comparison of ancient civilizations

8/10/2019 Comparison of Ancient Civilizations

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A Comparison of

Ancient CivilizationsEgypt, Greece, Rome

Geographical

Influences

The NILE RIVER , the longest river in the world (6,650 kilometers or 4,132miles), flows north from the heart of Africa to the Mediterranean Sea. Its floodplain was a magnet for life -- human, plant and animal. Humans were drawnthere because they could grow crops and settle into permanent villages.

For centuries, THE NILE RIVER FLOODED THE VALLEY , enriching the land with athick layer of alluvial soil. Flooding occurred from July to September as the result oftropical rains. The river attained its highest level in October, then began to recede to

its lowest point sometime between April and June.

TRANSPORTATION: The Nile River was the highway that joined the countrytogether. Up until the nineteenth century, travel by land was virtually unknown.

Located in southeastern Europe, Greece is defined by a series of mountainsand surrounded on all sides except the north by water.

Ancient Greek View of the World

The Mediterranean Seamoderates Greece'sclimate, cooling the airin summer and providingwarmth in the wintermonths. Summers aregenerally hot and dry.Winters are moderateand rainy in coastalregions and cold and

snowy in mountainousareas.

Numerous MOUNTAIN RANGES , which crisscross thepeninsula, hampered internal communications and ledto the development of independent city-states.

Numerous ISLANDS and the indented coastlines of theGreek peninsula and of Asia Minor stimulated aseagoing trade.The ROCKY SOIL and limited natural resourcesencouraged the Greeks to establish colonies abroad.

Modern scholars believethat in the 8th centuryB.C., the inhabitants ofsome small Latinsettlements on hills in theTiber valley united andestablished a commonmeeting place, theFORUM, around whichthe city of Rome grew.

Social and Political

Structure

The PHAROAH was at the top of thesocial hierarchy.

Ancient Egypt achieved stability through theco-operation of all levels of the population.

Under them were the HIGHPRIESTS , followed by ROYALOVERSEERS (administrators) whoensured that the 42 DISTRICTGOVERNORS carried out the

pharaoh's orders.

Next to him, the most powerful officerswere the VIZIERS , the executiveheads of the bureaucracy.

At the bottom of the hierarchywere the SCRIBES,ARTISANS, FARMERS , andLABORERS .

To reinforce their image as powerful divine rulers, the PHARAOHS represented themselves in writings and sculptured reliefs on temple walls.They often DEPICTED THEMSELVES AS WARRIORS who single-

handedly killed scores of enemies and slaughtered a whole pride of lions.

Four major TYPES OF GOVERNMENT evolved in ancient Greece:Monarchy (rule of a king) limited by an aristocratic counciland a popular assembly.

Oligarchy (rule of the few) arising when the aristocraticcouncil ousted the king and abolished the assembly.Tyranny (rule by one who ruled without legal authority) ridingto power on the discontent of the lower classes.Democracy (rule of the people), the outstanding political

achievement of the Greeks.

ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY

DIRECT PARTICIPATION was the

key to Athenian DEMOCRACY . Inthe Assembly, every male citizenwas not only entitled to attend asoften as he pleased but also hadthe right to DEBATE , offer

AMENDMENTS , and vote onPROPOSALS . Every man had asay in whether to declare WAR orstay in PEACE . Basically anything that required a governmentdecision, all male citizens wereallowed to participate in.

Although DEMOCRACY wasan outstanding achievement,it is important to keep in mindthat the majority of theinhabitants of Athens were notrecognized citizens. WOMEN, SLAVES , andRESIDENT ALIENS were DENIED CITIZENSHIP .

These groups had no standingin the law courts. (If a womansought the protection of thelaw, she had to ask a citizento plead for her in court.)

THE ROMAN MONARCHY to 509 B.C. According to tradition, early Rome was ruled by KINGS elected

by the people.The king's executive power was conferred by a POPULARASSEMBLY made up of all arms-bearing citizens.The king turned for advice to a council of nobles, called theSENATE .Each senator had lifelong tenure and the members of thisgroup and their families constituted the PATRICIAN class.The other class of Romans, the PLEBEIANS (commoners)included small farmers, artisans, and many clients(dependents of patrician landowners). In return for alivelihood, the clients gave their patrician patrons political

support in the ASSEMBLY

ROMAN SENATE

EARLY REPUBLIC

509-133 B.C.In 509 B.C., according totradition, the PATRICIANS expelled the last Etruscanking and established aREPUBLIC .The power to rule wastransferred to two newofficials called CONSULS .Elected annually from thepatrician class, the consulexercised their power in theinterests of that class.

PLEBEIAN STRUGGLE FOR EQUAL RIGHTS

For more than two centuries following the establishment of theRepublic, the plebeians struggled for political and social equality.

Outright civil war was averted by the willingness of the patriciansto compromise.Much of the plebeians’ success in this struggle was also due totheir tactics of collective action and to their having organized a

corporate group within the state. The unofficial body was knownas the PLEBEIAN COUNCIL . It was presided over by plebeianofficials called TRIBUNES ,

whose job was to safeguard theinterests of the plebeians and tonegotiate with the consuls andthe Senate.

The advancement of the PLEBEIANS during the earlyRepublic took two main lines: the safeguarding of theirFUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS and the progressive enlargementof their share of POLITICAL POWER .

The plebeians in time acquired otherfundamental rights and safeguards:

They secured the right to APPEALA DEATH SENTENCE imposed bya consul and to be retried beforethe popular assembly.The tribunes gained a VETOPOWER over any legislation orexecutive act that threatened therights of the plebeians.MARRIAGE between patriciansand plebeians, prohibited by theLaw of the Twelve Tablets, waslegalized.The enslavement of citizens forDEBT was abolished

POLITICAL POWER

Little by little, the plebeian class acquiredmore power in the functioning of government.

In 367 B.C., ONE CONSULSHIP wasreserved for the plebeians.Before the end of the century, they wereeligible to hold other important positions:PRAETOR (in charge of the law courts),

QUAESTOR (treasurer), CENSOR (supervisor of public morals and statecontracts).Some plebeians succeeded in gaining entry to the SENATE. The long struggle for equality ended in 287 B.C. when the

PLEBEIAN COUNCIL was recognized as a constitutionalbody, henceforth known as the TRIBAL ASSEMBLY , withthe right to PASS LAWS that were binding on all citizens.The Roman Republic was now technically a democracy,although in actual practice a senatorial aristocracy of

patricians and rich plebeians continued to control the state.

Economy

The flooding of the Nile rendered the narrow strip of land on either side ofthe river extremely fertile. INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE was practiced bythe majority of the peasant population. who played a vital role within the

country's STRICT HIERARHICAL SOCIETY . As the flood watersreceded, SOWING and PLOWING began, using primitive wooden plows.

In addition to such GRAINS as barley and emmer (a coarse wheat), alarge variety of VEGETABLES were grown, including onions, garlic,leeks, beans, lentils, peas, radishes, cabbage, cucumbers, and lettuce.

There were also FRUITS such as dates, figs, pomegranates, melons andgrapes,

The abundance of flowers provided nectar for the bees to produceHONEY , which the Egyptians processed. FLAX was grown for makinglinen, and PAPYRUS was harvested to be converted into paper, ropes,mats, sandals and light skiffs.

Breaking the groundwith plow and hoe

Reaping andscattering the seed

Separating the grainfrom the chaff

Although the land was worked by the PEASANTS , it was ownedby the king, his officials and the temples. Farmers had to meetGRAIN QUOTAS , which were handed over to the owners as aform of taxation.

They were allowed to keep a portion of the crops for their ownbenefit. If they did not produce the quantity expected, however,they were severely punished.

In mid-September, farmersblocked canals to retainthe water for IRRIGATION .

Still used today, theS H A D U F is a mechanicalirrigation device used toconduct water from the

canals to the fields.One person can operate itby swinging the bucket ofwater from the canal to thefield

LIVESTOCK was important to the Egyptian economy, supplying meat,milk, hides, and dung for cooking fuel.

A variety of DOMESTICATED ANIMALS were raised, including cattle,

oxen, sheep, goats, pigs, ducks and geese. Peasants probably enjoyedmeat on special occasions..

DRAFT ANIMALS such as oxen increased agricultural productivity.

HERDSMEN and SHEPHERDS lived a semi-nomadic life, pasturing their

animals in the marshes of the Nile.

Barley and emmer, were used to make BEER and BREAD , the mainstaples of the Egyptian diet. Grains were harvested and stored inGRANARIES until ready to be processed.

The quantities harvested each season far exceeded the needs of thecountry, so much was exported to neighboring countries, providing arich source of INCOME for the Egyptian treasury

Grapes were processed into WINE for the noble class, but beer wasthe favorite drink of the common people.

Food was served in POTTERY BOWLS , but NO UTENSILS wereused for eating.

FISHING allowed the working class to add variety to its diet. The poorsubstituted fish for meat, which they could not afford. The Nile, themarshes of the delta and the Mediterranean Sea offered them a richvariety of species.

FISHING METHODS included the use of a hook and line, harpoons,traps and nets.

BIRDS , including geese and ducks, were also HUNTED in themarshes and papyrus thickets along the Nile.

Small fishing boats called SKIFFS were made from PAPYRUSREEDS , which are naturally filled with air pockets, making themparticularly buoyant. Skiffs were also used for hunting game in theNile marshes.

The daily diet included CEREALS (like wheat and barley), GRAPES ,and OLIVES -- commonly called the MEDITERRANEAN TRIAD .

The Greeks typically made grapes into WINE and olives into OLIVEOIL, so they would keep without refrigeration. Grains and cerealswere commonly used for BREAD and PORRIDGE.

Diets were supplemented with VEGETABLES and HERBS fromkitchen gardens as well as BERRIES, and MUSHROOMS . Thepoor usually ate FISH , while oysters, sea urchins, octopus, and eelswere considered DELICACIES and only eaten by the wealthy.

BREAD in ancient Greece was a very important part of the dailydiet. At first all breads were prepared in the embers of afire. Eventually the Greeks developed a bread OVEN that is similarin function to the ovens we use today. Because they required lesswood or charcoal (which was expensive), these ovens made bread

AVAILABLE TO ALMOST EVERYONE .The most common type of bread in Greece was called M A Z A whichwas a flat bread made from barley flour. Most meals consisted ofmaza and some sort of accompaniment to the bread called OPSON .This might be vegetables, fish, olives, onions, garlic, fruit, and on a

rare occasion, meat.

MEN did most of the hard,

muscle power jobs such asPLOWING AND REAPING .

The WOMEN SOWED SEED ,WEEDED THE FIELDS and

TENDED THE HOUSEHOLDand CHILDREN . Women mightalso grow SMALL GARDENS around the house withvegetables and beans. Womenmight also bring in extra incomefor the farm with a CRAFTTRADE such as weaving thatthey might sell at a market.

As a result of expansion,important social and economicproblems faced Rome by the

middle of the second centuryB.C. One of the most pressingproblems was theDISAPPEARANCE OF THESMALL LANDOWNER .Burdened by frequent militaryservice, his farm buildingsdestroyed by war, and unableto compete with the cheapgrain imported from the newRoman province of Sicily, theSMALL FARMER SOLD OUT and moved to Rome. Here he

joined the unemployed,discontented PROLETARIAT .

Improved farming methods learned from the Greeks andCarthaginians encouraged RICH ARISTOCRATS to buy moreand more land and, abandoning the cultivation of grain,introduce LARGE-SCALE SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTION of oliveoil and wine, or of sheep and cattle. This trend was especiallyprofitable because an abundance of cheap SLAVES from theconquered areas was available to work on the estates. Theselarge slave plantations, called LATIFUNDIA , were nowcommon in Italy, while small farms were the exception.

The land problem was further complicated by the government'searlier practice of LEASING part of the territory acquired in theconquest of the Italian peninsula to anyone willing to pay apercentage of the crop or animals raised on it. Only thepatricians or wealthy plebeians could afford to lease largetracts of this PUBLIC LAND and in time they treated it as their

own property. Plebeian protests had led to an attempt to limitthe holdings of a single individual to 320 acres, but the law wasnever enforced.

EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS: THE RAMP THEORY One theory suggests that RAMPS were used to haul theSTONE BLOCKS on WOODEN SLEDS up the side of thepyramids. The ramps were LUBRICATED WITH WATER toreduce friction when hauling the blocks. As few as 10 menwere needed to drag a stone block up a ramp. may havebeen several ramps on each side of the pyramid at differentlevels, and a ramp may have been coiled around the pyramidas it grew in height. Once a stone block reached its desiredlevel, wooden rockers may have been used to maneuver itinto position.

Ramp on pyramid

Stone block on sled

Pouring water to lubricate the ramp

Rocking a block into position

The pyramids were probably NOT BUILT BY SLAVES because slavelabor was not widely used in Egypt at the time. PEASANT FARMERS ,however, were required to spend a number of weeks working onconstruction projects. This provided the paid labor needed to build thesegigantic structures. Since the fields were under water during the summer,wages earned in building the gigantic pyramids SUPPLEMENTED THE

FAMILY'S INCOME .

Pyramids did not stand alone; they were part of a FUNERARYCOMPLEX . The complex includes a PROCESSIONAL CAUSEWAY that links a FUNERARY TEMPLE to the pyramid.

The Parthenon Today

The Acropolis of Athens

Parthenon

ErechtheumErechtheion

Pinakotheke Theater ofDionysius

King’sShrine

Sanctuary of Asclepius

Odeum of Herodes Atticus (Roman)

Stoa ofEumenes

In designing their bridges andaqueducts, the Romansplaced a series of STONEARCHES next to one anotherto provide mutual support.Fourteen AQUEDUCTS ,stretching a total of 265 miles,supplied some 50 gallons ofwater daily for each inhabitantof Rome.The practical nature of the

Romans and their skill andinitiative in engineering weredemonstrated in the manyDAMS, RESERVOIRS , andHARBORS they built.

ENGINEERINGPRACTICES

The BARREL VAULT ,basically a series of adjoiningarches forming a structureresembling a tunnel, was a

new method of enclosingspace. In the barrel vault thesupports of the archesbecame heavy masonry wallsto bear the weight of the

vaulted roof.The Romans next developedthe CROSS VALUT byintersection two barrel vaultsat right angles.

The standard type of Roman public building was the BASCILICA , acolonnaded structure that became a model for early Christian churches.Rows of columns divided the interior into a central nave and side aisles,with the roof over the nave raised to admit light, creating aCLERESTORY (an upper portion of a wall containing windows for

supplying natural light to a building.

RELIGION is the glue that binds local communities together andtransforms them into nations. It creates common understandings andshared values that are essential to the growth of a civilization.

Like all religions, that of ancientEgypt was COMPLEX . It

evolved over the centuries fromone that emphasized localdeities into a national religionwith a smaller number ofprincipal deities.

There was no single beliefsystem, but the Egyptiansshared a commonunderstanding about theCREATION OF THE WORLD

and the possibility ofREVERTING TO CHAOS if thedestructive forces of theuniverse were unleashed.

PRIESTS worked at thetemples, conducting the dailyrituals of clothing, feeding

and putting to bed thesculpted images thatrepresented the gods.

In mortuary temples, priestsconducted similar

ceremonies to nourish theKA (soul-spirit) of adeceased pharaoh or noble.

The priests shaved theirheads and body hair, and

washed their bodies twicedaily as a ritual act ofpurification. They woregowns or kilts of pure whitelinen.

Entering a Temple

The ancient Egyptians believed in the RESURRECTION OF THE

BODY and LIFE EVERLASTING . This belief was rooted in what theyobserved each day.The sun fell into the western horizon each evening and was rebornthe next morning in the east.New life sprouted from grains planted in the earth, and the moon

waxed and waned. As long as order was maintained, everything was highly dependableand life after death could be achieved. But there were certainconditions. For example, the body had to be preserved throughMUMMIFICATION and given a properly furnished tomb with

everything needed for life in the afterworld.

Around 450 B.C., the Greek historian HERODOTUS documented the art of MUMMIFICATION .

As much of the brain as it is possible is extractedthrough the nostrils with an iron hook, and what thehook cannot reach is dissolved with drugs. Next, theflank is slit open . . . and the entire contents of theabdomen removed. The cavity is then thoroughly

cleansed and washed out . . . Then it is filled with pure crushed myrrh, cassia, and all other aromaticsubstances, except frankincense. [The incision] issewn up, and then the body is placed in natron,covered entirely for 70 days, never longer. When this

period . . . is ended, the body is washed and thenwrapped from the head to the feet in linen which hasbeen cut into strips and smeared on the undersidewith gum which is commonly used by the Egyptiansin the place of glue . -- Herodotus

MATERIALS USED IN MUMMIFICATION:

1. Linen2. Sawdust3. Lichen4. Beeswax

5. Resin 10. Frankincense

6. Natron7. Onion8. Nile mud9. Linen pads

The Greeks were POLYTHEISTIC and did not all worship thesame gods. Some small villages worshiped the main gods andtheir own village gods.

There were hundreds of Greek gods (perhaps around1,000). Some of the most famous gods were Zeus, Hera,Apollo, Artemis, Poseidon, Aphrodite, Athena, Demeter,Hermes, Ares, and Hades .ZEUS surpassed all other gods in spirit, wisdom and justice

and his wife HERA was the queen of the gods.

SACRIFICES to please the gods were a major part of every Greek'sreligion. Most gods preferred an animal sacrifice -- generally aDOMESTICATED ANIMAL like a chicken, goat or cow.

When an animal was sacrificed, it was burned on top of an altar. After it was fully cooked, it had to be EATEN ON THE SPOT --usually before nightfall. These sacrifices were the property of thegod, and had to be eaten in his presence.

This was especially important because the ancient Greeks believedthat the god's spirit was within the animal sacrificed, and by eatingthe animal, the worshippers CONSUMED HIS POWER . In this way,

they strengthened the connection between man and god.

Religion played a very importantrole in the daily life of AncientRome. The Romans believed that

GODS CONTROLLED THEIRLIVES and, as a result, spent agreat deal of their timeworshipping them.The most important god wasJUPITER . He was the king ofgods who ruled with his wifeJUNO , the goddess of the sky.Other gods includes MARS,MERCURY, NEPTUNE, JANIS,DIANA, VESTA, MINERVA,

VENUS. After the reign of the EMPERORAUGUSTUS (27 BC to AD 14),the emperor was also consideredto be a god and he wasworshipped on special occasions.

Arts and Sciences

The EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE was one of the earliest languagesto be written down, perhaps only the Sumerian language is older.

First appearing on stone and pottery dating from 3100 B.C. to3000 B.C., it remained in use for almost 3,000 years.

The last inscription was written in A.D. 394.

DRAFTSMEN were scribeswho specialized in drawing.

They followed a formula thatmakes standing and sittingfigures look stiff.

Using a traditional grid of 18squares, they sketchedfigures according to apredetermined pattern,making no attempt to show

perspective.

The eyes and shoulders aredrawn from the front and theface, torso, arms and legs

MATHEMATICS: Although the Egyptians lacked the symbol forzero, they calculated numbers based on the DECIMAL and therepetitive (numbers based on the POWER OF 10 ). The following

signs were used to represent numbers in the decimal system

1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

Numbers were usually written LEFT TO RIGHT , starting withthe highest denominator. See if you can translate this number:

The Egyptians did not develop abstract mathematical formulas.They used the simple arithmetic of ADDITION AND

SUBTRACTION

MEDICINE: The doctors of ancient Egypt combined MAGICSPELLS with REMEDIES . If a person fell sick, the illness wasthought to be caused by the wrath of the gods or by an evil spiritthat had entered the body. Both PRIESTS AND DOCTORS werecalled upon to heal the sick, combining their powers and skills to fixthe problem.

Doctors found cures for many diseases and some of their conceptsare still used today. They used CASTOR OIL as laxatives, TANNICACID from the acadia tree to heal burns, CORIANDER in a tea forstomach illnesses, and CUMMIN SEEDS on aching or arthritic

joints and to calm a cough.

They also made and used TOOLS FOR SURGICAL USE that aresimilar to the ones that we use today.

The Ancient Greeks are known for three main items: theirSCULPTURES , their TEMPLES , and their VASE PAINTINGS .The art work embodies the ideas of EXCELLENCE , COURAGE and INDEPENDENCE .The Greeks IDEALIZED HUMANS , showing the strong andyouthful depiction of men and women. The topics shown in theirvases reflect the importance of strength, athletic competition, andbattles. Their temples reflected their religious beliefs in the gods.

Philosophy enabled many thinkers to move beyond

mythic explanations of the universe and arrive at onesbased on self-conscious rational methods of inquiry.The early COSMOLOGISTS , such as THALES,

PYTHAGORAS, and DEMOCRITUS , developedRATIONAL ACCOUNTS OF NATURE in terms ofimperishable substances, mathematical principles,or the properties of atoms.Similarly, HIPPOCRATES and his followers rejected

mythic-religious explanations of disease and observedsymptoms in order to identify their natural causes.

Against the Cosmologists, the SOPHISTS argued thatspeculation about the universe was futile. Instead,these thinkers scrutinized people and society and

instructed men in the skills of oratory (winning anargument).Protagoras and other Sophists examined questions ofETHICS, LAW , and MORALITY , but they werePHILOSOPHICAL RELATIVISTS whose critical method

undermined traditional authority

Th R d l d di i i

The Romans developed a distinctiveSCULPTURE which was realistic,secular, and individualistic.

EQUESTRIAN STATUES sculptedcoffins ( SARCOPHAGI ), and theRELIEFS found on imperialmonuments were exceptionally fineworks of art. The Romans wereparticularly skilled in producing floorMOSAICS and in paintingFRESCOES . Roman epic, dramatic,and lyric POETRY forms were usuallywritten in conscious imitation of Greekmasterpieces.

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