computer based insruction

COMPUTER BASED INSRUCTION

It will be helpful, to start with offering some definitions of Computer Aided Instruction

(CAI ) and other kinds of learning activities involving computers .

As Kulik and Bangert ) 1985 ( point out "the terminology in the area is open to dispute ."

The terms used by educators and researchers - computer-assisted instruction, computer-based education, computer-based instruction, computer- enriched instruction, computer-managed instruction are seem to be very confusing.

The following definitions are commonly accepted)though certainly not the only(:

• Computer-based education ) CBE( and computer-based instruction )CBI( are the broadest terms and can refer to virtually any kind of computer use in educational settings including drill and practice, tutorials, simulations, instructional management,' supplementary exercises, programming, data base development, writing using word processors, and other applications )Banget, 1985; Batey, 1987; Grimes,1977; Samson et. a1.s 1986; and Stennett, 1985 (.

• These terms may refer either to stand-alone computer learning activities or to computer activities which reinforce material introduced and taught by teachers.

• Computer-assisted instruction ) CA! ( is a narrower tenn and most often refers to drill-and-practices tutorial, or simulation activities offered either by themselves or as supplements to traditional, teacher directed instruction.

• Computer-managed instruction ) CMI ( can refer either to the use of computers by school staff to organize student data and make instructional decisions or to activities in which

the computer evaluates students' test performance, guides them to appropriate instructional resources, and keeps records of

their process.

• Computer-enriched instruction ) CEI ( is defined as learning activities in which computers :

• )1( generate data at the students' request to illustrate relationships in models of social and physical reality.

• )2( execute programs developed by the students.

• )3( provide general enrichment in relatively unstructured exercises designed to stimulate and motivate students.

INTRODUCTION TO CBI

• As the computer revolution continues, both education and training are being increasingly influenced by the presence of readily available computer resources.

• Following is the rationale behind the use of Tutorials, Drills, Simulations and Games for educational purposes.

• The first use of computers by educational institutions coincided approximately with the introduction of second generation computers at the end of 1950's.

• About this time, larger universities began using computers for administrative purposes such as accounting, payroll and record keeping.

• At the same time people began using computers for instructional research.

• In the mid-1970's a few smaller computer companies began experimenting with micro computers. Unlike large and medium-sized computers they could be used by one person at time and were referred to as dedicated computers.

• The introduction of these microcomputers ushered in the microcomputer revolution. Until this time, projects in CBI were the domain of large projects that had the funds necessary for expensive computers.

• With the introduction of microcomputers, it became possible for the individual to buy one and start using it for educational purposes.

• From 1977 to today we have seen phenomenal growth in the educational uses of computers. All colleges and universities even elementary and secondary schools have microcomputers.

The way in which computers are currently used for instruction are tutorials, drills, simulations and instructional games.

Tutorials:

In the tutorial mode the computer provides new information and engages the student in a question-and-answer dialogue about the information.

• In this role, the computer can help the student discover and integrate information, and route the tutee to new material or to remedial instruction depending upon the program's evaluation of the student's response.

• While drill-and-practice software typically discriminates only right answers from wrong, tutorials can be built to deal with a wider variety of response,thereby heightening the instructional experience.

• The major prerequisite for developing a successful tutorial program is, of course, that the algorithm for teaching a topic be defined clearly so that it can be programmed.

• Drills:

• Drill and practice focus on the review or consolidation of an already acquired knowledge or skill.

• It is therefore particularly applicable in curricular areas where specific facts need to be learned or skills developed, such as arithmetic, spelling, history reading, foreign languages, and sciences.

• The drill-and-practice software format usually consists of a computer presented problem and a student entered answer.

• Within this general design, a great variety of methods is used for indicating correct or incorrect responses, providing hints, branching students to different problems according to the correctness of their answers, and grading performance.

• Some software of this type is capable of keeping detailed records of an individual student's performance.

• Simulations :

• Simulations are built around models of physical or social situations.

• The model, which necessarily simplifies the situation being presented, can be organized either as a pedagogical scenario or as a game with which the student interacts in order to accomplish certain goals )e.g., successfully land a plane, keep a nuclear power plant from experiencing an accident.

• This instructional method can produce exceptional motivation and interest, and often provides the only practical, safe, or possible experience with a given situation.

• For example, simulations can present experiments in genetics or radioactivity which for reasons of time and/or safety, cannot be conducted by students in the classroom

• Instructional Games:

• Instructional games provide an appealing environment in which learners follow prescribed rules as they try to attain a challenging goal.

• It is a highly motivational approach, especially for tedious and repetitive content.

• Games often require learners to use problem solving skills or demonstrate mastery of specific content such as math facts and. vocabulary words.

• Games include elements of competition or challenge wherein players compete against themselves, against other individuals, or against an objective standard.

• Computers are but one element of the instructional environment, along with teachers and media. Thus, the computer may serve any combination of the four phases of instruction described above.

• COMPUTER SOFTWARE• Software, also called a computer program or

simply a program, is a series of instructions that tells the hardware of a computer what to do and how to do it.

• For example, some instructions direct the computer to allow you to input data from the keyboard and store it in memory.

• Other instructions cause data stored in memory to be used in calculations, such as adding a series of numbers to obtain a total.

• Some instructions compare two values stored in memory and direct the computer to perform alternative operations based on the results of the comparison; and some instructions direct the computer to print a report, display information on the monitor, draw a colour graph on the monitor, or store information on a disc.

• Before a computer can perform or execute a program the instructions in the program must be placed, or loaded into the memory of the computer. Usually, they are loaded into memory from storage.

• For example, a program might be loaded from the hard disc of a computer into memory for execution.

• When we purchase a program, we will one or more floppy discs, one or more CD-ROMs, or single DVD-ROM on which the software is stored.

• To use this software, we often must install the software on the computer's hard disc. Many programs also may be purchased and downloaded from internet.

Software can be categorized into two types system software and application software:

SYSTEM SOFTWARE• System software consists of programs that

control the operations of a computer and its devices.

• System software is a connection between a user and the computer's hardware.

**Two types of system software are the operating system and utility programs.

Operatin2 System :– One of the more important programs on a

computer, the operating system contains instructions that coordinate all of the activities of hardware devices.

– The operating system also contains instructions that allow you to run application software.

• When we start a computer, the computer loads or copies the operating system into memory from the hard disc.

• He operating system remains in the memory while the computer runs and allows us to communicate with the computer and other software.

• Many Macintosh computers use a unique operating system called the Macintosh operating system )MacOS(. Many of today's PC's use a popular operating system called Microsoft Windows.

Utility Pro2rams :

• A utility program is a type of system software that performs a specific task, usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs.

• An example of a utility program is an uninstaller, which removes a program previously installed on a computer.

• APPLICA TION SOFTWARE;

• Application software consist of programs designed to perform specific tasks for users.

• When we think of the different ways people use computers in their careers or personal lives, we are thinking of examples of application software.

• Educational, business, and scientific computer programs are all examples of application software.

• Popular application software includes word processing, spreadsheet, database, and presentation graphics.

• Word processing software allows us to create documents such as letters and reports.

• Spreadsheet software allows us to calculate numbers arranged in rows an columns and create charts and graphs. Teachers and schools use spreads he et software for grade-books, lesson plans, and other school related tasks.

• software allows us to store data in an organized fashion as well as to retrieve' manipulate, and display that data in a meaningful form.

• With presentation graphics software,we can create electronic slides for use when giving classroom presentations.

• Computer software manufacturers frequently package these four applications as a single unit, called a software suite.

• software suite contains individual software applications sold in the same box for a price that is significantly less than buying the applications separately.

• Many other types of application software exists that enable users to perform a variety of tasks.

• Some widely used software applications include: reference, education, and entertainment; desktop publishing; photo and video editing; multimedia authoring; network, communications, electronic mail, and Web browsers; accounting; school and student record keeping; and personal information management.

• The number and quality of software applications designed specifically for the K-12 learning environment have increased dramatically recently.

• SOFTWARE SELECTION• The educational potential of technology shows

its effect on the rapid adoption.

• Computers and associated devices) e.g., videodiscs, digitizing tablets, environmental probes( make possible educational experiences that were previously too costly, dangerous, or otherwise impractical to provide.

• These and other influences are forcing educators to establish computer education programs.

• In comparison with other educational programs, computer education is unusually costly to implement.

• Not only computers must be purchased-a considerable capital investment in itself-but funds must be expanded for equipment repair and maintenance facilities modification, furniture, sofware, supplementary materials, teacher training and supplies, among other things.

• The total cost of establishing and operating a computer education program can be daunting, and hardware is clearly only one element of that cost )Stecher, 1986(.

• The high cost of computer education demands that careful planning and systematic evaluation go into the development of any new program.

• Without careful planning and evaluation, some very expensive mistakes can be-and have been-made.

• When purchasing computers, school personnel all too frequently do not devote sufficient attention to software selection.

• It is software that makes a computer more or less useful.

• Software can turn a computer into a good or bad tutor, word processor, information retrieval device, mailing label generator, or any of a variety of other devices.

• Thus, selection of appropriate software is crucial to making an investment in hardware pay off.

• The process of selecting instructional materials for schools is often systematic.

• Films, textbooks, worksheets and other materials, whether chosen by individual teachers or district committees, are typically selected with regard to the instructional objectives, student needs, preferred instructional approaches, budgets and other factors.

• Frequently, during this process criteria are established, outside opinions are obtained, product samples are examined.

• Since software can turn a computer into an instructional device, software, too, should be considered instructional material.

• As such, its purchase should be undertaken with the same care and organization as are purchases of other instructional media.

• SEVEN STEPS TO RESPONSIBLE SOFTWARE SELECTION

Below is an outline of a seven step process for responsible software selection:

• 1. Analyze Needs.• 2. Specify Requirements.• 3. Identify Promising Software .• 4. Read Relevant Reviews.• 5. Preview Software.• 6. Make Recommendations .• 7. Get Post-Use Feedback.

• Step 1 : Analyze Needs

•The responsible teacher )or materials selection committee( should first determine whether or not the computer is the appropriate medium to use to satisfy particular instructional goals and

objectives .

•There is always the possibility that a careful needs analysis will result in a decision to use some other teaching-Learning strategy.

• Needs & Goals

• A need is the difference between "where we are now" )e.g., 60% of the students in the ninth grade score above minimum competence on the state science test( and "where we would like to be" )e.g., 90% of the students in ninth grade score above minimum competence on the state science test(.

• "Where we would like to be" is another way of defining a goal.

• Objectives

• An objective describes "where we would like to be" in more specific terms )e.g., 90% of all ninth grade students will exceed the minimum level of competence on the state competency test administered in the second semester of ninth grade(.

• Objectives must include conditions under which the desired behavior will be demonstrated and the criteria for measuring that behavior.

• Educational objectives help us respond to needs by breaking them into attainable steps, making it easier to get from "where we are now" to "where we would like to be.

• "The educational objective stated above is a "terminal" objective which must be broken down into a series of "enabling" objectives )e.g., By October 31, 2003, all the ninth grade students will be able to correctly identify five out of seven minerals when shown them by the teacher.(

• Enabling objectives identify specifically what behaviour we would like the student demonstrate.

• For each enabling objective, the teacher )or materials selection committee( should brainstorm alternative learning methods for achieving that objective )direct student teacher interaction, self-instruction workbook, videotape, computer-assisted instruction, etc.(.

• After considering the benefits and constraints of each learning method, the teacher )or materials selection committee( should be able to make an informed decision about which medium or combination of media will satisfy the identified needs, goals, and objectives.

• Step 2: Specify Requirements

• If a careful needs analysis determines that computer-assisted instruction is one of the methods that will be used to meet identified instructional objectives, the teacher )or materials selection committee( should then specify the requirements for the computer software.

Factors to consider in specifying requirements for software include:

*Compatibility with available hardware.

*Cost ) Will the school need multiple copies of the software?

)Will a site license be necessary?(

*User friendliness.

*Level of interaction desired.

* Adequacy of documentation.

* Access to technical support via toll-free number.

*Direct correlation with the instructional objectives and curriculum requirements identified in the needs analysis.

• Ellsworth and Hedley )1993( suggest that educators should apply the following criteria within the context of their objectives and the students' needs: content; instructional presentation; demands placed on the learner; technical features; and documentation and management features.

Step 3: Identify Promising Software

• If requirements are specified in detail, the teacher ) or materials selection committee( will have a good head start when it comes to identifying promising software.

• There are many ways to identify promising software, and the responsible selector should use as many of them as possible.

• Catalogs still remain an important source for descriptions of software.

• Most district level educational communications/media centres are on catalogue mailing lists from virtually all software producers and wholesalers.

• Software is advertised, described, and often reviewed in magazines and journals found in school, university, and public libraries.

• The Educational Software Selector )TESS(, a database containing descriptions and reviews of thousands of currently published educational software programs.

• Teachers who have access to the Internet can find out software from other teachers by joining a listserv. Posting a question such as, "I am an eight grade science teacher and I am looking for interactive software for a PC environment that will teach my students how to. . . ." is likely to bring many responses.

• The above are the few sources for identifying promising software.

• The more precisely the requirements are specific in step 2, the easier it will be to screen out those products that are least likely to meet the user's.

• specifications and easier it will be to focus on more promising products.

Step 4: Read Relevant Reviews

• After a list of promising software has been identified )using the suggestions outlined in step 3(, the teacher )or materials selections committee( may be able to narrow or expand the list by reading relevant software reviews.

• It is very important to realize, however, that reading reviews should not take the place of previewing, described in step 5.

• Software reviews may be found in educational journals, some of which may be identified by searching the

• ERIC database using appropriate descriptors ) e.g., software, selection, evaluation,

elementary, secondary(.

• Evaluation services such as EPIE, subscribed to by many schools and public libraries, provide a database of selected software evaluations and reviews.

• A visit to the library is an important part of responsible software selection.

• Keep step 1 )Analyze Needs( and step 2 )Specify Requirements( in mind as we read the reviews.

• It is also important to note the audience upon the review is based.

• A software program may have received a poor review because it was tested with a different audience than the one we have in mind.

• Reviews are more important screening tools when used as part of the entire selection process.

Step 5 : Preview Software

• The most effective way to judge whether software is appropriate or not is to observe students as they interact with the program.

• Are the educational objectives achieved when the student uses the program? The responsible teacher should not purchase software without previewing it with his or her own students.

• Preview as many programs as you can find that appear to meet the selection criteria.

• Some software vendors will allow free preview of an entire program.

• Some vendors will provide a free demonstration disc containing a subset of a larger program.

• Some vendors will not allow preview without a purchase order, but will allow the teacher to return the program within a specified time limit with no financial obligation.

• In some situations, a teacher may be able to borrow a program from another teacher for preview purposes.

• As a general rule, if there is no way to preview software with the students - avoid that software.

Step 6: Make Recommendations

• After potential software has been previewed, it is simple to make recommendations for purchase.

• The responsible software selector should h able to :

* select the most desirable software after a systematic evaluation ofall alternatives in terms of educational objectives and constraints;

* establish a quantitative method for rating each alternative against theselection criteria established in step 2

* evaluate the relative importance of each selection criterion, )Le.,previewing should probably rated relatively high in importance(;

* create a written record outlining the reasons why a.piece of softwareis recommended or not recommended for purchase.

• For software that is recommended for purchase, teachers should include suggestions for optimal use that might have become apparent during the preview period.

• The written record, including the quantitative rating scale and the selection criteria, should be kept on file for future references.

• Step 7: Get Post-Use Feedback

• After software is purchased and used with students, it is important for the teacher to determine the conformance or discrepancy between all of the enabling objectives specified in Step 1 and the student performance actually obtained using the chosen computer software.

• The teacher should keep records on the relative extent to which each objective is met or not met not met .

• Objective may be addressed by some other software program or by another teaching/learning method.

• Post-use feedback can get a significant help to a school's

systematic process of software selection,purchase and use.

• The accumulation of user feedback, including anecdotal experience on the part of both teachers and students, will naturally serve to improve future needs analyses )Step 1( and all succeeding steps in a constantly improving software selection process.

• A very basic evaluation form that can be used as a general guide for software evaluations for many software types and target audiences is given in the Appendix.

• While using this form modifications might be needed depending on the students and topics intended to teach, as well as the experience and personal teaching philosophy of the teacher.

MORE ON EV ALUA TING SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS

• When you identify a software package that potentially is suited to the' curriculum needs, we should evaluate the software for appropriateness, review the accuracy of the content, and consider its relevance to the curriculum standards and goals.

• A rubric is a great tool for evaluating software.

• A rubric is a detailed assessment tool that includes a set of evaluation criteria that specifies the required achievements for each 'level of quality, which usually is identified by numbers or levels, or by points I earned.

• Software evaluation rubrics help us evaluate educational software.

• A software evaluation rubric is an assessment tool that provides a number of important evaluation criteria, including content, documentation and technical support, ability and academic levels, technical quality, and ease of use to help assess the quality of software or other items.

• A two page Software Evaluation Rubric is shown in the next two following pages )Figure 1 and Figure 2 (.

• Many schools develop their own software evaluation rubrics for teachers to use, while in other schools, teachers create their own software evaluation rubrics.

• The Web is a great resource for locating rubrics. Many different software evaluation rubrics are available on the Web for us to use or alter to fit our specific needs.

• Content

• When evaluating educational software, content is the most important area to consider.

• When examining software content, we need to determine if the software is valid.

• Valid means the software has well-grounded instructional properties, meets standards, provides appropriate content, and teaches what is intended.

• Most software companies and distributors provide a description of the content and learning skills addressed for their software packages; some software firms even match the skills the software teaches with specific curriculum standards and learning objectives.

• When evaluating the contents of a software application, we should always relate them to our specific learning standards and curriculum goals.

• Documentation and Technical Support

• When evaluating software we should also consider the technical support and documentation the software offers.

• Documentation is any printed or online information that provides assistance in installing, using, maintaining, and updating the software.

• We should review the documentation for readability and depth of coverage.

• Technical support is a service that hardware and software manufacturers and a third party service companies offer to customers to provide answers to questions, repairs and other assistance.

• Companies usually provide technical support over the telephone or via Web.

• Some firms even provide on-site support.

• In addition to receiving the available documentation and technical support, we should also determine if any other kinds of support are available, such as clear easy-to-use aids and tutorials.

• Some software companies, for example, provide instructor resource guides and lesson plans to assist integrating their software into curriculum areas.

• Ability Levels

• Educators need to evaluate whether the software can be used with more than one ability or academic level.

• An ability level refers to a student's current competency level or the skill level he or she can achieve for a specific learning objective.

• The academic level is based on the grade level with increments to determine if a student is performing at the appropriate level.

• Several software applications, such as math and reading software adjust the academic level as students successfully move through specific skills.

• Numerous software applications allow us to set the academic, or ability levels at which students are required to work.

• Technical Quality and Ease of Use

• Technical quality refers to how well the software presents itself and how well it works. Items to evaluate are the clarity of the screen design, appropriateness of feedback and student prompts; and use of graphics, animations, sound, and other media elements.

• Ease of use, or user-friendliness, refers to anything that makes the software easy to use.

• Software should be easy for both teachers and students to use, while at the same time maintaining the students' interest.

• Student options also play an important role in successfully integrating new technology. After the evaluation is completed, we may want to feedback from students by allowing them to use and test the software.

• If students have difficult time working through exercises, they may dislike the program and get frustrated.

• If the students dislike the software, they will not enjoy using it even though they learn.

• This dislike will limit the effectiveness of the software in classroom use.

• We must make sure that the software is easy to use and appropriate for the students~ grade and ability level.

APPENDIX

SOFTWARE EVALUATION FORM

• Evaluator:

• Software Title:

• Publisher:

• Type of Software:

• Platform )type of computer and system requirements

• Subject Area:

• LEVEL:

• DOCUMENTATION & SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS:

* Necessary technical documentation is included

* Objectives are clearly stated

* Learning activities that facilitate integration into curriculum are

suggested

* Materials for enrichment and remedial activities are provided

• PROGRAM CONTENT:

* Instruction matches stated objectives

* Instructional strategies are based on current research

* Instruction addresses various learning styles and intelligences

* Information is current and accurate

* Program is free of stereotypes

• PRESENTATION:

* Information is presented in a developmentally appropriate andlogical way

* Examples and illustrations are relevant* There is appropriate variety in screen

displays* Text is clear and printed in type suitable for

target audience* Spelling, punctuation, and grammar are

correct

• EFFECTIVENESS:

* Students are able to recall and use information presented follow

program use

* Program prepares students for future real-world experiences

* Students develop further interest in topic from using program

* This is an appropriate use of instructional software

• AUDIENCE APPEAL & SUITABILITY

* Program matches interest level of indicated audience

* Expected input is appropriate for indicated audience

* Reading level is appropriate for indicated audience

* Examples and illustrations are suitable for indicated audience

* Required time is compatible with student attention

* Program branches to remediation or enrichment when appropriate

• PRACTICE / ASSESSMENT I FEEDBACK:

* Practice is provided to accomplish objectives

* Practice is appropriate for topic and audience

* Feedback is relevant to student responses

* Feedback is immediate

* Feedback is varied

* Feedback gives remediation

* Reinforcement is positive and dignified

* Assessment is aligned with objectives

* Open-ended responses and/or portfolio opportunities are promoted

*Collaborative learning experiences are provided for

EASE OF USE:* User can navigate through program without

difficulty* Screen directions are consistent and easy to

follow* Help options are comprehensive and readily

available* Program responds to input as indicated by

directions* Title sequence is brief and can be bypassed* User can control pace and sequence* User can exit from any screen* Only one input is registered when key is held

down

• USER INTERFACE AND MEDIA QUALITY

* Interface provides user with an appropriate environment

* Graphics, audio, video, and/or animations enhance instruction

* Graphics, audio, video, and/or animations stimulate student interes1

* Graphics~ audio, video, and/or animations are of high quality