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Computer History ExhibitsSigns and Placardsmaster copy on Haring
A joint project of Stanford Faculty, Staff and The Computer Museum History Center
Questions to Gio@cs or 725-8363
First floor: Stanford CSD historyBasement: Technology timelinesFloor 2: Early computing
Floor 3: The sixtiesFloor 4: The seventiesFloor 5: Galaxy game
Computer History Exhibits
A joint project of .
Stanford Faculty, Staff, & The Computer Museum History Center
Questions to Gio@cs or look at http://www-cs.stanford.edu (museum)
Basement:Timelines
2nd: 50’s:Univac & Whirlwind3rd: 60’s: IBM 360 & DEC PDP-64th: 70’s: Aple II & Cray
First floor:Early Stanford CSD history
case
1
case2 case3
case5 case4
case
11
case f 2
case f 1
Fifth floor:Galaxy game
Computer History ExhibitsOpening Talks in room B1, Nov. 5th, 5:30 pm
Donald Knuth: George Forsythe and the Development of Computer Science
Gordon Bell: Values & Issues in Preserving Historical Computer Artifacts
First floor
Basement
B1
Entrance toBasementLecture Hall
Serra street
Exit tooutside
Campu
s Driv
e
Computer History ExhibitsInstallation in Progress
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Platter from General PrecisionLibrascope L 4800 head-per-track Disk Unit
Stanford AI Lab DEC PDP-6, November 1967Storage capacity per side ca. 1,120,665 words of 36 bitsCapacity per unit (10 inner sides of 6 platters) 11,206,650 words or ca. 48 M bytes.Total 5484 heads (and tracks). Total weight 5200 lbsRotational speed 900 rpm, Avg. access time 35 msec.Transfer rate 1.6 sec/word or 2.7 M byte/sec
Startup current 300 amps, Startup time 5 minutes, thermal stabilization 2 hoursCost $300,000 ($1,420,000 today)
The photograph shows the unit with the disks and the electronics bay (2000 lbs) removed. Courtesy of Martin Frost
Dark areas are due to a head crash in 1969.
Platter fromGeneral PrecisionLibrascope L 4800 head-per-trackDisk Unit
Stanford AI Lab DEC PDP-6November 1967
Courtesy of Martin Frost
Storage capacity per side ~1,120,665 words of 36 bitsCapacity per unit (10 inner sides of 6 platters) 11,206,650 words or ~48 M bytes.Total 5484 heads (and tracks)Rotational speed 900 rpmAvg. access time 35 msec.Transfer rate 1.6 sec/word or 2.7 M byte/secStartup current 300 ampsStartup time 5 minutes, thermal stabilization 2 hoursWeight 5200 lbsCost $300,000 ($1,420,000 today)
Total Tracks (and Write-Read heads): 5484 (includes 300 spares)Bits/Track: 80,256 Bits/Sector: 66Sectors/Rev: 1216based on CPI 1997 159.1 159.6 160.0 160.2 160.1 160.3 160.5 1967 32.9 32.9 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6 33.7 33.8 33.9 33.4
Dark areas are due to a head crash in 1969.
Apple Macintosh Hard disk unit ca. 19895 platters, 10 sides one head per sideCapacity 20 Megabytes
Courtesy of SUMEX
SONY Corporation 3.5” Floppy disk drive ca. 1991High density, double sided one head per sideCapacity/floppy 1.4 Megabytes
With disk in protective, low friction carrier.
Courtesy of SUMEX
8” Floppy disk first use ca. 1965Single sided diskCapacity/floppy ca. 150 Kilobytes
Courtesy of Vaugn Pratt
Apple Macintosh Hard disk unit ca. 19895 platters, 10 sides one head per sideCapacity 20 Megabytes
Courtesy of SUMEX
SONY Corporation 3.5” Floppy disk drive ca. 1991High density, double sided one head per sideCapacity/floppy 1.4 Megabytes
With disk in protective, low friction carrier.
Courtesy of SUMEX5” Floppy disk drive Shugart Corporationfirst use ca. 1977Single sided diskCapacity/floppy 360 Kilobytes
Courtesy of Vaugn Pratt
8” Floppy disk first use ca. 1965Single sided diskCapacity/floppy ca. 150 Kilobytes
Courtesy of
Digital Equipment CorporationModel 846 single platter disk cartridge from SUMEX DEC PDP-11, ca. 1972.
Cut open to show disk
Courtesy of Tom Rindfleisch, SUMEX
The 2 reading heads were mounted on slides in the drive and entered the unit through the small port in the rear.Larger units were composed of multiple, up to 11, platters
Storage capacity per side, using 200 formatted tracks, ca.1.1 Megabytes of 8 bits
Capacity per unit 2.2 Megabytes. Rotational speed 2400 rpm.
Average seek time for head movement 60 msec.
Rotational latency 12.5 msec. Transfer rate 0.312 Megabyte/sec.
Computer History ExhibitsInstallation in Progress
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Computer History ExhibitsInstallation in Progress
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Lightning Calculator, ca. 1930.
The Lightning Adding Machine Company, Los Angeles CA This calculator belonged to Prof. George Forsythe.
This American calculator copies the design of the Pascaline, first designed by Blaise Pascal in 1642.
The pen is used to add or subtract digits in any of 8 decimal conditions by rotating one of the disks. A lug on each wheel creates a carry when the 9 digit is passed. This improved version had a single lever to reset all digits to zero.
Courtesy of the Estate of George and Sandra Forsythe and The Computer Museum.
George Elmer Forsythe
Founding Chairman of the Stanford Computer Science Department 1965-1972
born 1917 in State College, PAgraduated from Swarthmore College 1937PhD in Mathematics from Brown University 1941at Stanford University 1941-1942, 1957-1972Air Force meteorologist 1942-1945at UCLA’s Institute for Numerical Analysis to 1957with John Herriot, formed the Division of Computer Science within the Mathematics department in 1961Director of the Computation Center 1961-1965died 1972 at Stanford, CA
George Forsythe supervised 17 PhD theses at Stanford.Many of his students became professors themselves and several became department chairs in turn.The complete tree of Forsythe’s academic descendants is available on the web pages describing these exhibits, at http://www-cs.stanford.edu, and then click on museum.
courtesy of Cleve Moler and Jim Varah
Polya: 13 Dec.1887- 7 Sep.1985 [Don Knuth]
Polya Hall Home of the Stanford Computer Science Department 1963- Oct.1979
Named for George Pólya (1887-1985) Prof. of Mathematics
Computer History ExhibitsInstallation in Progress
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IBM Card Programmed Calculator (CPC)A CPC was Stanford’s computer from 1953-1956.
The tall box is the arithmetic unit, which used 1500 vacuum tubes and had 8 registers of 4 digits and 1 register of 5 digits. Digits were represented by 4 bits each, requiring 2 vacuum tubes per bit.
The box on the right contained 4 mechanical accumulators of 12 digit words and 2 of of 16 digits, and 48 words of mechanical storage. Mechanical storage was implemented in the form of wheels, which were positioned by solenoids, and had contacts for readout.
Instructions were read from cards, placed into the center unit, at a rate of up to 150 per minute. Through wiring a plug board placed in the arithmetic unit certain cards could be skipped, giving some control over program flow.
The CPC was not yet a von Neuman machine architecture.
The central unit also had a printer, which could print 120 columns of numeric output at 150 lines per minute (lpm), but only 40 columns of letters at 100 lpm.
Results could also be punched on the rightmost unit, on up to 50 cards per minute. Another wiring board selected the card columns.
Wiring Plug Board, ca. 1960.IBM Corporation, NY.
On pre-Von Neumann computers programs were wired. Placing the wires into plug boards allowed fast changing of programs and off-line program preparation.
The wires routed the impulses obtained from cards to start and increment counter wheels, to transmit carry im-pulses to other wheels, and to set indicators for negative numbers or overflow. Printers had similar wheels, but embossed, which were rotated before striking the paper. This panel controlled a collator, a machine for merging two sets of sorted cards according to the contents of sequencing fields. The fields could be in different columns. Courtesy of The Computer Museum History Center
Data processing cards were invented by Hermann Hollerith of theU.S. Bureau of the Census. Commonly known as IBM cards theywere used for data and program storage from 1890 up to the 1980’s.
They had 80 columns, and up to 4 holes out of 12 positions could be punched out per column, allowing first 12, later 64, and eventually 256 distinct characters codes per column. More holes weakened them.
The size of the card was based on the dollar bill of that time, so that they might be carried in standard wallets. Dollar bills arenow smaller in size and in value.
Silver certificate dollar bill from 1920 courtesy of Voy and Gio Wiederhold
Early Computers at Stanford
Type arrived-retired Location speed(+/x) Memory Prim.language sec Words/bytes
IBM CPC Mar.1953-56 Elec.Lab. 760K/13M 48 wired board
IBM 650 Jan.1956-62? Elec.Lab. 2.2K/19K 2KW SOAP
Burroughs 220 Jun.1960 Encina 200/3300 10KW Balgol
shared with First National Bank of San Jose (overnight check processing) IBM 7090 Feb.1963?-67 Pine Hall 4.4/2532KW FORTRAN
Burroughs 5500 Mar?.1963-68 Pine Hall AlgolDEC PDP-1 1964 - Pine Hall ~5/18bits 64KW
DEC PDP-6 Aug.1965 AI lab ~4/36bits LISP IBM/360-50 Jun.1965 SLAC 4/16 256Kb
IBM/360-50 Dec.1965-7x Med.Sch. 4/16 1.128Kb PL/1 subset
IBM/360-67 May 1967- Pine Hall 1.5/6 500Kb Algol W,
installed as an IBM/360-65 because of an inadequate timesharing system FORTRAN
IBM/360-75 SLAC 0.75/3 1Mb FORTRAN
IBM/360-91 1968 SLAC 0.2/0.4 2Mb FORTRAN
DEC PDP-10 1969? -85? AI lab LISP, SAIL
DEC system 2040 1976-1977 LOTS 1.0 128KW
DEC system 2050 1977-19 LOTS 0.5 256KW
Early Faculty at Stanford1953 Jack Herriot, Alan Peterson, codirectors computation center
Remington-Rand Univac Flip-Flop Assembly Model 1818A, serial 001348. Manuf’d for the U.S. Navy, Oct.1960. Courtesy of David Hermreck, Potomac, MD.Two?-bit highly reliable plug-in electro-mechanical memory unit.It uses relays, composed to form flip-flop storage cells, similar to the exposed AEC unit shown. The access time was about 1/2 sec. To avoid corrosion, all joints were soldered to be airtight, andthen the unit was filled with nitrogen gas, through the valve on the side. All contacts are gold plated.
Similar flip-flop units, but not sealed, were used for the IBM CPC(Card-Programmed Calculator) shown above, used at Stanford from1953 to 1956. The CPC could hold 9 words of 4 4-bit digits in vacuum tube circuits, and 48 words of 10 digits in relay storage. The CPC was hence not a von-Neumann machine architecture; programs remained external. Computation was driven by sets of cards, fed through a card reader at up to 2.5 instructions/second.
Primary Programming Languages Taught at Stanford <Tentative Draft, tell us what you know>
Language years compiler machine
Board wiring 1953-56 none IBM CPC
Assembler 1956-60 SOAP II IBM 650
Algol 58 1960-65 Balgol Burroughs 220
FORTRAN 1963-67 FORTRAN II IBM 7090
Algol 60 1963-68 Algol Burroughs 5500
Algol W 1968-75 Wirth’s IBM/360
FORTRAN 1975 FORTRAN IV IBM/370
ALGOL 60 + 1976-77 SAIL DEC 10
PASCAL 1978-91 LOTS DEC-10
C 1991-today Apple Macintosh
Java? future?
Information courtesy of Claire Stager, Eric Roberts, ...
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DEC-10 system Memory Controller Board, modified for LOTS, the StanfordLow-Overhead Time Sharing System, 1977By 1976 semi-conductor memory prices had dropped to the extent that large number of display terminals could each have their own buffer in a timeshared system. The buffersizes were adequate for 40 lines of 80 = 3200 characters each, requiring about 320, 000 bytes for 100 terminals. This was more than provided for in the original controller design, so that boards for LOTS were modified to allow high-order addressing.
On PCs and workstations today, the entire display image is buffered, omitting the need for a hardware charcter generator, but requiring up to a Megabyte per display.
Courtesy of Ralph Gorin
ACME system status panel, 1966 Designed by Robert Flexer and Klaus Holtz
For the time-sharing and real-time data acquisition system in The Medical school, ACME, status indicators were provided on each of the 30 terminals, to reduce user frustration. The white ACME IS ON light was pulsed periodically, so that it would decay if the system went down. YOU ARE ON signaled each time slice allocated. The WAITING FOR YOU light indicated that input was expected from the terminal or a data-acquistion port, and the SPECIAL RUN ON light warned users that a high demand data acquisition task was in progress, reducing the performance for all others. Courtesy of Gio Wiederhold
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SAIL User Manual
June 1973Editor: Kurt VanLehn
Stanford AI Laboratory
The SAIL language was,with LISP 1.5, theprimary programming language at the Stanford AILaboratory, and used, a.o., for its research in robotics.
The SAIL language was derived from Algol 60, expanded with • direct access to PDP-10
I/Ofacilities,• control over external
interrupts• macro-capabilities• sets and lists• data structures for
associative search•multi-processingThe last three augmenta-tions were derived from LEAP, developed in 1969 by Jerry Feldman and Paul Rovner on the Lincoln Labs TX-2.Courtesy of Gio Wiederhold
DataDisc Display System1971: The DataDisc (DD) used the disk you see here to storeand continuously generate 32 video channels that were usedas display screens on monitors around the Stanford AI Lab.
1972: The DD video channels were routed through a crossbarswitch to any combination of 56 DD display terminals in thebuilding. Users could view the same channel from multiplemonitors, or multiple channels on one monitor.
1982: More and more DD channels had become very streaky andannoying, so the DD disk was replaced with RAM memory usingthe big 64Kbit chips in the “newDD” system designed at SAIL.
Here you see the DD’s small read amplifier cards mountedaround a circle. On the other side, arranged in a spiral,are the disk heads, which you can see in the shiny mirror in the back, which is the DD disk itself! (Note the dark lines on theouter portion of the disk -- from head crashes which disabled only selected channels.) One new DD memory board, holding fourvideo channels, is to the right.
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Monroe Decimal Calculator. ca. 1930Inventor: Frank Stephen Baldwin 1839-1925. This 10-key calculator provided accurate manual computation.
Its operator was called a computor.Each complete forward turn of the large crank on the right will add the value set into the 8 x 10 keys into the bottom register of the carriage. The top register counts the turns. Subtraction is achieved by turning the crank in reverse. To multiply the Repeat button is pressed and the crank turned as often as needed for the low-order digit. Then the carriage is moved to the right with the handle in front, so the next digit of the factor can be cranked in. The crank on the carriage is for resetting result and counter registers. Division is performed by subtracting the divisor left to right.
Courtesy of Gio Wiederhold
Courtesy of Gio Wiederhold
Monroe Decimal Calculator,ca.1930
Inventor: Frank Stephen Baldwin 1839-1925. This 10-key calculator provided accurate manual computation. Its operator was called a computor.
Each complete forward turn of the large crank on the right will add the value set into the 8 x 10 keys into the bottom register of the carriage. The top register counts the turns. Subtraction is achieved by turning the crank in reverse. To multiply the Repeat button is pressed and the crank turned as often as needed for the low-order digit. Then the carriage is moved to the right with the handle in front, so the next digit of the factor can be cranked in. The crank on the carriage is for resetting result and counter registers. Division is performed by subtracting the divisor left to right
Marchant Electric Calculator, ca. 1950.
Marchant Calculator Comp. , Oakland CA. This calculator was used by Prof. George Forsythe, founding chairman of the Stanford Computer Science department.This calculator replaced the human power required in earlier machines (see the Monroe calculator) with an electric motor, a single on/off relay and a number of mechanical clutches. The key on the side determines the number of turns for multiplication. Division was automated by entering the divisor in the keys and continuing subtraction until the the dividend was fully reduced. The carriage would then shift left and division continued. Courtesy of the Estate of George and Sandra Forsythe.
Calculators were used together with mathematical tables for scientific computation.
The proportional parts entries on the right-hand side of the base tables helped in interpolation to gain 6-digit accuracy in these computations.
This book was used at the NATO Air Defense Center in Holland by Gio Wiederhold in 1957 to predict short-range free-flight missile trajectories.
A group of 12 computors, working in pairs for cross-checking, took up to three weeks to obtain one result.
Courtesy of Gio Wiederhold
Mathematical Tables from theHandbook of Chemistry&Physic, 1949Chemical Rubber Publ. Company, Cleveland OH.
Automatic Calculator, model SW
Friden, Inc, San Leandro CA. 1956
This machine further automated calculation by allowing a multiple digit factor to be entered in the small panel on the right. Multiplication continues right to left, while the carriage shifts left, until all digits have been consumed. The result is appears on top.
The Friden company also produced a calculator which could do square roots.
A side panel and top cover have been removed to provide an impression of the complexity of mechanical computation. This type of calculator represents the end-of-the-line for mechnical digital calculation.
Courtesy of Robert Floyd
Stanford CSD TrophiesACM Programming Contests
19xx, 19xxx, 19xx, 19xxdisplay case 7
Stanford CSD TrophiesACM Programming Contests
19xx, 19xxx, 19xxdisplay case 7
The Stanford ArmStanford Artificial Intelligence LaboratoryHand-Eye Project, 1969
The arm contains 6 joints, and was configured to approximate human reach, but with a different joint structure. A pair were mounted on a table and operated in concert with a camera, which scanned the table surface for objects, as blocks, which then could be stacked. Specified tasks were then accomplished without further camera feedback. The claw provided force feedback.
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size (44, 43.5, 43.5, 45) x 42.5”
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Electric Key Punch IBM Corporation, 1923.Input and output for data processing was mainly by cards that were punched with holes in any of 12 row (X,Y,0-9) positions in one of 80 columns.
Any column could contain one of the 10 digits or an X (above the 2- key) for minus. Letters are entered by typing a digit (1-9) and X, Y, or zero. The EBCDIC en-coding in IBM mainframes is still a derivative of this scheme; elsewhere it has been replaced by ASCII.
In this model, the addition of a solenoid to drive the punches which perforated the cards greatly reduced fatigue and increased the speed of data preparation. Courtesy of IBM Research, Yorktown NY
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Console panel froman IBM/360-40 computer
Announced April 1964, first delivered 1965.
Courtesy of The Computer Museum
The table held the console printer of the ACME system, an IBM/360-50G with 1M. later 2Mb, auxiliary memory,performing timeshared real-time data acquisition and computation at the Stanford Medical School.
The IBM/360 architecture was to cover the spectrum from modest to large machines, and data-processing as well as scientific computation. The principal designers were
• Gene Amdahl,• Fred Brooks, and• Gerrit Blaauw.
The 8-bit byte, 32-bit word architecture is still used in today’s IBM mainframes.
It influenced greatly the later RCA Spectra, XDS , Ryad, and Univac 9000 computers, and to lesser extent the DEC VAX and Intel architectures.
CORE Memory planes from IBM/360 seriesIBM Corporation, ca. 1964Ferrite-core memories were first developed during the early 1950’s for use in the SAGE air-defense system. Each tiny doughnout-shaped core stored a single bit of information (1 or 0) by means of the clockwise or counterclockwise direction (around the hole) of the core’s internal magnetization. Tiny electric wires strung through the core holes were used to write and read information. Ferrite-cores soon replaced all other computer memory technologies because of their superior reliability and speed. The ferrite-core memory planes shown here were used in IBM System/360 computer beginning in 1964. A memory consisted of many core planes interconnected with electronic red-write circuitry. System/360 memories provided read-write cycles of 0.75 to 2.5 microseconds and capacities of thousand bytes to 1 million bytes. Manufacturing costs of ferrite cores were less than 0.1 cents each, but a fully wired core memory with all support circuitry cost 1 to 2 cents per bit. Semiconductor memories gradually replaced ferrite-core memories after the first all-semiconductor memory was introduced on the IBM System/370-145 in 1970.
Courtesy of IBM Yorktown Heights
CORE Memory planes from IBM/360 seriesIBM Corporation, ca. 1964Ferrite-core memories were first developed during the early 1950’s for use in the SAGE air-defense system. Each tiny doughnout-shaped core stored a single bit of information (1 or 0) by means of the clockwise or counterclockwise direction (around the hole) of the core’s internal magnetization. Tiny electric wires strung through the core holes were used to write and read information. Ferrite-cores soon replaced all other computer memory technologies because of their superior reliability and speed. The ferrite-core memory planes shown here were used in IBM System/360 computer beginning in 1964. A memory consisted of many core planes interconnected with electronic red-write circuitry. System/360 memories provided read-write cycles of 0.75 to 2.5 microseconds and capacities of 16 Kilobytes to 1 Megabyte. Manufacturing costs of ferrite cores were less than 0.1 cents each, but a fully wired core memory with all support circuitry cost 1 to 2 cents per bit. Semiconductor memories gradually replaced ferrite-core memories after the first all-semiconductor memory was introduced on the IBM System/370-145 in 1970.
Courtesy of IBM Yorktown Heights
The IBM/360 implementations differed in the technologies employed: ~rel. micro-code cycle integer datapath planned maximum model perf. storage time add time width memory memory 360-20* .25 main memory 2sec 20sec? 1 byte 16K (D) 64K (F) 360-30 1 capacitor cards 0.75sec 12sec 1 byte 32K (E) 64K (F) 360-40 3 printed transformers 0.62sec 10sec? 2 bytes 64K (F) 128K (G) 360-50 10 balanced capacitor 0.5sec 4sec 4 bytes 128K (G) 256K (H)360-65 20 balanced capacitor 0.2sec 1.5sec 8 bytes 256K (H) 512K (I)360-75 50 hardwired, overlap 0.195sec .75sec 8 bytes 512K (I) 1Mbyte (J) *
360-91* 200 hardwired, pipelined 0.060sec .2sec 8 bytes 1Mbyte(J) 2Mbyte (K)* * subsequent to April 1964 announcement
A single operating system was planned as well. However, it became soon obvious that the smaller machines would drag down the larger ones, and 64K becamethe minimum size for IBM-OS, smaller machines used a system called DOS. Stanford developed new (ACME), or augmented IBM’s operating systems (Wylbur and Orvyl).
Notes from Pugh, Johnson, Palmer:pp 338: -92=15x -70p 640 total range 200:1CACM vol 221.1 1978
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Apple Corporation
Apple I I +Designed originally 1977
Magnavox 12” b-w TV,used as computer display
The early Apple computers used TV setsto display about 20 linesof 40 characters each.
Computer courtesy of The Computer Museum,TV c.o. Voy & Gio Wiederhold
VisiCorp
User Guide for VisiCalc Electronic Worksheet program, 1981.
Inventor Bob Frankstonat Software Arts, Inc, 1979.
All commands were single letter codes, combined with arrow keys and functions.
Courtesy of Gio Wiederhold
Conventional programming, languages as BASIC and PASCAL were made available for the Apple, but had limited acceptance.
The innovative interactive VisiCalc spreadsheet program for the Apple II and, later, the IBM PC, transformed personal computers to useful business tools, and greatly broadened their market.
Visicalc was in turn replaced by Lotus, due its intuitive point-and-click interface.
UCSD
Apple PASCAL 1.1
Developer Kenneth Bowles 1979
Graphic extensions by Apple Corporation.
Manual by Arthur Luehmann and Herbert Peckham, McGraw-Hill 1981
Courtesy of Gio Wiederhold
Pascal was defined in 1972 by Prof. Niklaus Wirth and imple-mented in 1978 with Kathleen Jensen at the ETH in Zürich, Switzerland for the CDC 6000. The intent was to have a clearand effective language for teaching. Its simple typestructure was in part a reaction to the complexity introduced with Algol 68.Pascal became rapidly very popular and was also widely used in commercial practice.It was the language used forteaching at Stanford CSDfrom 1979 to 1991.
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Computer History ExhibitsInstallation in Progress
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ith p
laye
rs o
ften
wai
ting
for
ove
r an
ho
ur
for
thei
r ne
xt t
urn
.
Gal
axy
Gam
e is
a r
epro
gram
med
ve
rsio
n of
Spa
cew
ar!,
whi
ch w
as c
once
ived
in
196
1 b
y M
artin
Gra
etz,
Ste
phe
n R
usse
ll, a
nd W
ayne
Wiit
anen
and
firs
t re
aliz
ed
on
the
PD
P-1
at
M.I
.T.
in 1
962
by
Ste
phe
n R
uss
ell,
Pet
er S
amso
n,
Dan
Edw
ards
, an
d M
artin
Gra
etz
, to
get
her
with
Ala
n K
otok
, S
teve
Pin
er,
and
Rob
ert
A.
Sa
unde
rs u
sing
PD
P-1
ass
mbl
y la
ngu
age.
It
very
bec
ame
popu
lar
at m
ost
Art
ifici
al I
ntel
ligen
ce (
AI)
res
earc
h ce
nter
s an
d is
now
ava
ilab
le in
a
sim
ula
ted
vers
ion
on t
he w
eb:
http
://lc
s.w
ww
.med
ia.m
it.ed
u/gr
oup
s/el
/pro
ject
s/sp
ace
war
/.
Spa
cew
ar w
as a
mag
ical
gam
e th
at c
aptiv
ated
eve
ryon
e th
at p
laye
d it.
H
owe
ver,
sin
ce t
ime
on t
he m
ainf
ram
e co
mpu
ters
req
uire
d t
o su
ppor
t S
pace
war
was
bill
ed t
o u
sers
at
rate
s of
se
vera
l hun
dred
dol
lars
per
hou
r,
Spa
cew
ar w
as u
sua
lly p
laye
d o
nly
by s
yste
m p
rogr
amm
ers
whe
n th
e m
ainf
ram
e w
as id
le;
times
like
2am
!
In la
te 1
970,
Dig
ital E
quip
me
nt C
orpo
ratio
n in
tro
duce
d th
e P
DP
-11
min
icom
pute
r.
Fin
ally
, th
ere
was
an
aff
orda
ble
com
pute
r w
ith t
he p
ow
er t
o ru
n S
pace
war
!.
So
, B
ill P
itts
(a r
ecen
t S
tanf
ord
grad
an
d A
I al
umni
) an
d h
is h
igh
sc
hool
bud
dy H
ugh
Tuc
k fo
rmed
Com
pute
r R
ecr
eat
ions
, In
c. in
Jun
e of
197
1 to
bui
ld c
oin
oper
ate
d S
pac
ewa
r m
achi
nes.
Bill
, a
com
pute
r ha
cker
, di
d th
e pr
ogra
mm
ing
and
elec
tric
al s
tuff
, an
d H
ugh
, a
mec
hani
cal e
ngin
eer,
des
igne
d th
e en
clos
ures
. A
fter
th
ree
and
a ha
lf m
onth
s of
labo
r, S
pace
war
was
abo
ut
to b
e de
liver
ed t
o th
e m
asse
s.
Ho
wev
er,
at t
his
time
(1
971)
, th
e c
once
pt o
f "w
ar"
was
a v
ery
ba
d th
ing
on
cam
pus.
A
stut
e m
arke
teer
s th
at t
hey
wer
e, B
ill a
nd H
ugh
deci
ded
to
chan
ge t
he n
ame
to
Gal
axy
Gam
e.
The
firs
t ve
rsio
n of
Ga
laxy
Gam
e, p
acka
ged
in a
wal
nut
ven
eere
d en
clos
ure,
in
corp
ora
ted
a P
DP
-11/
20 c
om
pute
r, a
sim
ple
poi
nt p
lott
ing
dis
pla
y in
terf
ace,
an
d a
Hew
lett
Pac
kard
130
0A E
lect
rost
atic
Dis
play
. T
he P
DP
-11/
20 (
with
8K
by
tes
of c
ore
me
mor
y an
d an
opt
ion
al h
ardw
are
mu
ltip
ly/d
ivid
e u
nit)
cos
t $1
4,0
00
and
the
dis
pla
y co
st $
3,0
00.
Coi
n ac
cept
ors
and
pa
ckag
ing
brou
ght
the
tota
l cos
t to
app
roxi
mat
ely
$20,
000.
Gal
axy
Gam
e w
as
pric
ed a
t 10
cen
ts p
er g
ame
or 2
5 ce
nts
for
3 ga
mes
. If
at
the
end
of t
he g
am
e yo
ur s
hip
still
sur
vive
d an
d ha
d s
ome
fuel
left
, yo
u g
ot a
fr
ee g
ame.
P
erha
ps B
ill a
nd H
ugh
wer
e n
ot t
he m
ost
ast
ute
of
busi
ness
me
n .
A s
econ
d ve
rsio
n of
Gal
axy
Ga
me,
with
a m
ore
pow
erfu
l dis
pla
y in
terf
ace
ena
blin
g th
e P
DP
-11
to d
rive
fou
r to
eig
ht c
ons
ole
s, w
as d
eve
lope
d to
am
ortiz
e th
e c
ost
of t
he c
om
pute
r ov
er s
ever
al c
onso
les.
T
his
vers
ion
was
in
stal
led
in t
he C
offe
e H
ouse
at
Tre
sidd
er U
nion
in J
une
1972
, w
her
e it
rem
aine
d in
op
erat
ion
until
Ma
y 19
79.
Thr
ough
out
its t
enur
e a
t T
ress
idde
r,
Gal
axy
Gam
e w
as
hea
vily
use
d. T
en t
o tw
enty
peo
ple
gath
ered
aro
und
the
m
achi
nes
mos
t F
rida
y an
d S
atu
rday
nig
hts
whe
n sc
hool
wa
s in
ses
sio
n.
Aft
er r
emo
vin
g G
alax
y G
ame
fro
m T
ress
idde
r (b
ecau
se t
he d
ispl
ay
proc
esso
r ha
d be
com
e ve
ry u
nrel
iabl
e)
the
mac
hine
was
dis
asse
mbl
ed.
The
co
mpu
ter
and
dis
pla
ys w
ere
stor
ed
in a
n o
ffic
e an
d th
e fib
ergl
ass
case
s w
ere
stor
ed
outd
oors
for
the
nex
t ei
ghte
en y
ears
. S
omet
ime
in A
pril
1997
, Le
s E
arne
st (
the
form
er D
irect
or o
f th
e S
tanf
ord
AI
Lab)
rec
eive
d a
phon
e
call
from
Bill
Pitt
s.
Bill
wa
s ab
out
to
thro
w a
way
som
e ol
d P
DP
-11
stuf
f, a
nd
he w
as w
onde
ring
if Le
s m
ight
kno
w o
f a
go
od h
ome
for
old
com
pute
rs.
Le
s m
ent
ione
d th
at t
he n
ew C
ompu
ter
His
tory
Exh
ibits
mig
ht
be in
tere
sted
.
So,
Bill
fire
d of
f a
coup
le o
f em
ails
in t
he d
irect
ion
of S
tanf
ord
and
the
n fin
ally
, a
re
ply!
Y
es,
the
Com
pute
r H
isto
ry E
xhib
its w
oul
d lik
e G
alax
y G
ame
as a
n op
erat
ing
exh
ibit.
To
get
Ga
laxy
Gam
e op
erat
ing
agai
n w
ould
be
no s
mal
l fea
t.
The
ca
ll fo
r he
lp w
ent
out.
T
he b
igge
st jo
b w
ould
be
to
build
a n
ew d
ispl
ay p
roce
sso
r us
ing
the
orig
inal
des
ign
sche
mat
ics.
T
ed P
anof
sky,
who
had
de
sig
ned
and
built
the
dis
play
pro
cess
or
way
bac
k w
hen,
so
on r
ecei
ved
a ca
ll fr
om B
ill.
C
ould
Te
d p
leas
e ta
ke c
ompl
ete
resp
onsi
bilit
y fo
r bu
ildin
g an
d d
eliv
erin
g a
fully
fun
ctio
nal d
ispl
ay p
roce
ssor
in e
igh
t w
eeks
?
For
fre
e,
of c
our
se.
Te
d sa
id h
e'd
be
en w
aitin
g 2
5 y
ears
for
just
suc
h an
opp
ortu
nity
! Y
es,
he w
ould
lo
ve t
o!
So,
with
Ted
's g
ener
ous
cont
ribut
ion
of t
ime,
ene
rgy,
and
sm
arts
, a
nd h
elp
from
Dou
g B
rent
linge
r, P
aul M
ancu
so,
and
Vic
tor
Sch
ein
man
, th
e G
alax
y G
ame
is b
ack.
B
y th
e w
ay,
th
e o
rigin
al d
ispl
ay
proc
esso
r's p
oor
relia
bilit
y re
sulte
d fr
om u
sing
ear
ly v
inta
ge T
exas
Ins
trum
ents
wire
wra
p IC
soc
kets
. T
ed w
as n
ot t
he o
ne
tha
t se
lect
ed t
hem
.
Bot
h ve
rsio
ns o
f G
ala
xy G
ame
wer
e ba
sed
on t
he t
he S
tan
ford
AI
Lab'
s P
DP
-10
vers
ion
of S
pace
war
. G
alax
y G
ame
is a
fai
thfu
l PD
P-1
1 re
-im
plem
enta
tion
of t
he A
I La
b's
PD
P-1
0 S
pace
war
. E
xcep
t, I
don
't se
em t
o re
call
any
coin
acc
ept
ors
on
the
PD
P-1
0
Bill
Pitt
s,
O
ctob
er 2
9,
1997
The
Com
pute
r H
isto
ry E
xhib
its t
hank
Bill
Pitt
s, T
ed P
anof
sky,
D
oug
Bre
ntlin
ger
, an
d P
aul M
anc
uso
for
the
ir ef
fort
in r
esta
rtin
g th
e G
alax
y an
dkee
pin
g it
goin
g.
Mon
ey s
pen
t in
pla
yin
g th
ie G
alax
y G
am
e w
ill o
nly
be
use
d fo
r th
e m
aint
enan
ce o
f t
he C
o,m
pute
r H
isto
ry E
xhib
its
Contributors
Hector Garcia-Molina, Mark Horowitz, Joe Oliger, Carlos Tomasi, Gio Wiederhold
We also acknowledge departmental support for installation infrastructure
Special Thanks To
Doug Brentlinger, Diane Forsythe, John
Goldschmidt, Ralph Gorin, Andrew Kacsmar, Oussama Khatib, Jill Knuth, Verena LaMar, Paul Mancuso, Robert
Miller, Zae Ozaki, Ted Panofsky, Bill Pitts, Victor Scheinman, Eileen Schwappach,
Marianne Siroker
Organizing Committee
Zoe Allison, Gwen Bell, Les Earnest, Martin Frost, Penny Nii, Bernard Peuto, Len Shustek, Gio and Voy Wiederhold
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