,orlayered,intotheworkforthistohappen.Thefactthattheteacherandstudentsshouldideallybeoperatingatameta-cognitivelevel,impliesastructure,tohermind(Heathcote1971,pp.50–54).Hersophisticatedinnovationinthestructuringofdramasessionschallengedassumptionsaboutthefundamentalnatureofknowledge,ofeducation,ofteacherresponsibilityandofdramaticart(HeathcoteandBolton1994).

TheMoEmethodbyHeathcoteinvolvesinvestigating,solvingandexploringtheideasandissuesfoundinanexpertoccupation,suchasasocialworker,policeofficer,nurse,ministerandsoon.InMoE,studentstaketheroleofexpertsinafieldlikepsychologyandsolvepresentedproblemsintheirroleofbeingexpert:“somethingmorelikeabusinesswheretheyareprofessionwhoworkastroubleshooters”(ibid.,p.17).Animaginaryplaceiscreated,whereactionoccursandwherestudentstakeahighdegreeofresponsibility.Thetaskscanbe

Dramaineducation:keyconceptualfeatures 55

carefullygradedfordegreesofdifficulty.Thetasksalwaysconstitutetheactionthroughwhichchildrenbecomemoreengagedwiththecontent.Toreachdeeperengagementlevels,thereisaneedforcarefulpreparationofthetask.HeathcoteandBolton(1994)havesuggestedfourquestionsforteachersto followwhenplanningadramasessionusingMoE(ibid.,p.25):

1. Whatsortsofknowledge/informationaretobestudied?2. Whatskills(mental,linguistic,artistic,psychomotorordramatic)aretobe

practicedthroughtheknowledge?3. Whichplaysareneededtohelpthespecialneedsoftheclass?4. Whatwillmakestudentsreachoutandsetstandardsforthemselves?(Ibid.)

Consideringthequestionslistedabove,accordingtoHeathcoteandBolton(1994),teachersshouldfollowfourguidelineswhenplanninganMoEapproach(ibid.,p.27):

1. Presenttheareaofexpertiseeffectivelyusingacombinationofteachertalkandvisualimage.

2. Teachersshouldtakearoleandplayduringtheprocesswiththechildren.3. Studentsshouldselecttheirrolesinordertofellthepoweroffunction.4. Intheseroles,thewholegroupshouldbuildthepast,presentandfutureof

thedramaticworld1(Ibid.).

Bolton(1984)constructedhisapproachreferringtothechangingthemeaningonchildren’smindandofferingatheoreticalbasisforanalyzingthedifferentstructuresavailabletotheteacherwhopursuesthisparticulargoal.Bolton(1979)mentionedfourstagesofdramaticactivity:“apreparatorystagenotconducivetolearning(artificialstage);astageconcernedwithunconsciousreiterationofwhatisfamiliar(reinforcement);aconsciousidentifyingofwhatisknown(clarification);andashiftofperspective”(ibid.,p.51).Thisstructuretendstointegratechildren’s“whathappensnext”orientationwiththeteacher’seducationalgoals.AlthoughthereisnodistinctandstrictformforstructuringdramaaccordingtoBolton’sapproach,therearesomepropertieswhichcanbelisted.First,theteachershouldorganizesomethemestoprovidethestudentswiththechancetochoosetheissuetheywilldiscover.Thesethemesshouldmaketheclassfaceaparadoxfromthebeginning.Forinstance,teachershouldprovideacontradictorycaseatthebeginninginordertomakestudentsthinkandevaluatedifferentperspective.ThenactionstartstodevelopasthestudentsexploredifferentencountersthroughMoE,teacherinrole,discussionsandreflections.Dramaticplayingandexercisescanalsohaveapartofthisdramaprocess(Bolton1979).Indrama,engagement

1Inordertocreateadramaticcontext,itisimportanttoestablishpast,presentandfutureex-periences.Ifwetakeaphotoasastartingpoint,forexample,past(whathappenedbeforethisphotowasshot),present(thepresenttimeonphoto)andfuture(thelifeexperiencesafterthisphotowastaken)shouldbecreatedwiththehelpofthestudents,todeveloptheircomprehensiveunderstandingforinvestigatingphenomena.

56 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2014 GökçenÖzbek

isthekeyissue,inordertobreakdownthestudents’existingunderstandingandtodevelopdifferentpointsofview.Whenstructuringdramasessions,teachersshouldbeawareofengagementlevelsandconstructthisengagementinhislessonplangradually(Bolton1984).

BowellandHeap(2001)identifythequalitiesthatunderpintheplanningofadramasession:“arecognitionthatlearningtakesplacemosteffectivelywhenitiscontextualized;thatlearnerswhohaveasenseofownershipabouttheirlearninghaveagreatcommitmenttoitandthereforegainmorefromitasaresultandthat,universally,humanbeingsusedramatosymbolicallyrepresentlifeexperiencesandtomakecommentonthem”(ibid.,pp.8–9).Regardingthesecornerstonesofdrama,BowellandHeap(2001)suggestsixplanningprincipleswhichateachershouldfollowwhenstructuringadramasession:theme/learningarea,context,roles,frame,signandstrategies.Firstofall,ateachershouldselectatheme–whatthedramaisaboutandtheparticularaspectofthehumanconditionunderexamination.Contextreferstotheparticularfictionalcircumstancesinwhichthethemewillbeexplored.Afterthemeandcontext,theteachershoulddecideontherolesofthestudentsandtheframeoftheaction.“Frame”isthetermusedtodescribethetension-giverandcontradictioncreaterintheprocess.Finally,thesignsusedinthedramashouldbearranged.Dramaticsequencesaremetaphorsforlifeexperience,andwithinthisframework,signsarethemeansbywhichthetheatricalelementofsymbolisevoked:“Anintricatesystemofsigns,includingobjects,sounds,language,gestureandimages,combineinalltheatregenrestobringsignificancetotheeventsofthedramaanddirectattentiontothem.”(Ibid.,p.11)

Differenttheoreticiansproposevaryingstructuresfordramasessions,whichoftenreflecttheapproachestheysuggestforplanningthedramaticprocess.Someofferveryprecisestepsintheirstructures,whileothersexplainthelogicbehindthedramainordertoplanit.Sincedramaoffersacreative,spontaneousandimprovisation-basedlearningenvironment,itseemsthatitwouldbemeaninglesstoshapetheprocessintooneframe(Ward1968).

Techniques of Drama

Whenstructuringadramaprocess,itispossibletousemanytechniquestakenfromthefieldoftheatre.However,themeaninganduseofthesetechniquesinaneducationalcontextaredifferenttoatheatricalcontext(Aslan2007).Morethan60techniqueshavebeenidentifiedforuseindramaticprocesses(Neelands1990).Themainmistakeineducationisusingonlyonedramatictechniqueintheteachingprocessandcallingit“drama.”However,itisimportanttohighlightthatdramaisthenameofthewholeprocess.Whenweuseonlya“game”inordertomakethelessonjoyfulortoraisethestudents’levelofconcentration,itisnotawholedramaprocess,andthusweshoulddescribeitas“usingonlyonetechnique”ratherthanclaimingthatweareusingdramaasalearningtool.Inthissectionofthepaper,inadditiontokeytechniquessuchasimprovisationandroleplay,wewilldiscusstheothertechniquesofdramatizationandgame,inordertoclarifythedramaprocess.

Dramaineducation:keyconceptualfeatures 57

Role playisoneofthemajortechniquesusedindrama.Whenstudentsassumearole,theyplayapartasiftheyaresomebodyelseinaspecificsituation.Playmeansthattheroleistakenoninasafeenvironmentwherestudentscanbeasinventiveandplayfulaspossible(Ladousse1992).Mainly,thetechniqueofroleplayisembodyingacharacterora“type”andreflectingthischaracter’sthoughtsandfeelings.Itprovidesthechildrenorparticipantswiththeopportunitytovoicetheirownideasthroughthemaskofarole.It isespeciallyusefulforhelpingchildrenwithsocialdifficulties(Aslan2007).Someshymembersofagroupmayhaveagreatdealofdifficultyparticipatinginconversationsaboutthemselves,andwithotheractivities.Thesestudentsareliberatedbyroleplayastheynolonger“feelthattheirownpersonalityisimplicated”(Ladousse1992,p.7).Usingthistechniqueinalearningenvironmenthasahugerangeofbenefits.Cowley(2007)listedsomeofthemas,“usingandenhancingstudents’imaginativeskills,experiencingwhatit’sliketobesomeoneelse,understandingwhysomepeoplebehavedifferentlytoothers,seeingthingsfromanotherviewpointorperspective”(ibid.,p.85).

Improvisation isaprimarymodeofdramaticactivity,aswellasamaintechniqueusedindrama(BrownandPlaydell1999).Asetymologically-implied,improvisationisathingwhichcannotbeforeseenoranticipated.Themeaningofimprovisationisbasicallythesameineveryfield:itisprocessofspontaneouscreation(Çalışlar1995).Indrama,improvisationisdefinedasexploringun-anticipatedissuesandeventsspontaneously(Aslan2007).Inimprovisation,noneoftherisksofcommunicationandbehaviorintherealworldarepresent.Theactivityisenjoyableandmeaningfulandalsodoesnotthreatentheparticipatingstudent’spersonality.Thisroleplayinginimprovisationwill“buildupself-confidenceratherthandamageit”(Ladousse1992,p.5).Thistechniqueisusedacrossthecontinuumofdramaticactivitytodeveloptextandaction,includinginhighly-structureddramaticepisodes,toexploreissuesandtosolveproblems.Improvisationindrama,asBrownandPlaydell(1999)stated,is“highlyspontaneous,withlittleguidancefromtheteacherotherthantheinitialdescriptionofthecharacter(s)orsituation”(ibid.,p.30).

AccordingtoMcGregoretal.(1977),improvisationinvolvesstudents“makinganimaginativeleapfromtheiractualsituationorrolesintoasupposedone”(ibid.,p.11),allowingthemtoenteraroleasiftheyarethatperson.Thesafetyofknowingthattheyarenot,andthattheycanwithdrawfromthesituationshouldtheywishto,allowsthemtoentermorefullyintothedrama,experimentingwithattitudesandreactionsdifferentfromtheirown(Somers1995).Furthermore,improvisationinvolvesspontaneousinteractioninanimaginedsituation,whileroleplayisatypeofimprovisationinwhichchildrenmake-believetheyaresomeoneelse(Moore1988,p.109).Improvisationalandroleplayingactivitiesrangefromquick-pacedinteractions,whichHeathcoteandBolton(1994)describeas“short-sharp-shock”(ibid.,p.46),tomorecomplexdecision-makingandproblem-solvingdilemmasinwhichchildrenidentifywithandcommittosituationsandcharacters.

In improvisation, inorderto identifythesituation,charactersandflowexplainedbyD.Heathcote(1982)andothers,participantsactivelyandimaginatively

58 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2014 GökçenÖzbek

engagewithsomeorallofthefollowingquestions:who(e.g.achild,aclown,agroupoftourists);what(e.g.climbingamountain,eatingasandwich,sweepingthefloor);where(e.g.atafootballmatch,inafairytale);when(e.g.inthepast,inthehere-and-now,inthefuture);why(e.g.drivenbyemotionssuchasloveoranger,bymotivationtosucceed,tomeetachallengeorbycircumstance,suchasconfinement,power,poverty)andhow(e.g.strategiesforachievingthegoal,suchasworkingalone,inpairsorinagrouporusingarangeoftechniques,i.e.cooperating,bargainingandcompromising)(Poston-Anderson2008).

Anotherusefultechniqueisdramatization,whichmeansre-enactingastoryusingdramaticelementsandforms.Storydramatization,storydramaanddramaticretellingarealltermsthathavebeenusedtorefertodramatizingstories.Whenstoriesaredramatized,childrencanmakeuptheirownoriginaltaleandshowitthroughactionratherthantellingit;theycanparticipatebyprovidingsoundeffectsormimingactionsassomeoneelsetellsastoryortheycanre-enactastoryafterithasbeentoldtothem(McGregoryetal.1977).

Anotherwell-knowntechniqueindramaisgame–theuseofstructuredplayinadramacontextforavarietyofpurposes.Traditionalgamesorvariationsareusedtoestablishtrust,confidenceorrules;gamesareselectedtosimplifyacomplexexperienceorgamesareputintothecontextofdramaratherthanplayedfortheirownsake.Usingagameasatechniqueindramahaslotsofopportunities.Firstofall,gamesarehighlycontrolledactivitiesandplayersmustsubmittotherules(Neelands1990).McGregoryetal.(1977)describesomeofthefeaturesofgamesthus:enjoyable,funactivities,usedtohighlighttensioninsocialsituations,usefulforbreakingtheiceandgettingtoknowpeopleandhelpfulforrevealingthegamestructuresinreal-lifesituations,i.e.blocking,hidinganddeceiving.

Application of Drama in the Classroom

Drama,asalreadyexplainedinthispaper, isbasedondramaticactivitywherephysicalandmentalinvolvement,oftenthroughimprovisation,roleplayandgames,createssituationsinwhichthepossibilitiesoflifecanbeexplored.Whenweputdramaintotheserviceofeducation,itmeansthatwepickthecontentofthedramafromcurricularsubjectsandthegoalsfromthecurriculum.Therefore,whichcontentissuitablefordramainschoolsandwhichcurriculargoalsandobjectivesareachievablethroughthemethodofdrama?

Althoughthe ideasbehindcontentselection fordramavary, itmaybemeaningfultoconsideritfromaninstructionalperspective.Whendecidingcontent,thedramateacherplaysanimportantrole.Theuseofdramarequiresfromteachersaspecialknowledgeabouthowtoapplyittotheselectedcontentandhowtoplantheprocess.Itisnecessarytoknowthefeaturesofdramaticcontextsandbuildaneducationalenvironmentinwhichstudentscansolveproblemsthroughactivetechniqueslikeimprovisation,roleplaying,still image,MoEandsoon.Afterapplyingthisknowledgeeffectively,asBolton(1984)stated,contentthatallowschildrentodiscussdifferentopinionsandexperiencedifferenceperspectiveswithauniversalunderstandingcanbeselected.

Dramaineducation:keyconceptualfeatures 59

AsWard(1957)highlighted,itisthequestionof“theworthofthecontent,”because,forexample,teachingbasicmathematicalcalculationslike“2+2=4”withdramawouldbetime-consumingifweconsiderthecurricularobjectivesstudentsandteachershavetoachieve.Inthatsense,itmaybeusefulfortheteachertoaskhim/herselfwhichmethodologyismoreeffectiveregardingtime,energy,outcomeandpermanence.Dramaisapowerfultoolforteachingandlearningthroughsupplyinganenjoyable,creativelearningenvironmentwhichfostersdiscoveryandprovideslong-lastingknowledge(BoltonandHeathcote1994),althoughneithertheplanningnortheapplicationofdramaticmethodsaretimeeffective.

Regardingthis,mostcontemporarydramapractitionersprefertousedramaticcontextstochallengestudents’perceptionsabouttheirworldandaboutthemselves.Ethicalissues,valueeducationandtopicslikediscrimination,alienation,othering,prejudiceandmarginalgroupscanbeproductiveandmemorablecontentforchildrentoexplorethroughdrama.Inadditiontothese,war,biographiesofimportantpeople,distinctiveeventsintheworldsceneordramaticstoriesofordinarypeoplecanbediscussedwithstudentsinaproblem-solvingenvironment.Forcurriculargoalslikedevelopingawareness,supportingpersonalityandimprovingempathy,learningthroughdramaisperceivedasaneffectivemethod.Furthermore,itisimportanttoaddthatdramaclassesrequireanemptyandcomfortablespacewherestudentscanmovefreely,ratherthanplacesfullofbenches,andtheyalsorequireateachingattitudewhichisalittlebitdifferentfromthetraditionalview.Teachersshouldbeabletotakearoleinthedramaprocessandattendactivelytotheirstudents’creations.

Conclusion

Inthispaper,whilepresentingthecharacteristicsofdrama,aneclecticapproachhasbeenfollowedinordertoexplorethedramaticcontext.Dramahasbeenpresentedbothasaneffectiveandanindispensabletoolforeducation,aswellasagreatchancetosupportpersonaldevelopment.Itcanbeusedtocreatealearningenvironmentwhere,whileparticipants’uniquenessisthemainconcern,afocusremainsongroupcreationandworkingcooperativelytodiscovernewthingsandtocreatemeaningsabouttheworld.Moreover,itisimportantbewell-informedaboutdramapracticesinordertoapplythemaspartofateacher’sdidacticstrategies.Thepractitionershouldbeknowledgeableaboutdramaticcontexts,thetechniquesofdramaandtheplanningprocessinordertoachievetheintendedoutcomes.Withappropriatecurriculardecisionsandknowledgeaboutdrama,dramaticmethodscanholdanessentialplaceintheclassroom.

References

Aslan,N.(1999).Çocuklar,eğitimveyaratıcıdrama.In:N.Aslan(ed.).Türkiye 1. Drama Liderleri Buluşması. Ankara:FersaMatbaacılık,pp.14–16.

60 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2014 GökçenÖzbek

Aslan,N.(2007).Dramadadörttemelkavram,dörttemelteknik:roloyunu,doğaçlama,dra-matizasyonveoyun.In:N.Aslan(ed.).Drama kavramları.Ankara:OluşumYayınları,pp.35–39.

Aries,P.(1973).L’Enfant et la vie familiale sous l’Ancien Régime.Paris:Seuil.Blatner,A.(2006).Considering the Underlying Rationale for Using Interactive and Impro-

visational Drama.Retrievedfromhttp://www.interactiveimprov.com/whydramawb.html(Accessedon10.01.2014).

Bolton,G.(1979).Towards a theory of drama in education.London:Longman.Bolton,G.(1984).Drama as education: an argument for placing drama at the center of the

curriculum.London:Longman.Bolton,G.(1986).Gavin Bolton selected writings on drama in education.London:Longman.Bolton,G.(1998).Acting in classroom drama.London:TrenthamBooks.Bowell,P.andHeap,B.S.(2001).Planning process drama.London:DavidFultonPublishers.Bower,G.H.andHilgard,E.R.(1981).Theories of learning.EnglewoodCliffs:Prentice-Hall.Brandau,B.andSchickert,H.(2004).Hititler: bilinmeyen bir dünya imporatorluğu.Ankara:

ArkadaşYayınevi.Brown,V.andPleydell,S.(1999).The dramatic difference:drama in the preschool and kin-

dergarten classroom.UnitedStates:HeinemannCarey,S.(1985).Conceptual change in childhood.Cambridge,MA:MITPress/BradfordBooks.Courtney,R.(1974).Play, drama and thought.NewYork:DramaBooks.Courtney,R.(1980). The dramatic curriculum. NewYork:Dramabookspecialists.Courtney,R.(1989).Play, drama and thought.Toronto:SimonandPierre.Cowley,S.(2007).Getting the buggers into drama.London:Continuum.Çalışlar,A.(1995).Tiyatro ansiklopedisi.Ankara:TürkTarihKurumuBasımevi.Dewey,J.(2008).The child and the curriculum.NewYork:CosimoInc.Elias,M.(2007).Emotion in education.Orlando:FullSailUniversity.Entwistle,N.J.andHounsell,D.J. (1975).How students learn.Bailrigg:Universityof

Lancaster.Erion,P.(1996).Drama in the classroom.California:LostCoastPress.Fischer-Lichte,E.andRiley,J.(2004). History of European Drama and Theatre.NewYork:

Routledge.Fleming,M.(1995).Starting drama teaching.London:DavidFultonPublishers.Heathcote,D.(1967).Improvisation.In:L.JohnsonandC.O’Neill(eds.).Dorothy Heathcote:

Collected writings on education and drama.London:Hutchinson,pp.44–48.Heathcote,D.(1971).Subjectorsystem?In:N.DoddandW.Hickson(eds.).Drama and

theatre in education.London:Heinemann,pp.42–62.Heathcote,D.(1978).Excellenceinteaching.In:L.JohnsonandC.O’Neill(eds.).Dorothy

Heathcote: Collected writings on education and drama.London:Hutchinson,pp.90–102.Heathcote,D.(1982).Signsandportents?SCYPT Journal,9,pp.18–28.Heathcote,D.andBoltonG.(1994).Drama for Learning. Dorothy Heathcote’s mantle of expert

approach to education.Portsmouth:Heinemann.Heathcote,D.andHerbert,P.(1985).ADramaofLearning:MantleofExpert.Theory into

Practice,24,issue3,pp.173–180.Heinig,R.B.andStillwell,L.(1981).Creative drama for the classroom teacher.NewJersey:

Prentice-Hall.

Dramaineducation:keyconceptualfeatures 61

Henry,M.(2000).Drama’swaysoflearning.Research in Drama Education.5,issue1,pp.45–62.

Kase-Polisini,J.(1989). The creative drama book: three approaches. NewOrleans:Anchorage.Kroflič,R.(2011). Theroleofartisticexperiencesinthecomprehensiveinductiveeducational

approach. Pastoral care in education, 30,issue3,pp.263–280.Ladousse,G.P.(1992).Role play. HongKong:OxfordUniversityPress.Lewin,K.(1936).Principle of topological psychology.NewYork:McGrawHill.McGregor,L.,Robinson,K.andTate,M.(1977).Learning through drama.London:Heinemann.Malczewski,C.L.(1988).Toward a theory of ownership in the dramatic process.Victoria:

UniversityofVictoria.Moore,P.(1988).When are we going to have more drama? SouthMelbourne:ThomasNelson. Neelands,J.(1990).Structuring drama work: A handbook of available forms in theatre and

drama.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Olaf,M.(2004).A Brief Biography of Dr. Maria Montessori.Retrievedfromhttp://www.

michaelolaf.net/1CW312MI.html#Method(Accessedon13.01.2014).O’Neill,C.(1995).Drama worlds: A framework for process drama.Portsmouth:Heinemann.O’Neill,C.andLambert,A.(1982).Drama structures: A practical handbook for teachers.

London:Hutchinson.Piaget,J.(1962).Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. NewYork:NortonandCo.,Inc.Platon.(2005).Devlet.Istanbul:RemziKitabevi.Poston-Anderson,B.(2008).Drama: learning connections in primary schools.Oxford:Oxford

UniversityPress.Rousseau,J.J.(1984).Emile.London:J.M.Dent&Sons.Sağlam,T.(1997).Eğitimdedrama.In:İ.San(ed.).VI. Uluslararası Eğitimde Drama Semi-

neri, Drama Maske Müze. Ankara:ÇağdaşDramaDerneği,pp.33–35.Sağlam,T.(2006).GavinBoltondrama–art–learning.Creative Drama Journal, 1,issue

2,pp.64–66.Slade,P.(1954).Child Drama. England:UniversityofLondonPress.Somers,J.(1995). Drama in the curriculum. London:CassellEducational.Suizzo,M.A.(2000).Thesocial-emotionalandculturalcontextsofcognitivedevelopment:

Neo-Piagetianperspective.Child Development, 71,issue4,pp.846–849.Taylor,P.M.(1992).Our adventure of experiencing:Drama structure and action research in

a grade seven social studies classroom.NewYork:SchoolofEducation,Health,NursingandArtsProfession,NewYorkUniversity.

Turner,V.(1982).From ritual to theater. NewYork:PerformingArtsJournalPress.Vygotsky,L. (1978).Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.

Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.Wagner,B.(1985).Evaluatingthewrittenwordthroughthespoken:DorothyHeathcoteand

agroupof9–to13-year-oldsasmonks.Theory into Practice,24,issue3,pp.166–172.Ward,W.(1957).Playmaking for children.NewYork:Appleton-Century-Crofts.Way,B.(1968).Development through drama.London:Longman.Wessels,C.(1987).Drama.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Wright,L.(1985).Preparingteacherstoputdramaintheclassroom.Theory into Practice,

25,issue3,pp.205–209.