critical pedagogy and teacher education · principles that, interwoven into teacher education...

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Teacher Education Quarterly, Winter 2004

Critical Pedagogyand Teacher Education:

Radicalizing Prospective Teachers

By Lilia I. Bartolomé

ThetaskofsuccessfullypreparingteachersintheUnitedStatetoeffectivelyworkwith an ever-increasing culturally and linguistically diverse student bodyrepresentsapressingchallengeforteachereducators.Unfortunately,muchofthispracticeofequippingprospectiveteachersforworkingwithlearnersfromdifferentbackgroundsrevolvesaroundexposingthesefutureeducatorstowhatareperceivedasthebestpracticalstrategiestoensuretheacademicandlinguisticdevelopmentoftheirstudents.Gainingaccesstoandactivelycreatingmethodsandmaterialsfortheclassroomiscertainlyanimportantsteptowardseffectiveteaching.However,thispracticalfocusfartoooftenoccurswithoutexaminingteachers’ownassumptions,values,andbeliefsandhowthisideologicalpostureinforms,oftenunconsciously,their perceptions and actions when working with linguistic-minority and otherpolitically,socially,andeconomicallysubordinatedstudents. “Ideology”isusedheretorefertotheframeworkofthoughtconstructedand

Lilia I. Bartolomé is an associate professor in the Applied Linguistics Graduate Program at the University of Massachusetts, Boston.

heldbymembersofasocietytojustifyorrationalizeanexistingsocialorder.AsAntoniaDarder,RodolfoTorresandMartaBaltodano(2002)pointout,whatisimportantis

thatideologybeunderstoodasexistingatthedeep,embeddedpsychologicalstructuresofthepersonality.Ideologymoreoftenthannotmanifestsitselfintheinnerhistoriesandexperiencesthatgiverise

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toquestionsofsubjectivityastheyareconstructedbyindividualneeds,drives,andpassions,aswellasthechangingmaterialconditionsandsocialfoundationsofasociety.(p.13)

Inthispaper,Idiscusstheimportanceofinfusingteachereducationcurriculawithcriticalpedagogicalprinciplesinordertoprepareeducatorstoaggressivelynameandinterrogatepotentiallyharmfulideologiesandpracticesintheschoolsandclassroomswheretheywork.Imaintainthatteachersneedtodeveloppoliticalandideologicalclarityinordertoincreasethechancesofacademicsuccessforallstudents.IalsoarguethatitisimperativethattheseeducatorsinstillintheirstudentsinK-12publicschoolsthesamekindofcriticalconsciousnessthatenablesthemtoreadandactupontheworldaroundthem. “Politicalclarity”referstotheongoingprocessbywhichindividualsachieveever-deepeningconsciousnessofthesociopoliticalandeconomicrealitiesthatshapetheirlivesandtheircapacitytotransformsuchmaterialandsymbolicconditions.Italsoreferstotheprocessbywhichindividualscometounderstandthepossiblelinkagesbetweenmacro-levelpolitical,economic,andsocialvariablesandsubor-dinatedgroups’academicperformanceinthemicro-levelclassroom(Bartolomé,1994).“Ideologicalclarity” refers to theprocessbywhich individuals struggleto identifyandcompare theirownexplanations for theexistingsocioeconomicandpoliticalhierarchywiththedominantsociety’s.Thejuxtaposingofideologiesshouldhelpteacherstobetterunderstandif,when,andhowtheirbeliefsystemsuncriticallyreflectthoseofthedominantsocietyandthusmaintainunequalandwhatshouldbeunacceptableconditionsthatsomanystudentsexperienceonadailybasis(Bartolomé,2000). Oneeffectivewaytoensurethatpre-serviceteachersbegintodevelopandincreasetheirpoliticalandideologicalclarityisbyhavingteachereducationclass-roomsexplicitlyexplorehowideologyfunctionsasitrelatestopower.Itisalsoimportantforprospectiveteachers toexaminethepoliticalandculturalrolethatcounter-hegemonicresistancecanservetocontestandtransformtheexclusionary,harmful,andfundamentallyundemocraticvaluesandbeliefsthatinformdominanteducationalpracticesintheUnitedStates.Inwhatfollows,Ifirstexplainwhyitisnecessaryforteachereducatorstorecognize,betterunderstand,andchallengetheideologicaldimensionsofprospectiveteachers’beliefsandattitudestowardsub-ordinatedstudents.Next,IshareresearchresultsfrommyworkatRiverviewHighSchoolthatillustratethepowerfulpotentialofteachers’whocriticallyunderstandtheideologicalandmaterialobstaclesfacedbyyouthinschools,andtheirproactiveresponsesasdefendersoftheirstudents.Finally,Iidentifykeycriticalpedagogicalprinciplesthat,interwovenintoteachereducationcourseworkandfieldexperiences,havethepotentialtohelpdevelopinprospectiveteachers,muchliketheteachersinmyresearchstudy,theabilitytoassumecounter-hegemonicstancessoastocreatea“moreequalplayingfield”forallstudents.

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Changing Demographics and the Clashing of Ideologies Thedramaticincreaseinlow-income,non-Whiteandlinguistic-minoritystu-dentsinU.S.publicschoolssignalstheurgentneedtounderstandandchallengetheideologicalorientationsofprospectiveteachersinteachereducationprograms.OnecurrentchallengeistoadequatelypreparetheoverwhelminglyWhite,female,andmiddle-classpre-serviceteacherpopulationtoworkwiththesestudentsastheyarequicklybecomingthemajorityinmanyofthelargesturbanpublicschoolsinthecountry(Gomez,1994).Whilethenation’sschoolpopulationismadeupofapproximately40percentminoritychildren,nearly90percentofteachersareWhite(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,1992).Inaddition,thesocialclassdiffer-encesbetweenteachersandstudentscontinuetogrow.Forexample,44percentofAfrican-Americanchildrenand36percentofLatinochildrenliveinpoverty,andyetincreasinglyteachersarecomingfromWhitelower-middleandmiddle-classhomesandhavebeenraisedinruralandsuburbancommunities(Zimpher,1989).Therearealsosignificantdifferences in teacher-student languagebackgrounds.Despitethefactthatby1994therewerealreadyapproximately5to7.5millionnon-nativeEnglish-speakingstudentsinpublicschoolsaroundthecountry—anumberthathascontinuedtorise—themajorityofteachersintheU.S.aremonolingualEnglishspeakers. Giventhesocialclass,racial,cultural,andlanguagedifferencesbetweenteach-ersandstudents,andoursociety’shistoricalpredispositiontoviewculturallyandlinguisticallydiversestudentsthroughadeficitlensthatpositionsthemaslessintel-ligent,talented,qualified,anddeserving,itisespeciallyurgentthateducatorscriticallyunderstandtheirideologicalorientationswithrespecttothesedifferences,andbegintocomprehendthatteachingisnotapoliticallyorideologicallyneutralundertaking.Itisalsoimportanttoacknowledgethatminorityacademicunderachievementandhigh‘dropout’,suspensionandexpulsionratescannotbeaddressedinprimarilymethodologicalandtechnicaltermsdislodgedfromthematerial,social,andideologi-calconditionsthathaveshapedandsustainedsuchfailurerates.

What We Know about Teachers’ Ideological Orientations Increasingteachers’ideologicalawarenessandclarityrequiresthateducatorscompareandcontrasttheirpersonalexplanationsofthewidersocialorderwiththosepropagatedbythedominantsociety.Unfortunately,transformingeducators’consciousandunconsciousbeliefsandattitudesregardingthelegitimacyofthedominantsocialorderandoftheresultingunequalpowerrelationsamongculturalgroupsattheschoolandclassroomlevelhas,byandlarge,historicallynotbeenacknowledged in mainstream teacher education programs as a significant steptowardsimprovingtheeducationalprocessesforandoutcomesoflow-SES,non-White,andlinguistic-minoritystudents. Howevermoreprogressiveliteratureonteachereducationsuggeststhatpro-

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spectiveteachers,regardlessoftheirethnicbackground,tendtouncriticallyandoftenunconsciouslyholdbeliefsandattitudesabouttheexistingsocialorderthatreflectdominantideologiesthatareharmfultosomanystudents(Bloom,1991;Davis,1994;Freire,1997,1998a,1998b;Gomez,1994;Gonsalvez,1996;Haber-man,1991;Macedo,1994;Sleeter,1992).Furthermore,theseeducatorstendtoseethesocialorderasafairandjustone.JohnFarley(2000)explainsthatonedominantideologicalbelief—thatBlacksandLatinosareresponsiblefortheirowndisadvantages—“appearsdeeplyrootedinanAmericanideologyofindividualism,abeliefthateachindividualdetermineshisorherownsituation”(p.66).Whenpeoplebelievethatthesystemisfair,thatis,thatAfricanAmericansandLatinoshavethesameopportunityasWhiteAmericans,theywillusuallydotwothings:1) theyblame theminorities themselves foranydisadvantages theyexperienceratherthanblamingWhiteracismorotheroppressiveaspectsofthesystem;and2)theyopposepoliciesdesignedtoincreaseminorityopportunitiessuchasbilingualeducationandaffirmativeaction. Prospectiveandexperiencededucatorsalikeoftenresenthavingtotakecoursesthatchallengesomeofthedominantideologiestheyunconsciouslyhold(Gonsalvez,1996).Interestinglyenough,evenwhenteachersrecognizethatcertainminoritygroupshavehistoricallybeeneconomicallyworseoff,haveacademicallyunder-achieved,andhavehighermortalityratesthanWhites,theirexplanationsforsuchinequalitiesareusuallyunderdevelopedornonexistent(Bartolomé,1998;King,1991). Unfortunately,thislackofpoliticalandideologicalclarityoftentranslatesintoteachersuncriticallyacceptingthestatusquoas“natural”.Italsoleadseducatorsdownanassimilationistpathtolearningandteaching,ratherthanaculturallyre-sponsive,integrative,andtransformativeone,andperpetuatesdeficit-basedviewsoflow-SES,non-White,andlinguistic-minoritystudents.Educatorswhodonotidentifyandinterrogatetheirnegative,racist,andclassistideologicalorientationsoftenworktoreproducetheexistingsocialorder(Bartolomé,1998;Bloom,1991).Even teacherswhosubscribe to the latest teachingmethodologiesand learningtheoriescanunknowinglyenduppervertingandsubvertingtheirworkbecauseofunacknowledgedandunexamineddysconsciousracism(King,1991)andotherdiscriminatorytendencies. Recentliteratureoneffectiveteachersofminoritystudentsdescribestheteach-ersascaring,knowledgeableandskilledpractitioners.Theresearchalsoalludestotheteachers’abilitytorecognizethesubordinatestatusaccordedtolowSESandnon-Whitestudentsanddescribestheteachers’effortstovalidatetheculturesandidentities of children in school (Beauboeuf, 1997; Garcia, 1991; Howard, 2000;Ladson-Billings,2000;Nieto,2000a,2000b).However,muchofthisliteraturestopsshortofnamingteachers’beliefsandattitudesas“ideology”andinsteadtreatsthesedispositionsasindividuallymotivatedandthusapoliticalconstructs. Inthesectionthatfollows,IsharetheresultsofastudyIconductedwitha

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colleague(Bartolome&Balderrama,2001)thatcaptureshowsometeachersfigureoutthatteachingisnotanapoliticalundertaking,developacriticalunderstandingofhowasymmetricalpowerrelationsplayoutinschools,anddevisestrategiesontheirstudents’behalfforshort-circuitingpotentialinequalitiestheymayexperience.Thoughtheteachersstudiedvaryintermsoftheirpersonalpoliticalorientations(theyself-identifiedacrosstheconservative-liberalspectrum)andthedegreetowhichtheyengageincriticalformsofeducation,theseeducatorssharesomeim-portantcounter-hegemonicbeliefstodominantoppressivepractices,astrongsenseofstudentadvocacy,aswellasacommitmenttocreatingmorejustandhumaneschoolingconditionsfortheirstudents.Inthispaper,Inotonlydescribetheirefforts,butIalsoworktoexpandthembyofferingcriticalpedagogicalinsightsintendedtocompoundandmagnifytheirsuccess.

The Study

Riverview High School The educators interviewed for this research project all work at RiverviewHighSchool(pseudonymshavebeenusedforthenamesofallparticipantsandtheschool).Thishighschoolhasbeeninexistencefor100yearsandislocatedinthecoastalsouthernCaliforniacommunityofRanchoNacional,approximately18milesnorthoftheMexicanboarder. RiversideHighSchoolhasanimpressiveacademictrackrecordoverthepasttwodecades.In1994,RedbookMagazinerecognizeditasa“BestHighSchool”,andin1996theschoolwasnameda“CaliforniaDistinguishedSchool”.Inaddi-tion,approximately70percentofeachgraduatingclassattendeithercommunityorfour-yearcollegesandreceivemillionsofdollarsinscholarshipmonies.Fur-thermore,pastresearchoneffectiveschoolshasincludedRiverviewinitssample(foranexampleofthisresearch,seeLucas,Henze&Donato,1990). RiverviewHighSchool isculturallyandlinguisticallydiverse.Thestudentenrollmentis70percentMexicano/Latino,and8percentFilipinoAmerican.Thedescriptor“Mexicano/Latino”isusedherebecausehistoricallytheLatinopopu-lationinRiversidehasbeenpredominantlyofMexicanancestry.However,IalsowanttoacknowledgethoseLatinostudentswhomaynotbeofMexicanancestry.Atthesametime,theterm“Mexicano”isutilizedinsteadofthemorecommonMexicanAmericanorChicanobecauseasignificantnumberofthesestudentsarefirst-generationAmericansorrecentimmigrants.TherestofthestudentbodyismadeupofsmallernumbersofWhites,AfricanAmericans,andPacificIslanders.Inaddition,62percentofallRiverviewstudentscomefromhomeswherealanguageotherthanEnglishisspoken(themajoritybeingSpanish-speakers).Accordingtoschoolrecords,non-EnglishandlimitedEnglishproficientstudentscomprise23percentofthecurrentenrollment(RiverviewHighSchoolProfileInformation,1996).Theschooloffersregularandhonors-levelcoursesinbilingual(English/Spanish)

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andshelteredinstructionalsettingsaswellasbilingualcounselingservices(Eng-lish,Spanish,andTagalog)forstudentsnotproficientinEnglish.ThemajorityofRiverviewstudentscomefromlow-incomehomesthatreceivefederalassistanceandarethuseligibleforfreenutritionandlunchservices.

The Four Exemplary Educators FourRiverviewHighSchooleducators,identifiedasexemplarybyadministra-torsandcolleagues,wereinvitedtodiscusstheirexperienceswithMexicano/Latinostudents(andotherlowSES,non-white,andlinguistic-minoritystudents)andhowtoeffectivelypreparethemacademically.Thefoureducatorsrangedinexperience(8to25years)andconsistedof:oneWhite,femaleprincipal,Dr.Peabody;oneChicano,historyteacher,Mr.Tijerina;oneWhite,femaleEnglishteacher,Mrs.Cortland;andoneWhite,malemathteacher,Mr.Broadbent.Theeducatorsweresimilarinage(midtolate50s).Twooftheteacherstaughtexclusivelyorprimar-ily inEnglishandMr.TijerinahadexperienceinbothEnglishmainstreamandEnglish-Spanishclassroomsettings. Theinterviewprotocolconsistedofopen-endedquestionsintendedtoelicitteacherexplanationsandviewsabouttheirownexperienceswithandbeliefsaboutlow-SES,non-White,andlinguistic-minoritystudentsandfactorsrelatedtoedu-catingthem.Inaddition,myresearchassociateandIaskedtheseeducatorsabouttheirpersonalhistoriesandthelifejourneysthatledthemtoteaching.Theywerealsoaskedtodescribetheirpersonalschoolexperiencesasstudentsaswellastheirexperienceswithnon-Whitepeoplegrowingup.Additionally,weaskedthemtodiscusstheirteacherpreparationexperiences,theircurrentteachingatRiverview,theirconceptionsofeffectiveteaching,aswellastheirexplanationsforRiverviewHigh’stoutedeffectiveness.

Awareness of Asymmetrical Power Relations Thepreliminaryfindingssuggestthat,ingeneral,theeducatorsinterviewedattributetheacademicandsocialsuccessoftheirstudentstotheschoolpersonnel’sabilitytocreateandsustainacaring,justandlevelplayingfield—a“comfortzone”astheycallit—forlearnerswhohavehistoricallynotbeentreatedwellineducationalinstitutionsorinthegreatersociety.Theteachers,albeittodifferentdegrees,questionparticulardominantideologiessuchasmeritocraticexplanationsoftheexistingsocialorder,andtheyrejectdeficitviewsoftheirstudents.TheyalsogenerallyresistromanticizedandWhitesupremacistviewsofWhite,middle-class(mainstream)culture.Inaddition,theparticipantsreporthavingengagedinwhatIlabelas“culturalbordercrossing”wheretheypersonallyexperiencedbeingpositionedaslowstatus,orwitnessedsomeoneelse’ssubordination.Thefourthandfinalfindingofthisstudysuggeststhattheeducatorsseethemselvesasculturalbrokersoradvocatesfortheirstudentsandperceivethisaspectoftheirworkaskeyinhelpingtheirstudentsfigureouttheschoolcultureinordertosucceedtherein.

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“There is no equal playing field” —Questioning Meritocratic Explanations of the Social Order

Acrossinterviews,theeducatorsquestionedthevalidityofmeritocracy—themyththatyougetaheadsimplybyvirtueofyourhardworkandtalents—aswellasthe“meritocratic”explanationoftheexistingsocialorderthatworkstojustifywhyMexicanos/Latinosandotherminoritiesareatthe“bottom”andWhitesareonthe“top”oftheacademic,socioeconomic,andpoliticalladder.Forexample,Mr.BroadbentexplainedthatMexican-Americanacademicfailurecouldbepartlycounteredifteacherssomehowgettheirworking-classstudentstosee“howtheotherhalflives”andquestiontheir“lotinlife.”Hemadethepointthatlifeisnotfairandthatthosemostcapable,oftenbecauseofworking-classlimitations,arenotexposedtotheoutsideworldand,asaresult,oftendonotfeelconfidentenoughto“grabforit.”Hepointedoutthatoftensuchopportunitiesarenotbasedonmeritorability,butratheronsheerluck.Mr.Broadbentsharedthathadhisfathernotbeenmovedupfromenlistedmantoofficer,hetoomightnot“havebeenpushedbysomeonewhohadseenit”—thegoodlife:

Hewasn’tacollegegraduate,buthegotatasteofthebetterlifewhenhewasinthearmyafterthewar…hegotraisedupfromanenlistedmantoanofficer…andsohesawhowtheotherhalflived.

Heattributedhisfather’scareerascensiontoaflukeofgoodluck.Mr.Broadbentpointedoutthatkids,throughnofaultoftheirown,areoftenputintoadisadvan-tagedpositionunlessconcertedeffortsaremadeto“leveltheplayingfield.”Hesharedthat,asamathteacher,heconstantlytalkstostudentsaboutcollegeandimmediatecareersthatrequiremathematicalexpertisesothattheycanbegintothinkabouttheirlifeopportunitiesbeyondhighschool. WhileMr.Broadbent’sanalysisoftheproblemsfacinghisstudentsisbynomeansradicalinitsassessment—morecriticalformsofeducationwouldcallforaddressingwithstudentshowsocialclassisastructureofcapitalistsocialrelations,andthusasystemicinequity—heisnonethelesssuccessfulwithhisdisenfranchisedstudentsbecauseheacknowledgestosomedegree(evenifhistheoryislimitedtoluckandalackofexposure)thatthereisaproblem. Mrs.Cortlandalsoquestionedthemeritocraticnotionofsuccessandachievementofthe“mostable,”particularlyascommonlysubscribedtoinschools.Shecitedanincidentduringwhichthevocalmusicchoirsheadviseswasalmosteliminatedfromacompetitionbecause“they[couldn’t]affordtocompete.”Mrs.Cortlandexplainedthatherstudentgroup,“AnInternationalAffair”(self-namedbecauseofitsdiversemake-up),received“superior”scoresatlocalandcountycompetitions.Basedontheirsuperiorcountyscores,thegroupwasinvitedtocompeteinafestivalheldinLasVegas.Sheexplainedthatinordertocompete,thestudentswererequiredtoraisefunds;shewrylynotedthatinamoreaffluentpartofthedistrict,parentshadrecentlyheldagolftournamentandraisedmorethan$30,000fortheirchildren’s

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triptoAustralia.Shejuxtaposedthatrealitywiththefundraisingobstaclesfacedbyherworking-classRiverviewstudents:

Aswebegantodothefundraising,Inoticedthatthekids—amonthbeforeitwastimetogo—knewwewerenowherenearthe[needed]amountofmoney.ThenIthought,“Well,we’regoing!Itdoesn’tmatter;we’regoingbecausewesaidweweregoing!”Buttheybegantocomeupwithalltheseexcuses,“Well,mymomdoesn’treallywantmetogo”or“Ihavetowork”….SoIsaid,“No!Moneyisnottheissue.Iwillfindsponsorsforallthesekids.”Andso…thatsunkin,thatwewerenotgoingtobelimitedbecauseweliveinthethirteenthpoorestcityintheUnitedStates.Andforthemajorityofthesekids,Imeana$100is…that’sthegroceriesforthemonthfortheentirefamily!SowhenItooktheburdenawaysowecouldjustconcentrateondoingit,notonlydidwego,wewonfirstplace.Wewonthe“SpiritofLasVegasAward!”

Mrs.Cortlanddiscussed,atgreatlength,how“competitionrequiresmorethanmerit”andpointedoutthat“thelevelofexcellencecanonlybeassessedtothedirecttieithastothepocketbook.”However,sherefusedtogiveintotheconstraintsthatwereimposedonherstudentsbecauseoftheirracialandeconomicbackgroundsand fought to reveal the contradictions that inform current public educationalpractices:

AmIsupposedtotellthesekids,“You’reasgoodasyoucangetbutwecan’ttestyourexcellenceorallowyoutoevolveanyfurtherbecausewedon’thavethemoney.”No,weshouldn’thavetoworryaboutthatifthechargeinthecurriculumistocreatestudentswhomeetorexceedthe[standards].Thenitcan’tbetiedtotheeconomy,itcan’tbetiedtothecoloroftheirskinanditcan’tbetiedtowhetherornotthey’vehadthisexperiencebeforeintheirlives.

Similarly,Dr.Peabodyquestionedthemeritsystemassheacknowledgedthatracismisaveryrealobstacleinthelivesofherstudentsofcolor.Shereported,remindingWhiteteachersandpeersthat:

EvenifyouwereoppressedasanAnglo,beingpoororwhatever…whatIknowisthattheworstdayortheworstpartofallofthatisneveraschallengingas[thatencounteredby]aBlackpersonorBrownperson.Thatwholecolorissuebringsinawholedifferentthing.

Sheadmittedthatabigpartofherjobiscontinuouslytryingtochangetheracistlensesofsomeofherteachers.Dr.Peabodyexplainedthattherearen’ttoomanyteachersthatshewouldconsiderpurposelyracistandsheavoidsusingtheterm“racist”intheschoolcontextbecause“itisn’tthatthey’redeliberatelythatway.”Thisisn’tanattempttoactasanapologistforWhitepeople’sdiscriminatorybehavior.Rather,hercommentappearstorepresentamoreprofoundunderstandingofhowracismworksandthusamorestrategicwaytoconfrontit.Asanexample,shespokeofanincidentwheretheCaliforniaScholarshipFederationHonorSociety(CSF)advisordidnotencourageherstudentstoparticipateinadistrict-wideCSFschol-

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arshipcompetitionbecausetheadvisordidnotbelievethatherminoritystudentswerequalifiedtocompeteagainstWhitestudentsfrommoreaffluentschools.Dr.Peabodyrecalledthisincidentwithindignation:

Imeaneveryflaginmyheadjustwentoff….Ijustwentthroughtheceiling...that’sadeficitmodel,thatis—“Howcouldthesekidscompetewithanybodyelse?”

ShewentontodescribehowsheconfrontedtheteacherandusedCSFalumnicollegegraduationinformationtoprovetothisteacherjusthowqualifiedandoutstandingherminorityCSFstudentstrulywere. Theeducatorsinthissamplearticulatedtheirbeliefthatotherfactors,suchasracismandeconomicrestrictions,oftenassumegreaterimportancethanpuremeritandabilityintheirstudents’lives.Theyrelatethisrealityinamatteroffacttone,yettheydonotfallintonegativeordeterministicviewsoftheirstudents’lifechances.

“You have to love Brown [people]!” —Rejecting Deficit Views of Minority Students

Asecondbeliefsharedbytheseeducatorsistheirrejectionofdeficitviewsoftheirstudents.AsevidentintheabovestoryaboutMrs.Peabody’sexperiencewiththeCaliforniaScholarshipFederationHonorSociety(CSF)advisor,sheisveryawareofthedeficitmodelthat’sinplaceinschoolsandsheinsiststhatallstudentsbeencouragedtobetheirbestregardlessoftheirbackground.Mrs.Peabodywasdisgustedwiththepropositionthatherstudents,evenifgivenafairshake,couldn’tcompeteagainstWhitestudentsfrommoreaffluentcommunities. Mr.BroadbentstatedthatthereweremanypositiveaspectsofMexicanculturesuchasdemonstratingrespectforelders(apractice,inhisopinion,fastbecominguncommoninmainstreamAmericanculture)thathebelievedthestudentsshouldmaintain.Hediscussedtheimportanceofhelpinghisstudentsseethemselvesinapositivelightandlearnaboutmainstreamcultureinanefforttobetterthemselves.Whileexploringthedeficit-modelorientationanditsimplications,Mr.Broadbentde-emphasizedissuesofcultureandrace,andfocusedonsocialclass.Heexplainedthatthebeliefthatonecouldimproveone’sclassstatusiswhereself-esteem,con-fidence,andmotivationwouldcomefrom.Hearguedthatthisapproachtohelpinghisstudentswasn’tsomuchamatteroftryingtoassimilatethemintotheWhitemainstream—whichherecognizedashavingitsownflaws—asmuchasitisaboutintroducingthemtomiddle-classculture.Later,hementionedthat,becauseofhisownexperiencegrowing-upasaworking-classyouth,heidentifiedandfeltcomfortableteachingandmentoringworking-classRiverviewstudentswhohefeltwerenotdeficient,butrathereconomicallydeprived. Mr.Tijerinasimilarlydiscussedpositiveaspectsofmanyoftheculturespresentintheschool.HeemphasizedthehighlydesirablevaluesandwaysofbehavingthatMexicanos/Latinostendtobringtoschool.Hedescribedthesestudentsasgenerallyhardworking,family-oriented,anddesiroustoimprovetheirlotinlifeaswellas

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theirfamilies’.Hearguedthattheyare,however,unsureastohowtogoaboutthisandareofteninneedofteachers’guidance.However,unlikeMr.Broadbent’ssolefocusonsocioeconomicstatus,Mr.Tijerinatargetedissuesofethnicityandracismwhendiscussingdeficitbeliefsandobstaclesfacinghisstudents.HemaintainedthateffectiveteachersofMexicano/Latinostudentsandotherminoritieshavetobeconsciousoftheirownracistbeliefsandtendenciestoviewthekidsaslessthan,andtotrytomakethemlike,Whitestudents.Heexplainedthattobeeffectiveteachersofthesestudents,youhavetodiscarddeficitnotionsand“youhavetolikepeopleofcolor—youhavetoauthenticallylikedarkcolors,youhavetolovebrown!”Heelaborated:

Ithinkwehavethefeelinghere[atRiverview]thatminoritiesaren’tinferior.Ithinkthere’sadifferencebetweenthepatronizingthatgoesoninsomeschoolswheretheyreallythinkapersonisinferiortosomedegree,but“Hey,youcanmakeitifyoutryharder.”TheWhitepeoplehere,Idon’tthinktheyfeelthathere.Ithinkthattheyfeelthatourkidsareequal—theyhavethesamebrainsaskidsin[moreaffluentpredominantlyWhiteschoolssuchas]PlayaDoradaorBuenaVistaoranyplaceelse.Theydohavethesamebrains,onlythebackgroundisdefinitivelydisadvantaged...forlotsofreasons.

WhileMr.BroadbentemphasizedsocioeconomicstatusandMr.Tijerinafocusedonraceandethnicityintheirargumentsagainstdeficitperspectivesoflow-SES,non-Whitestudents,andlinguistic-minoritystudentsbothsharethecommonbeliefthattheacademicproblemsthatmanyofthesestudentshavearenotaresultoftheircultureorlanguage.Infact,theseeducatorsdistinguishedbetweentheveryrealeconomicallyandsociallyrestrictivelifecircumstancestheirstudentsliveandtheirstudents’innatepotential.Thetwoseemtobelievethattheirstudents“dohavethesamebrains”butthat,throughnofaultoftheirown,theyhaveexperienceddifficultlifeconditionswhichareoftenthedirectresultoflivinginpovertyandbeingdiscriminatedagainst.Theyseetheirstudents’chiefproblemasnothavingmoney,respect,andaccess.However,theydonotrestricttheirstudents’academicpotentialbecauseoftheirracialorlowsocioeconomicstanding. While this isextremely important, it isalsokey thateducators lookat therelationshipsbetweenracismandsocialclassstratificationsothatclassdoesnotobscuretheharmfuleffectsofracismandviceversa.ThisisparticularlyimportantforMr.Broadbent—beingWhite—asthelethalrolethatracismplaysinsocietyandinschoolsissooftenneglectedbyWhiteeducatorswhofocusmoreonissuesofsocialclass.ItisalsoimportantforMr.Tijerina—aChicano—tonotbypasseconomicsinpursuitoftheabusesofracismandethnocentrism.Whilenotconflat-ingraceandclass,thereisaninextricablelinkbetweenthesetwoconstructsthatneedstobefullyexploredbyeducators.

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“They play this game,‘all these [white and middle-class] students are smart and wonderful’”—

Interrogating Romanticized Views of Dominant Culture TheeducatorsinthisstudyrefusetoblindlyacceptdominantWhitecultureassuperiororhighlydesirabletoemulate.Theyquestionthesuperordinateandro-manticizedstatustypicallyconferredon“mainstream,”middle-class,Whiteculture.Mr.TijerinaexplainedthatheactuallypreferredworkingwithMexicano/LatinostudentsinsteadofthemoreaffluentWhitestudentsinotherschools:

Iwouldnotteachin[moreaffluentWhiteschoolssuchas]PlayaDoradaorBuenaVista.SeeIlikethesekidsandIdon’tthinkIwouldlikebeinginaWhiteschoolbecausethestudentsare,bymystandards,they’redisrespectful.Ithinkthey’remuyigualados.Muyigualadosisagoodwaytodescribethem.[“Igualado”,inMexicancolloquiallanguage,referstosomeonewhoisinasubordinatepositionbutactsasifequalorbettertoasuperior.Mr.Tijerina’sexamplerefersspecificallytostudentswhoassumeequalorsuperiorstatuswiththeirteachersinbehavingasequalscomeacrossasimproper,disrespectful,andimpolite.]Theyaremuyigualados,likeyouowethemand“You’reheretoteachme”…youknow,“Teachme,wepayyoursalary”kindofanattitude.Thekidshereare justvery,veryrespectfulandthey’reveryacceptingandtolerantofeachother.

HeemphasizedtheimportanceofmaintainingtraditionalMexicano/Latinoculturalvaluesandbeliefsystemsandincorporatingthemintothemainstreamhighschoolculture.Forexample,hementioned thatMexicano/Latinostudents,bycustom,demonstratetheirrespectforteachersandpeersbycordiallygreetingotherswhentheyencountertheminhallwaysandotherschoolsitesandhecomparedtheirbe-haviorwithhisobservationsofWhite,middle-classstudentswhohedescribesasoftenbeingrude,self-absorbed,andaccustomedtoignoringpeople. HealsomentionedthatMexicano/Latinostudents(andotherminoritystudents)tendtobemoreacceptingofdiversitythanWhitemainstreamyouth.HeprovidedasproofthefactthatRiverviewHighSchoolhousesthedistrictSpecialEduca-tionprogramandexplained thatMexicano/Latino studentshavepositively andaffectionatelyreceivedtheirSpecialEducationpeersintotheschoolunlikewhatusuallyoccursinotherschools. Mr.Tijerinaarguedthatmainstreammiddle-classWhiteculture(withitslackoffamilialloyaltyandoveremphasisonindividualism)wouldbenefittremendouslyifaspectsofMexicano/Latinoculturewereincorporatedintoit.Hesharedhisbeliefthatmanydimensionsofmiddle-classWhitecultureservetodehumanizepeopleandyetpromotetheerroneousandarrogantbeliefthatWhitesaresuperior.HestatedthatifthemainstreamcouldadopttraditionalMexicanvaluesofrespect,humility,andacceptanceofdifference,itmightbecomemorehumaneandreducethefeelingsofdisconnectionandalienationthatsomanyofitsownmembersfeel.Mr.TijerinaaddedthatthesehumanisticvaluesandworldviewsarealsopresentinotherculturalgroupsatRiverviewHighSchoolsuchasFilipinos,PacificIslanders,andtheVietnamese.

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BeliefsaboutthesuperiorityofWhite,middle-andupper-middle-classculturewerealsodebunkedbyMrs.Cortlandwhenshespokeofthehypocrisy,dishonesty,arrogance,anddisrespectfulbehavioroftenexhibitedbymanyoftheaffluentWhitestudentsshehadworkedwithinthepast.ShepointedoutthatwhileWhitestudents,theirparents,andtheirteacherslietothemselvesaboutjusthowsuperiortheyandtheirstudentsareincomparisontopoorer,non-Whitestudents,shefoundmanyofthemtobeseriouslylackinginimportanthumanqualitiessuchasrespectandempathyforothers.Mrs.Cortlandsharedherviewsregardingthe“psychologicalgame”thatsheobservedWhitepeopleplay:

They[thestudentsandtheirteachers]playedthis“game”—“Allthesestudentsaresmartandwonderful.”Andthekidswouldcomeandgo,“We’llpretendwearesmartandwonderful.”

Shealsosharedfirst-handexperiencesinteachingthistypeofstudentwhenshebegantosubstituteteachatthemostaffluentschoolinthedistrict,BuenaVistaHighSchool.Mrs.Cortlandhighlightedthecruelandinhumanreactionofthe“Anglokids”tothenewsthattheirteacherhadtakenillandwouldnotbereturningtoschool:

AndImean,theladyItookoverfor…Ithinkshehadanervousbreakdown.TheynevertoldmebutIwalkedinandthefirstclasswaswhattheycalled122Englishand [theywere] all…Anglokids. [When the assistantprincipal leftme in theclassroom],they[thestudents]allstoodontheirdesksandsang,“Ding-DongtheWitchisDead”andthoughtitwasfunny.

BothMrs.CortlandandMr.Tijerinaexplicitlychallengeandrejectromanti-cizedperceptionsofWhitemainstreamculture.Theirattitudeseemstobethatthey“knowbetter”thantobelieveunrealisticanduncriticalviewsofWhite,middle-classculture.Toooften,thenorminschoolsandinsocietyistocomparepoor,non-White,and linguistic-minority students to that invisible yet highly romanticized White,middle-classstandard.Theseeducatorsarenot impressedbynorbuyintomythsofWhitesuperiority,or,conversely,tomythsaboutMexicano/Latinoorworkingclassinferiority.Onthecontrary,theyveryrealisticallynametheinvisiblecenter—middle-class,Whiteculture—andtheypointoutnumerousundesirableaspectsofit.Assuchtheyareabletohelpstudentsmaintaintheirculturesandpreventtheiruncriticalassimilationofnegative,Angloculturalbeliefsandpractices. Whileaffirmingdiversityisextremelyimportantingainingtherespectandattentionofstudents,educatorsshouldnotstopthere.Fromacriticalpedagogicalperspectivestudentsshouldalsoexaminetheirownculturalbackgroundsforstrengthsandweaknessessoastobeabletotransformanyunjustbeliefsandpracticesthatliewithin;e.g.,sexism,homophobia,religiousintolerance.However,itisimportanttonotethatwhenIaskedMr.TijerinaabouthistendencytoromanticizeMexicanculturetohisstudents,hisresponsewasthathedidsopurposely.Heexplainedthat,throughouttheirlives,Mexicano/Latinoandothersubordinatedstudentsareonlyexposedtonegativeandracistviewsoftheircultures.Hemaintainedthatitwould

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becounterproductivetoengagethemincritiqueoftheirhomeculturesbecausealltheyeverareexposedtoabouttheirethnicgroupisprimarilynegative.Mr.Tijerinaexplained that studentsurgentlyneeded to learnabout thepositiveaspectsandimportantcontributionsoftheircultures—culturestoooftenportrayedinschoolsandbythemassmediaasinferiorandvalueless.HeadmittedthathisportrayalsofMexicanculture,history,music,etc.,mightbeabitromanticizedbutarguedthatMexicano/Latinostudentsfirstneedtodevelopapositiveethnicidentitybeforecritiquingit.Furthermore,hepointedoutthattryingtopoliticizeyoungstudentscouldbecounter-productivebecausetheyaredevelopmentallyyoung.Mr.Tijerinapresentsaprovocativepointofview.Nevertheless,despitethelegitimacyofhisclaimsandhisexpertisewiththisagegroupandpopulation,it is,nevertheless,importanttodevisewaystodevelopstudents’politicalandideologicalclarityindevelopmentallyappropriatewayssothattheytoocantheoreticallymakesenseoftheworldaroundthemandworktotransformwhattheyfeelisunjustanunac-ceptable.

“These experiences have shown me that if you are a person of color,it is more difficult for you to achieve” —

Witnesses of Subordination and Cultural Border Crossers A“bordercrosser”referstoanindividualwhoisableandwillingtodevelopempathywiththecultural“Other”andtoauthenticallyviewasequalthevaluesofthe“Other”whileconsciousoftheculturalgroup’ssubordinatedsocialstatusinthegreatersociety.Abordercrosserissomeonewhowillcriticallyconsiderthepositiveculturaltraitsofthe“Other”and,atthesametime,isabletocritiquethediscriminatorypracticesofhis/herculturethatmaybeinvolvedinthecreationofthecultural“Other”inthefirstplace.Inotherwords,abordercrosser,whileem-bracingthecultural“Other”,mustalsodivestfromhis/herculturalprivilegethatoftenfunctionsasaculturalborderitself(Bartolomé,2002). Mydefinitionofa“culturalbordercrosser”differsfrommoreconventionaldefinitionsthatmerelyfocusonaperson’sabilitytosuccessfullyinteractandexistinanalternativesocial,economicorethnicculturalrealitywithoutdealingwiththereal issuesofasymmetricalpowerrelationsandsubordination.Membersofthedominantculturetypicallytendtobordercrosswithoutcompromisingtheirpositionofculturalandsocialprivilege.Thistypeofbordercrossercantraveltheworld,studythe“Other”inadetachedandcuriousmannerwithouteverrecognizingthatculturalgroupsoccupydifferentpositionsofpowerandstatusandthatmanyculturalperceptionsandpracticesresultfromsuchpowerasymmetries.Often,thesetypesofideologicallyandpolitically“blind”bordercrossersassume“tourist”or“voyeur”perspectivesthatareverymuchtaintedbytheirunconsciousdeficitandWhitesupremacistideologies(Bartolomé,2002). Thethirdfindingofthisstudyrevealsthattheeducatorsinthissamplecrossedethnicandsocioeconomicbordersandcametotherealizationthatsomecultural

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groups,throughnofaultoftheirown,occupypositionsoflowsocialstatusandaremarginalizedandmistreatedbymembersofhigher-statusgroups.Thisrealizationenabledtheindividualstoauthenticallyempathizewiththecultural“Other”andtakesomeformofactiontoequalizeasymmetricalrelationsofpoweranderadicatethestigmatizedsocialidentitiesimposedonsubordinatedstudents. Theseeducatorshadbeen,atsomepointintheirlives,profoundlyaffectedbyexperienceswithsubordinationandinjustice.Theyallreportedpersonallyexperi-encingorwitnessingsomeoneelse’sunfairtreatment.Forexample,Mrs.Cortlandgrewupasalower-middle-classgirlinanaffluentWhitecommunityand,earlyon,learnedtodiscernsocialclassandstatusdifferences.Mrs.Cortlandsharedherexperiencesofmarginalizationandexplainedthatmoreaffluentpeersneverfullyacceptedherfamily.Shedescribedoneparticularlyhurtfulmemorywhenherfathercouldnotaffordtobuyhersisterthe“popular”shoes(alsothemostexpensive)wornbyhercohortatschool.Mrs.Cortlandrecalledthediscomfortofbelongingtoa“lower”classincomparisontohermoreaffluentWhitecommunityandbeingviewedaslessdespitehersuperioracademicperformanceinschool.Althoughthisanecdotemightnotconstituteinthemindsofmanyreadersanexampleofserioussubordination,theimportantpointisthatMrs.Cortlandlearned,atanearlyage,toquestionthemythsofa“levelplayingfield”andmeritocracy.Herexperiencetaughtherthatherlowersocioeconomicstatusmarkedherassociallylessvaluablethanhermoreaffluentpeersdespiteherstrongintellectualabilitiesandmerit. Mr.Tijerinaspokeofhislifeexperiencesasaworking-classChicanowhogrewupinRanchoNacionalandattendedRiverviewHighSchoolapproximately35yearsago.Asaworking-classminority,hewasforcedtocrosssocialandculturalbordersinordertosurvivewhatwasatthattimeamiddle-class,Whiteschoolculture. Hereportedthatduringhisgeneration’sattendanceatRiverviewHighSchool(from1960-1964),MexicanAmericansconstitutedapproximately30percentofthestudentbody.Despitetheirnumbers,theygenerallywerenotvisibleinthemainstreamhighschoolculture.Hevividlyrememberedthesecond-classcitizenshiptowhichthemajorityofMexican-Americanstudentswererelegated.Herelatedthecondescend-ingattitudedirectedatMexicansaswellastheoutrightdisrespectfultreatmenttheyexperienced.Themaximuminsultwastobecalleda“dirtyMexican”andtoldto“gobacktoMexico.”Heexplained,thatthesederogatorycommentslayjustunderthesurfaceofMexicanandWhiteinteractionsandwerefrequentlyutilizedbyWhitestudentsattheslightest,realorperceived,provocation. Mr.Tijerinaexplainedthatthroughouthisyounglife,hewasalwaysconsciousofthelowprestigeascribedtohisworking-classstatusandMexicanethnicity.HeattributedhisresilienceandresistancetothestrongpridehefeltinbeingMexicano(avaluehisfatherinstilledinhim)andtohisincreasingconsciousunderstandingofracismanditsmanifestations.HislaterexperienceswithprogressiveChicanoorganizationsinthe1970sand1980sprovidedhimwithopportunitiestoformallystudyWhitesupremacistideologyandthepracticeofcolonialization.

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Thehighschoolprincipal,Mrs.Peabody,attributedherearlyculturalborder-crossingexperiencestogrowingupasoneofafewWhitesininnercity,predomi-nantlyAfricanAmerican,Pittsburgh.Asaworking-classWhitegirlgrowingupinanAfrican-Americancommunity,sheexplainedthatshelearnedabouttheadvantagesofculturalpluralismearlyon:

EssentiallymyownstoryisthatIgrewupinaBlackinner-cityghettoinPittsburgh...tobeaWhitepersoninablackinner-cityghettoisawholeotherinterestingthing... .AtthetimeIdidn’tthinkmuchaboutitbecauseIwasthere.Butitturnedoutlatertobearealstrength….Ilearnedaboutdifferentpeopleanddifferentcultures.IdidnotthinkitwasunusualtohaveBlackfriendsandeatintheirhouse—orJewishorPuertoRicanfriends—becauseIdiditallthetime.

Although, likeMr.Tijerina,shetooexperiencedfirsthandwhat itmeanstoberelegatedtolowstatus,givenherpositionasa“minority”WhitepersoninherAf-rican-Americancommunity,sherecognizedthelife-longprivilegeandpreferentialtreatmentshereceivedbyvirtueofbeingWhite.Shetoldofherexposuretoracismanddiscriminationaschieflyaresultofhercloseworkwithpeopleofcolor. Shealsosharedherbeliefinallowingpeopleofcolorto“use”herpositionasaWhiteperson(perceivedbyotherWhitesasamorelegitimatespokesperson)tocarrytheirmessages(e.g.,supportforbilingualeducation,allowingstudentstodemonstrateagainst ananti-immigrantproposition).Dr.PeabodysharedherconsciousdecisiontoutilizeherprivilegedpositionasaWhitewomantobecomeachange-agentinschoolsettings.

InmycareerwhenIstartedinRiverviewSchoolDistrict,they[theMexicanos/La-tinos]usedme.Iallowedmyselftobeused.Sotheyusedtometobethecarrieratoftheirmessages...Ihavealotofcredibility[asperceivedbyothersbecauseofherwhiteness]andbecauseIamaverystrongpersonality,I[cannot]beswayedoffcourse.

Dr.Peabody explained that her ownworking-classbackgroundhelpedherunderstandRiverviewHighSchoolandthesurroundingcommunity.Heridenti-ficationandfeelingsofsolidaritywithworking-classMexicanculturewerealsoevidentinherrelationshipwithaparentshemetduringherfirstprincipalshipinthedistrict.Sheexplainedthattheparentbecamearealadvocateforherandthatshecametorealize,“OhmyGod,she’smorelikemygrandmotherthanmostWhite[middle-class]women!”Dr.Peabody’sfeelingsofsolidaritywithworking-class,non-White,andlinguisticminoritieshaveledhertoassumetheroleofadvocateandculturalbrokerforherstudents,parents,andcommunities. Theculturalborder-crossingexperiencesoftheeducatorsinthisstudyweresubstantivelydifferentfromtypical“tourist”or“voyeur”Whiteborder-crossingexperiences.Personallyexperiencingorwitnessingsomeoneelse’ssubordinationleftapermanentimpressionontheseeducators.Theylearnedearlyonthatsomefolksareseenandtreatedaslowstatussimplybecauseoftheirrace,ethnicity,and

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class.Giventheir“baptismoffire”duringtheirborder-crossingexperiences,theseeducatorslearnedtomoreclearlydiscernandunderstandunequalpowerrelationsamongculturalgroupsandconsequentlytheyworkedtowardreducingandprevent-ingtheirreproductionatRiverviewHighSchool. Althoughthescopeofthisstudydidnotallowforstudentinterviews,itisim-portanttonotethatanycontinuationofthisimportantefforttoreduceandpreventthereproductionofunequalpowerrelationsandabusivepracticesinschoolsshouldincludegeneratingdialoguewithstudentsintheclassrooms(andwithmembersofthecommunity)aboutoppressivepracticesbyallowingthemtosharetheirownfeelingsandexperiencesiftheysochoose.Whenteachersassumetheroleofcul-turalbrokerfortheirstudents,itisthefirststepinbeingableandwillingtocreatethiscriticaldialogicalspace.

“You’re here to encourage them . . . to help them go to college,to help them do all those good things — that’s what you’re here for”

— Educators as Dedicated Cultural Brokers Alloftheeducatorsinthisstudymentionedtheneedtomentorand“showstudents theway” to abetter life aspartof theirprofessional responsibility asteachers and administrators. Given their clarity in understanding the hierarchyof social status generated within the asymmetry of power and economic rela-tions, they shared their commitment tohelping their low-SES,non-White, andlinguistic-minoritystudents,typicallydepictedaslowstatusanddeficientbythegreatersociety,tobetterunderstandschoolcultureinordertosucceedsociallyandacademicallytherein.Thoughtheydidnotemploytheterm“culturalbroker,”theyallspokeabouttheirroleinhelpingstudentsmoreeffectivelynavigateschoolandmainstreamculture. Mr.Broadbentseemedparticularlypreoccupiedwiththestudents’inabilitytoseebeyondtheirexperiencesinRiverviewHighSchoolandtheRanchoNa-cionalcommunity.Hespokeoftenoftheneedtogetthestudentstosee“howtheotherhalflives”soastomotivatethemtodowellinschool.Oneofhisgreatestfrustrationswashisperceivedinabilitytohelpthestudentsseetheirhighschoolexperienceasastepping-stonetowardcollegeoragood-payingjob.Oneofthestrategiesheemployedforhelpingstudentsbothseethebiggerpictureandas-sumecontrolovertheirlearningprocesshasbeentoteachthemthe“rulesofthegame”inveryexplicitways.Forexample,whenteachingmathandcomputertechnologycourses,heoftenexplicitlylinkstheskillsandknowledgebasestaughtwithimmediatejobopportunitiesinanefforttohelpstudentsdemystify“hightech”jobs,seetheimmediaterelevanceoftheclasses,andviewtheseemploy-mentopportunitiesaspossibleforthem. Whileitisimportanttorecognizethatstudentsshouldbeencouragedtoreachhigherintheiraspirations,theideathatnotbeingableto‘see’abetterlifeisinlargepartwhatkeepssubordinatedstudentsdowncaneasilybemisinterpreted.If

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it’sjustamatterofseeingthevirtuesofamiddle-classreality—withthehelpofateacher—thatleadstosuccess,thisputstheonusonstudentssubsequenttotheirexposuretoknowledge,careeropportunities,andatasteof“howtheotherhalflives”,andagaindisregardsthesystemicandideologicalobstaclesthatgetintheirway.Inotherwords,simplyseeingthegoodlifedoesnotensuregettingaccesstoitregardlessofhowhardonetries.ItisimportantthateducatorsheedMr.Broadbent’scalltoraiseasmuchawarenessandconfidenceinstudentsaspossibleinordertoincreasetheirchancesofsuccess.However,criticalpedagoguesalsoencouragekeepinganeyeonandworkingtoeradicatethedeeperideologicalandmaterialbarriersthatsubordinatedstudentsface. Mr.Broadbentrepeatedlyspokeoftheimportanceofbeingopenandhonestwithstudentsandnotwithholdingvitalinformationfromthem.Again,becausehisparticularsubjectmatter—mathandcomputertechnology—caneasilybemisrepresentedasbeingtooabstractanddifficult,hereportedmakingaconsciousefforttoteachthecoursesinaccessibleandstudent-friendlyways.HeexplainedthattheNavyisagoodexampleofaninstitutionwherepowerismaintainedbyaselectfewpreciselybywithholdinginformationfromthemajority.Aspartofhisstrategyforestablishinghonest,caring,and trustingrelationswithstudents,hehighlightedhisabilitytocommunicatewithhisstudents.

Ithinkforthemostpart,I’vebeenabletotalktothekids.Idon’ttalkdown[tothem]andunlikeintheNavywherepeoplearetryingtohidesomethingfromyoujustsothattheycanhavepower,ItellthekidsstraightoutwhatIthink[andexpectinclass]andIdon’thideanythingfromthem.

Mr.Broadbentexplained thathis jobconsistsnotonly in impartingstrongmathematicsknowledgeforimmediateandlateruse,butalsoinmentoringkidsaroundlifeingeneral.Helikenedhisroleasteachertohisownfather’sroleasparent,“I’mlikeastepfatherformanyofmykids,especiallytheboyswhodon’thaveadadathome.”Hesharedthatinthisparent-mentorroleheexhibitsauthenticconcernandcaringforstudents.However,headdedthatsimplycaringforstudentsisnotenoughandthatteachersneedto“back-up”theircaringwithrealactionintheformofsolidcontentinstructionandhonestteacher-studentcommunication. Mr.Tijerina similarly emphasized the importance of teachers assuming amentoringrolevis-à-vistheirstudents.Hesharedhisopinionthat,themajorityofRiverviewHighSchoolstudentsare“goodkids”whobecauseoftheirunfamiliar-itywithschoolculturerequireteacherguidanceinfiguringoutthe“rulesofthegame”inschoolandintheoutsideworld.HementionedthatstudentsnotonlyreceivehelpfromteachersbutalsofromtopqualitycounselorsatRiverviewHighwhoprovideassistanceandcounselinginthreelanguages:English,Spanish,andTagalog.Hepointedoutthatthecounselorsdoanoutstandingjobgettingstudentsintocollegepreciselybecausetheydemystifytheconceptof“college.”Forexample,thecounselorstakestudentsandparentsoncollegevisitsandinviteformerRiver-

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viewgraduatestosharetheircollegeexperiences.Inaddition,thecounselorsassiststudentsinfillingoutapplications,writingstatementsofpurpose,andpracticinginterviewstrategiesforgettingacceptedintothecollegeoftheirchoice. Mr.Tijerinaalsosharedhistechniquesforhelpingstudentsunderstandschoolculture.Heexplainedthatheexplicitlydiscusseshisclassrulesandevenrole-playswith students inorder for them toclearlyunderstandacademicandbehavioralexpectations.Heisparticularlyexplicitwhenitcomestograding:

Itellthem,“Youcanseeyourgradeswheneveryouwant”—wehavefoldersonallthestudents’work.Isay,“Hey,youcanseethemwheneveryouwant,youknow,here’syourtotal.Igradeyouonthecurveoronaclassscale,oronastandardscale,whicheverisbestforyou”Itreatthemlikeadults.“I’mnottryingtocheatyou.I’mnottryingtotrickyou.”

Mr.Tijerinaisadamantinhisbeliefthatasteachersofyoungpeople,particularlyyouthwhodon’tunderstandtheschoolcultureclearly,itisimportantthatteachersbeopen,sincere,honest,aswellasencouraging.Headded:

[Asateacher],you’renotheretoputdownstudentsortogivethem“F’s”.You’renotheretoconfusethem.You’renotheretothreatenthem.You’renotheretobedishonestwith them.You’rehere toencourage them, tomake themfeelgood,tohelpthem,tohelpthemgotocollege,tohelpthemdoallthosegoodthings—that’swhatyou’reherefor.

Theeducatorsinthisstudyarticulatedtheimportanceofexplicitlyassistingtheirstudentsinbetterunderstandingbothschoolandmainstreamculture.Inschool,theyreportedthattheyconsciouslyworktoassiststudentsineffectivelydealingwithboththeexplicitandhiddenaspectsoftheschoolcurriculum.Theseteachersmentionedtheimportanceofdemystifyinggradingandevaluationproceduresandthecollegeapplicationprocessasstrategiesforhelpingtheirstudentsbecomeconfident,em-poweredlearners.Theyreportedstrivingtoprovidetheirstudentswithpracticesandknowledgebasesthataretypicallyunavailabletoworking-classyouth—theveryculturalcapitalthatmanymiddle-classandmoreprivilegedparentsregularlyprovidetheirownchildreninordertoinsuretheircompetitiveadvantage(Stanton-Salazar,1997;Stanton-Salazar,Vásquez&Mehan,2000). Onewaytoexpandtheimportantworkthattheseeducatorshavebeendoingistomovebeyondsimplyhelpingstudentstobetterunderstandandnavigateschoolandmainstreamculture,byengagingtheminstrategiestotheorizeforthemselvesandactivelyworktodemocratizeandtransformsuchculturalpractices.OnegetstheimpressioninRiversidethatthegoal,aswell-intentionedasitmaybe,istoprotectstudents,guidethem,helpthemdevelopgreaterethnicpride,andgetthemintocollege.Educationisbelievedtobethegreatequalizerandthusthekeyforsubordinatedstudentstoenterintoabetterlife.Manyoftheteachersproudlylistedoffnamesofstudentswhohavereturnedtothecommunityaftercompletingcollegeandhaveassumedpositionsofleadership,buttheydidnotaddressstrategiesfor

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encouragingsuchstudentbehavior.Furthermore,althoughtheteachershintedoftheimportanceofpreparingtheirstudentsforfutureadvocacyandleadershiproles,therewasnomentionofexpliciteffortstoencouragestudentstodevelopcounter-hegemonicbeliefsandpractices. Ratherthanembracingapedagogyoftemporary“comfortzone,”criticaleducatorsneedtogenerateanexplicitanddevelopmentallyappropriate pedagogyofgettinginwiththeintentof,onceyou’rein,transformingtheveryabusivedominantideologicalforcesthatcreatedandmaintainsociety’smarginsinthefirstplace.Whilelearningandappropriatingfromthesuccessesofthesefourremarkablepeopleinthisstudyisimportant,anycriticaldemocraticpedagogyshouldincludeatransformativepoliticthatworkstocombattheverysocialorderthatgivesrisetoimpoverishedanddisenfranchisedcommunities.

Implications for Teacher Education Itisevidentthatthefoureducatorsinthisstudyunderstandthatteachingisnotanapoliticalundertaking.Theyquestioned,albeittovariousdegrees,thedominantculture’sexplanationsoftheexistingsocialorder.Theyalsoreportrejectingdeficitideologiesandrespectingandvaluingnon-White,linguistic-minority,andwork-ingclasscultures.Inaddition,theeducatorsresistromanticizingWhite,middle-classmainstreamcultureandrejecttotalassimilationasagoalfortheirstudents.Furthermore,becausetheyalsoperceivethattheirstudentsarenotoperatingonalevelplayingfield,theseeducatorshighlighttheirwillingnesstoassumerolesasadvocatesandculturalbrokersforthem.Thesefindingssuggestthepowerthatteachersandothereducators,aschange-agents,possessandcanpotentiallywieldintheirworkforcreatingmorejustanddemocraticschools.And,astheseeducatorshaveachievedgreatsuccesseswiththeirstudents,Ibelievethattherearelessonstobelearnedhere,regardlessofthequestionsthatIhaveraised. In the following section, I would like to conclude by discussing possibleimplicationsofmyfindingsforteacherpreparation.Mycommentsfocusspecifi-callyontransformingteachereducationcourseworkandpracticumexperiencesbyinfusingkeycriticalpedagogicalpractices.AsPepiLeistynaandArlieWoodrum(1996)correctlyexplain,“Criticalpedagogyisprimarilyconcernedwiththekindsofeducationaltheoriesandpracticesthatencouragebothstudentsandteacherstodevelopanunderstandingoftheinterconnectingrelationshipamongideology,power,andculture”(p.3).Inorderforteacherstobetterunderstandthisthree-wayrela-tion,twoimportantcriticalpedagogicalprinciplesneedtoinformthecurriculum:acriticalunderstandingofdominantideologies,andexposuretoanddevelopmentofeffectivecounter-hegemonicdiscoursestoresistandtransformsuchoppressivepractices(Darder,Torres&Baltodano,2002).

Explicit Study of Ideology TheaforementionedresearchrevealsthattheexemplaryeducatorsinRiverside

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questioned three common dominant ideologies about the existing social order:themythofmeritocracy,deficitviewsofminoritystudents,andthesuperiorityofWhitemainstreamculture.Animportant implicationof thispatternofpoliticalclarity,giventhesuccessoftheseeducators,istheneedtoincorporateintoteachereducationprogramslearningexperiencesthatwillformallyandexplicitlyexam-ineideology.Inthiswayeducatorscanseewhat’scurrentlyinplaceinasociety,whereoneactuallystandsandwhy,andwhatcanbedonetocontestexistingsocialinjusticesthatarepartandparcelofmainstreamsocioculturalpractices.Darderetal.(2002)pointoutthatthestudyofideology

servesasastartingpointforaskingquestionsthatwillhelpteacherstoevaluatecriticallytheirpracticeandtobetterrecognizehowthecultureofthedominantclassbecomesembeddedinthehiddencurriculum—curriculumthatisinformedbyideologicalviewsthatsilencestudentsandstructurallyreproducethedominantculturalassumptionsandpracticesthatthwartdemocraticeducation.(p.13)

Thiscouldincludeexposingstudentsto(andencouragingthemtoprovideinsightgiventheirownexperiences)alternativeexplanationsfortheacademicunderachieve-mentofminorities,tothemythofmeritocracyandhowsuchatheoryworkstoexplainandjustifytheexistingsocial(dis)order,andtohowassimilationistmodelsreinforceantagonisticsocialrelationsandfundamentallyundemocraticpractices.WhatIamsuggestingisthattheteachereducationcurriculum(courseworkandpracticumexperiences)bedeliberatelydesignedandcarriedouttoexposeprospec-tiveteacherstoavarietyofideologicalposturessothattheycanbegintoperceivetheirownideologiesinrelationtoothers’andcriticallyexaminethedamagingbiasestheymaypersonallyhold,andtheinequalitiesandinjusticespresentinschoolsandinthesocietyasawhole. Theendresult,hopefully,willbethepreparationofteachers,liketheeduca-torsinthesample,whoarenotafraidtoassumecounter-hegemonicpositionsinanefforttobetterunderstandandchangecurrentinequalitiesinschools.However,themeansforbringingaboutsuchteacherpoliticalandideologicalclaritycan,andshould,varyfromprogramtoprogramascontext-specificadaptationincrucial.Inotherwords,eventhoughitisimportanttoprovidepre-serviceteacherswithcriti-calpedagogicalstrategies,particularinstructionalprogramsandspecificteachingmethods,itiserroneoustoassumethatblindreplicationoftheseprogramsandmethodswill,inandofthemselves,guaranteesuccessfulstudentlearning. Additionally, theborder-crossingexperiencesof the target teachers,duringwhich they personally experienced or witnessed someone else’s subordination,needtobereplicatedorsimulatedincourseworkandpracticumexperiences.Thesecurricularexperiencesshouldbeorganizedinwaysthatincreasethelikelihoodthatprospective teachers learnabout therealitiesofsubordinationandmarginaliza-tion(similartowhattheeducatorslearnedviatheirownculturalborder-crossingexperiences).Iaminnowaysuggestingthat teachereducatorsbrainwashtheir

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studentstothinkinanideologicallyuniformway.NoramIsuggestingthatitisnecessarytomistreatprospectiveteacherssotheycan,asthetargetteachersinthestudyhavedone,experiencesubordinationfirst-handinorderforthemtograsptheconceptofasymmetricalpowerrelations.Theideaissimplytoopenupstudentstoawiderangeofexperiencessothattheycanexpand,holduptoacriticallight,andadjusttheirownideologicallensinwaysthatmaketheclassroommoreinclusive,exploratory,andtransformative. Educatingteacherstounderstandtheimportanceoftheirroleasdefendersandculturaladvocatesfortheirstudentsalsoneedstobeaddressedandencouragedincourseworkandpracticumexperiences.Asstatedearlier,culturalbrokerscancre-atethenecessaryself-empoweringconditionswithinwhichstudentsplayanactiveroleintheirownlearning—inwhichtheyhaveavoiceintheoverallinstitutionalprocess. Thereareteacherpreparationprogramsaroundthecountrythatprovidelearningexperienceswiththepotentialtohelpprospectiveteachersincreasetheirculturalawareness.Forexample,manyteachereducationprogramsrequirethatstudentslearnasecondlanguagesothattheycanbettercommunicatewithlinguistic-mi-noritystudents.Afewinnovativeprogramsactuallygoasfaraspresentingtheirstudentswithopportunitiestostudyabroadinordertodevelopmultilingualandmulticulturalcompetenciesaswellascross-culturalsensitivities.However,mostteacherpreparationprogramsdonotoffercoursesandpracticumexperiencesthatwillenablestudentstoidentifyandunderstandtheroleofideology(hegemonicandcounter-hegemonic)inteaching.Thereareprogramsthatrequireprospectiveteacherstovisit,observe,andstudent-teachinlow-incomeandculturallydiverseschoolsinordertolearnabout“culturaldifferences,”buteventheseprogramsarerarelydeliberatelydesignedtoensurethatprospectiveteachersstudywhatstructur-allyproducessuchoppressedcommunities,andengageingeneratingalternativeideologicalpositionsregardingthelowsocialstatusandacademicachievementofsubordinatedpopulations. Despitegoodintentionsonthepartofmanyteachereducatorsandthetre-mendouspotentialofmanyof their learningactivities to increasepoliticalandideological clarity, prospective teachers are generally left to their own deviceswhenmakingsenseofcross-culturalandcross-socioeconomicclassexperiences.Often,theunanticipatedendresultofmanyoftheselearningexperiencesisthatthemajorityofstudentsemergeevermoreboundtotheirunquestionedethnocentricideologiespreciselybecausetheygointotheselearningsituationswithoutexplicitlyidentifyingandquestioningtheideologicallensesthatfiltertheirperceptions.Forexample,Ihavehadstudent-teachersthatcompletedpartoftheirstudentteach-inginMexico.Whilethere,theywitnesspovertyandmistreatmentofindigenouspeopleandofthepoor;acommonreactionhasbeentodenouncethosepracticesinMexicoandtorejoiceuponreturningtotheU.S.“wherethesethingsdon’thap-pen.”Awell-conceptualizedteachereducationprogramwouldforeseeandplanfor

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thistypeofstudentreaction.Attheveryminimum,debriefingsessionsdesignedtodealwithdominantideologiesandresultingsocialhierarchiesinMexicoandintheU.S.wouldservetoincreasestudents’understandingofoppression.Thiswouldalsorequireanin-depthanalysisofthedevastatingeffectsthatinternationaltrade‘agreements’ likeNAFTAhaveon thepeople, economics, andpoliticsofbothnations.Unfortunately,educatorsarerarelyencouragedtoexplorehownations,liketheU.S.andMexico,viaalonghistoryofforeignandeconomicpolicies,areintertwinedsocially,politically,andculturally.

Assuming a Counter-Hegemonic Stance: Subverting the System for the Good of the Students

Interestinglyenough,duringcross-culturallearningexperiences,Ihavewit-nessedasmallminorityofparticipatingstudents,ontheirown,identifyabusiveasymmetricalpowerrelationsatworkandconsequentlyassumetheroleofstudentdefender.Forexample,Ihavehadprospectiveteachersdescribetomehowlearningasecondlanguageplacedtheminapositionofvulnerabilitythatallowedthemtoseetheworldfromtheeyesofasecondlanguagelearner.Theyexperiencedthefragilityone feelswhenattempting toacquireanew languageandunderstand,firsthand,thedifficultyinlearningasecondlanguage.Similarly,afterworkinginlow-incomeschoolsinthiscountryandabroad,manystudentshaveapproachedmeirateandindignantaboutthelifeandschoolconditionsoflow-SES,non-Whitestudents.Formanyofthesestudents,theirangerandindignationserveasacatalystthatpropelsthemtoquestionwhattheypreviouslyconsideredtobeafairsocialorderandtotakesometypeofactionto“subvertthesystem”anddorightbytheirstudents. Theconceptof“subvertingthesystem”bringstomindayoungwomanIworkedwithyearsagoinapublicuniversityteachereducationprogram.Similartoagreatnumberofstudentsinteachereducationprograms,thisyoungwomancameintotheprogramwithunexaminedbeliefsaboutthesocialorderandstatusquo.Shecameintotheprogram,thoughlargelyunawareofit,withanuncriticalacceptanceofthesocialorderasjustandfair.Givenherunexaminedideologicalorientationandrathershelteredlifeexperiences,shedemonstratedlittlecomprehensionoftheveryrealinequitiesconfrontingsubordinatedstudentsinschoolsandthelargersociety. IdistinctlyrememberherinitialdiscomfortwithPauloFreire’s(andothercriticalpedagogues’)writingsand,inparticular,herrejectionofthenotionthatteachersofsubordinatedstudentsoftenhavetoworkinwaysthatteachagainstthegraininordertodorightbythechildren.Theyoungwomanvoicedherdisbeliefanddiscomfortwiththiscriticalnotionandarguedthatitwasnotnecessaryforteacherstoresorttosubversivebehaviorsincethekeyfunctionofschoolsispreciselytohelpstudents.Thestudentrecalledherownexperienceasamiddle-class,White,publicschoolstudentandmaintainedthatschoolsystemswerefairplacesandthatstudentswhofailedtosucceeddidnottakefulladvantageoftheopportunitiesaffordedthem.

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However,laterinthesemester—whilecompletingherstudent-teachingexperi-enceinapredominantlyAfrican-AmericanandMexicano/Latinourbanelementaryschool—shecameintoclassandsharedthatshehadengagedinherfirstactofconsciousresistanceagainstschoolrules;ruleswhichshefeltworkedtohurtandfurthersubordinateherstudents. Sheexplainedthattheurbanelementaryschoolinwhichshestudent-taughthadveryfewgreenareas.Theyoungwomanvoicedheropinionthatshefoundthelackofgrassyareasandvegetationtobeespeciallyunacceptablegiventhattheschoolwassupposedtoserviceyoungchildren.Thestudent-teacherthenwentontodescribeoneareaoftheschoolthathadasmalltreeandsmallplotofgrassthatwasofflimitstostudents.Onaparticularlywarmday,shedecidedshewantedtoreadastorytoherstudentsundertheshadeofthatsmalltree.Althoughshewaswellawarethatstudentswerenotallowedinthisarea,sheconsciouslybroketheruleinorderto,assheexplained,provideherstudentswithanoptimalstorybookreadingexperience.SheangrilypointedoutthatWhitestudentsinmiddle-classandsuburbanschoolstakeforgrantedlearningopportunitiessuchassittingonthegrassandhavingastoryreadtothem,whileherchildren(poorMexicanos/LatinosandAfricanAmericans)wereprohibitedfromsittingontheonlypatchofgreengrassavailableattheschool. Althoughthisparticularstudent’sactofsubversionwasnotparticularlyradi-calorextreme,mypointisthatitispreciselythisoutrageandsenseofstudentadvocacy—reflectiveofincreasedpoliticalandideologicalclarity—thatIbelievethatallteachers,butinparticular,teachersofsubordinatedstudents,mustpossessinordertodorightbytheyoungpeoplethattheyserve.Suchprospectiveteachers,liketheexperiencededucatorsdescribedinthisarticle,haveinpartsurmisedthattheirpreviouslyheldideologicalexplanationsfortheexistingsocialorder(e.g.,thatthesocialorderisfairandbasedonabilityandmerit,thatifpeopleworkhardenoughtheycanovercomeoppression,etc.)werenotadequateforexplainingthegrave inequities, injustice, and subordination they witnessed. Unfortunately, inmyexperienceasateachereducator,themajorityofprospectiveteachersarenotquitesoperceptiveorflexibleintheirthinkingtoconsideralternativeideologicalexplanationswithoutassistancefromteachereducationpersonnel.

Concluding Thoughts Prospectiveteachers,alleducatorsforthatmatter,needtobegintodevelopthepoliticalandideologicalclaritythatwillguidethemindenouncingdiscriminatoryschoolandsocialconditionsandpractices.Thisclarityiscrucialifteacherstrulywishtobetterinstruct,protect,andadvocatefortheirstudents.Itisalsoindispens-ableifeducatorsendeavortonurtureyouthintobeingcriticalthinkerscapableofactingupontheworld.AccordingtoFreire(1998a,1998b),beyondtechnicalskills,teachersshouldalsobeequippedwithafullunderstandingofwhatitmeanstohave

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courage—todenouncethepresentinequitiesthatdirectlyharmcertainpopulationsofstudents—andeffectivelycreatepsychologicallyhealthy,culturallyrespon-sive,humanizing,andself-empoweringeducationalcontexts.Criticalpedagogychallengesustoseethroughthedensefogofideologyandtobecomecourageousinourcommitmenttodefendsubordinatedstudentpopulations—evenwhenitiseasiernottotakeastand—andequipthemwithcriticaltransformativetools.Freire(1997)states:

Whatkeepsaperson,ateacherableasaliberatoryeducatoristhepoliticalclar-itytounderstandtheideologicalmanipulationsthatdiscomfirmhumanbeingsassuch,thepoliticalclaritythatwouldtellusthatitisethicallywrongtoallowhumanbeingstobedehumanized....Onehastobelievethatifmenandwomencreatedtheuglyworldthatwearedenouncing,thenmenandwomencancreateaworldthatislessdiscriminatingandmorehumane....(p.315)

Inthespiritoftherealisticyethopefuleducatorsinthisstudy,criticalpedagogyremindsusof the importanceof clearly identifyingobstacles inorder toworkcollaborativelywithstudentsandcommunitiestocomeupwithequallyclearandrealisticstrategiesforovercomingthem.

Note SectionsofthisarticlefirstappearedinBartoloméL.&Balderrama,M.(2001).TheNeedforEducatorswithPoliticalandIdeologicalClarity:ProvidingOurChildrenwith“theBest.”InM.DelaLuzReyes&J.Halcon.The Best for Our Children: Critical Perspec-tives on Literacy for Latino Students.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress (pp.48-64). Thischapteralsoconstitutesanexpandedversionofmy2002chapter,CreatinganEqualPlayingField:TeachersasAdvocates,BorderCrossers,andCulturalBrokers.InZ.F.Beykont(Ed.)The Power of Culture: Teaching Across Language Difference.Cambridge,MA:HarvardEducationPublishingGroup.

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