community participation in forest management in the yilo krobo district, eastern ghana - gerardo...
Post on 03-Apr-2018
218 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
1/98
Community Participation in
Forest Management in the Yilo
Krobo District
Gerardo Oscar Paez
November 2009
This dissertation is submitted to the University of Ghana in partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of MA in Development
Studies degree
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
2/98
2
DECLARATION
I declare that this work has been my original research project carried out under
the Supervision of Dr. Daniel Kwabena Twerefou of the Department of
Economics and Dr. George Owusu of Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic
Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
All references cited in this work are duly acknowledged. However, I am solely
responsible for any errors and omissions.
Supervisor Date Signature
Dr. Daniel Kwabena Twerefow ................... ..........................
Dr. George Owusu ................... ..........................
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
3/98
3
DEDICATION
I wish to dedicate this work to my two major sources of inspiration, Amanda
and Nestor. Also to my family as this work would not have been possible
without their support.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
4/98
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank Dr. Daniel Kwabena Twerefou for his invaluable contributions
and time spent. Also thank the Director of ISSER Prof. Ernest Aryeetey for his
support.
I am grateful to all the respondents of the survey and the members of all the
institutions that kindly participated. Special thanks to the members of the Yilo
Krobo District Authority, the Regional Forestry Commission Office and the
Ministry of Food and Agriculture for providing me with valuable data.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
5/98
5
ABSTRACT
This study addresses the challenges of participation in forest management in
the context of political decentralization in the Yilo Krobo District of Ghana in
order to debate the possible implications of an inclusive natural resource
management approach for the local livelihoods.
This paper argues that capacity in the communities studied ought to be built up
by providing the UCs with the physical as well as educational infrastructure that
would enable the communities to be included in the participation process.
Moreover, District Authorities should establish a process of negotiation with
members of the community with regards to the best uses the community can
give to the forest reserve.
It also supports a shift to empowerment that ought to be sought by the District
Authorities to allow people to take part in the decisions taken with regards to
forest management as well as providing women with special mechanisms for
participation, that adjust to their necessities and time availability.
The study recommends actions in four priority areas: setting up mechanisms
for indigenous practices and institutions, provision of capacity to the Unit
Committees, encouraging participation of women and other excluded groups
and clarifying land tenure.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
6/98
6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 ........................... .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... 11
INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY .......................... .......................... ......................... ...................... 11
1.1. Introduction ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 11
1.2. Problem Statement ........................ .......................... .......................... ......................... ......... 12
1.3. Objective of the study .............................................. ......................... .......................... ......... 13
1.4. Justification ....................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ...................... 14
1.5. Structure of the study ........................ .......................... ......................... ........................... .... 15
CHAPTER 2 ........................... .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... 16
LITERATURE REVIEW ......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ............. 16
2.1. Introduction ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 16
2.2. Participation General Concepts ....................... .......................... .......................... ................. 17
2.3. The Ghanaian Context ........................ .......................... ......................... ........................... .... 22
2.4. Problems Found in Forest Management Globally ....................................... .......................... 30
2.5. Alternative approaches to participation in forest management ........................... ................. 32
CHAPTER 3 ........................... .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... 36
METHODOLOGY ....................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ...................... 36
3.1. Introduction ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 36
3.2. General description of the study area and sites .............................................. ...................... 37
3.3. Methods applied ........................ ......................... .......................... .......................... ............. 42
3.4. Data analysis .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 48
3.5. Some methodological issues in research design ................................ ........................... ........ 49
CHAPTER 4 ........................... .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... 52
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ......................... .......................... ......................... ........................... .... 52
4.1. Introduction ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 52
4.2. Demographic Characteristics ....................... .......................... ......................... ...................... 52
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
7/98
7
4.3. Extent and nature of participation ............................... .......................... .......................... .... 55
4.4. Capacity for effective participation ..................... .......................... .......................... ............. 58
4.5. Forest Resource Management and political decentralization ....................... ......................... 59
4.6. Forest Resource Management and the Boti Falls Reserve ....................... .......................... .... 61
4.7. Discussion of findings ......................... .......................... ......................... ........................... .... 66
CHAPTER 5 ........................... .......................... ......................... .......................... .......................... 72
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................ .......................... ......................... ......... 72
5.1. Introduction ........................... ......................... .......................... .......................... ................. 72
5.2. Recommendations ......................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ......... 72
5.3. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 74
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ...................... 77
APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................................81
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
8/98
8
LIST OF TABLES
Number Description
Table 2.2.3 Typology of Participation
Table 3.2.2.4 Population Distribution by Area Council
Table 4.2.2 Level of education by sex (Percentages)
Table 4.2.3 Occupation of respondents
Table 4.5.1 Perception of participation in decision
making
Table 4.5.2 Perception of political participation by sex
Table 4.6.2 Location of the Forest Reserve
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
9/98
9
LIST OF FIGURES
Number DescriptionFigure 4.2.1 Age distribution forest users interviewed
Figure 4.3.1 Participation in FRM projects
Figure 4.3.2 Participation in FRM projects by sex
Figure 4.3.2 Participation in FRM projects Sort of
Project
Figure 4.3.3 Project activities description
Figure 4.4 Proposition of projects perception
Figure 4.6.2 Perceptions of best use of reserved land
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
10/98
10
LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABREVIATIONS
ACs Area Councils
FC Forestry Commission
NTFP Non-Timber Forest Products
RFD Rural Forestry Division
RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal
UCs Unit Committees
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
11/98
11
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY
1.1. Introduction
Forest histories are revealed as mutually constituting interplays of ecological
process, social practice, policy intervention and response. Policy makers often
do not see this, and are thus surprised when their schemes fail. (Leach, 2008:1)
Amanor (2003) observes that contemporary environmental policies in West
Africa are increasingly becoming decentralized, arguing that these policies are
not more democratic. In Ghana, Wiggins et al. (2004) argue that with the 1994
Forest and Wildlife Policy, communities were given a central role in
participation in natural resource management. In addition, the authors suggest
that despite the good intentions and effort put in formulating environmental
policy, little of this translates into effective action in the field.
This work aims to study the degree of participation of forest communities in
natural resource management in the Yilo Krobo District in order to debate the
possible implications of an inclusive natural resource management approach
for the local livelihoods.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
12/98
12
As an introduction to the thesis, this chapter provides a background to the
study and clarifies the research problem seeking to introduce the concepts that
inform and guide the study. After situating the study within the broader concept
of political community participation in Ghana in general and the district in
particular, the study objectives are presented. The last part of the chapter
briefly introduces the chapter-by-chapter organization of the thesis.
1.2. Problem Statement
This study explores the interactions of people living in the Boti Forest Reserve
margins of the Yilo Krobo District with its environment, authorities and
institutions. In particular it focuses on identifying the key tensions of the
decentralization process in order to address the causes of the low community
participation in forest management in the district.
According to the Medium Term Development Plan 2006-2009 (Yilo Krobo
2006:15) community participation in governance is generally low in the
district. There is high level of apathy among some people. The situation is more
serious with the women, than their male counterparts. The same document
states that the River Ponpong, which supplies water to the fall (Boti waterfall),
dries up at certain times of the year, especially between December and April
due to problems with the maintenance of the reserve protecting the river. There
are illegal farming and felling of trees for fuel wood and charcoal in the reserve
and along the river upstream. (Yilo Krobo 2006:63)
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
13/98
13
Ribot (2003) suggests that decentralization takes place when a central
government formally transfers powers to actors and institutions at lower levels
in a political-administrative and territorial hierarchy. In order to increase both
efficiency and equity in natural resource management, decentralization is being
promoted by development agents, natural resource managers and some
environmentalists. However, Ribot argues that the implementation of
environmental decentralization laws fall short of producing the most basic
conditions necessary for effective decentralization. Research questions that
arise are how do forest users interact with their environment and with the
environmental authorities in the conservation of their forests? what are
people's perceptions of their relationship with the authorities regarding forest
management? what are the barriers to participation in forest management in
the area studied and what may be the possible solutions?
1.3. Objective of the study
The objective of this study is to explore the different interactions that the Yilo
Krobo residents have with the local forests and the environmental authorities
in order to examine their actual participation in forest management. I aim to
contribute to research that could be used by the district authorities and
conservation bodies in order to achieve the outcome of sustainable
development with social justice in the Yilo Krobo District.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
14/98
14
1.4. Justification
According to Forsyth et al. (1998), since the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment in 1972, the role of poverty in both causing and being
caused by environmental degradation was acknowledged. In the Yilo Krobo
District, where according to the Medium Term Development Plan 2006-2009
(Yilo Krobo 2006) more than 60% of the population live in rural areas and the
average per capita income ... is very low and cannot pay for individuals basic
necessities, the conservation of the environment represents a key priority for
the District authorities.
In addition, since the year 2000 Ghana has adopted the targets of the
Millennium Development Goals as the minimum requirements for socio
economic development and poverty reduction (Republic of Ghana, 2006). This
research contributes to the realization of MDG's 1 (eradicate extreme poverty
and hunger), MDG3 (Promote gender equality and empower women) and
MDG7 (ensuring environmental sustainability).
This research will also contribute at the national level to the strategies of the
Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy II (Republic of Ghana, 2006) towards
decentralization of powers.
At the local level, this study will contribute to the District priorities in
promoting good governance, civic responsibility and the objective of ensuring
...transparency, accountability, rule of law, public participation in decision-
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
15/98
15
making and improve service delivery of public institutions and security (Yilo
Krobo, 2006:18).
1.5. Structure of the study
The study is divided in 5 chapters, where chapter 1 is the introduction; the
review of literature on similar issues occurring worldwide is analyzed in
chapter 2; in chapter 3 the study describes the methodology applied to collect
and analyze the information necessary; chapter 4 contains the analysis of the
data and chapter 5 contains the conclusion and recommendations.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
16/98
16
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
The importance of forests and of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to the
quality of life and even survival of very large numbers of poor rural people in
tropical developing countries now seems indisputable. Trees and forests
contribute in many ways to improving diets, combating hunger and increasing
incomes in local communities and rural households in developing countries.
Thus, food security, income, employment, energy sources and overall well being
of rural people in these countries are linked to the forests (Shand, 1997).
Since 1994 a number of policies have been put in place to promote community
participation in forest management in Ghana, however, these policies have had
little impact on their implementation. Several studies highlighted the need to go
beyond increasing participation for its own sake to making participation
effective. These studies concluded that in Ghana despite the fact that policies on
forest decentralization are well developed, its implementation has been slow
(Oppon Sasu, unpublished; Wiggins et al. 2004).
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
17/98
17
This chapter reviews relevant literature on the interactions of forest users with
their environment and with political systems. This review seeks to both build
on the strengths of relevant studies as well as to bring together the information
available on community participation in forest management in the West African
and the global contexts.
2.2. Participation General Concepts
2.2.1 Terms used in this studyParticipation: According to Agarwal (2001: p. 1624), views diverge on how
participation is defined, whom it is expected to involve, what is expected to
achieve, and how it is brought about. At its narrowest, participation in a group
is defined in terms of nominal membership and at its broadest, in terms of a
dynamic interactive process in which the disadvantaged have voice and
influence decision making. In terms of objectives, at its narrowest participation
is judged almost entirely by its potential efficiency effects and at its broadest by
its ability to enhance equity, efficiency, empowerment and environmental
sustainability. This study adopts the broadest definition of participation that,
as suggested by Agarwal, it is believed to achieve the outcomes of sustainable
forest management in the communities studied.
Decentralization: Mawhood and Smith define decentralization as any political
act in which a central government formally cedes powers to actors and
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
18/98
18
institutions at lower levels in a political-administrative and territorial
hierarchy (Mawhood, 1983; Smith, 1985; cited in Ribot et al., 2006: 2).
Institutions: O'Donell defines them as regularized patterns of interaction that
are known, practiced, and regularly accepted (if not necessarily normatively
approved) by given social agents who by virtue of those characteristics, expect
to continue interacting under the rules and norms formally or informally
embodied in those patterns. Sometimes, but not necessarily, institutions
become formal organizations: they materialize in buildings, seals, rituals, and
persons in roles that authorize them to speak for the organization (O'Donell,
1993:4).
Forest management: According to Wiersum, it refers to the total set of
technical and social arrangements involved in the protection and maintenance
of forest management for specific purposes, and the harvesting and distribution
of forest products. In this respect, the author suggests that forest management
should therefore be considered to include all conscious human activities
directed at maintaining its production capacity. (Wiersum 1997: 7)
2.2.2. Political DecentralizationDecentralized institutions are viewed as likely to perform better on the criteria
of efficiency and equity for several reasons. Local authorities are presumed to
have better time- and place-specific information which leads to better-targeted
policies and lower transaction costs (World Bank, 1997). According to Ribot et
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
19/98
19
al. (2006), decentralization improves competition among jurisdictions and
promotes greater political participation.
Olowu (2001) argues that by simply assuming that a more democratic
participation will be possible by bringing the power closer to the people we are
excluding the political aspects of decentralization. In this sense, devolutionary
decentralization confronts two major political problems. The first one is the
unwillingness of political and administrative leaders to share the power
inherited from colonial times. The second political issue is that in many
instances is the local elite who may capture decentralized power and utilize it to
repress the local minorities, women and foreigners in the various communities.
Agarwal (2001) suggests that there are limits to what participation alone can
achieve in terms of efficiency, given pre-existing socio-economic inequalities
and relations of power. In this respect, Boone also observes the pre-existence of
a social context as influencing decentralization schemes. The author states that
governments may have important stakes in established power-brokers as well
as in local-level social and political hierarchies that can extend beyond the reach
of the state (Boone, 1998: 25; cited in Crook & Sverrison, 1999)
2.2.3. Decentralization and Community Participation
According to Ribot (2003) decentralization takes place when a central
government formally transfers powers to actors and institutions at lower levels
in a political-administrative and territorial hierarchy. In order to increase both
efficiency and equity in natural resource management decentralization is being
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
20/98
20
promoted by development agents, natural resource managers and
environmentalists. However, Ribot argues that the implementation of
environmental decentralization laws fall short of producing the most basic
conditions necessary for effective decentralization.
Ribot (2007) suggests that representative local authorities can be strengthened
through recognition; however, they may be weakened if they receive too little
power to be effective, or if parallel institutions overshadow or appropriate their
ability to serve public interest. Manor (2005), in this sense, provides the
example of under-funded local governments with a mandate to manage natural
resources operating in an arena with over-funded environment committees.
As a result, Ribot (2003) concludes that countries and agencies claiming to
undertake or support democratic decentralization of natural resources have
widely failed to empower democratic local governments as they transfer just a
few public powers over natural resources to existing and new democratic local
governments. As a result, governments, international agencies and international
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are choosing to transfer these powers
to a wide array of other local institutions, empowering chiefs, headmen and
other customary leaders across Africa, in some cases threatening democratic
decentralization reform efforts.
2.2.4. Community Participation Typology
Agarwal (2001) provides a typology of participation (see table 2.2.3). According
to the author, achieving effective participation would involve a shift from the
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
21/98
21
lower level (Nominal Participation) to the higher level (Empowerment), with
levels defined not by how a group is initiated but by the extent of peoples
activeness.
Mathbor (2008) suggests that local peoples involvement in all stages of
development projects enhances effective participation.
Table 2.2.3 Typology of Participation
Form/Level of participation Characteristic features
Nominal Participation Membership in the group
Passive Participation Being informed of decisions ex facto;
or attending meetings and listeningin on decision making, without
speaking-up.
Consultative Participation Being asked and opinion in specific
matters without guarantee of
influencing decisions.
Activity-Specific Participation Being asked to (or volunteering to)undertake specific tasks.
Interactive (empowering) Having voice and influence in the
Participation groups decisions.
Source: Agarwal (2001)
2.2.5. Decentralization and the role of indigenous institutions
Korten and Alfonso (1983) suggest that the most effective way to ensure
success of development efforts is through encouraging local participation in
development planning decisions. The authors suggest that an alternative to
Western approaches to environmental project planning in developing countries
may be developed by exploring and improving indigenous approaches to
environmental conservation.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
22/98
22
According to development scholars, historically, the use of improper planning
strategies with little use of indigenous local knowledge has often resulted in
inefficient allocation of resources and manpower resulting in failed attempts to
alleviate rural poverty. In this regard, Appiah-Opoku & Mulamootil (1997)
observe that the Western concept of development is widely interpreted as
necessitating change, and is often characterized as a movement from the old or
archaic (traditional) to the new (modern). This concept has proved unsuitable
to be applied in the African context and brings the necessity for development
planners of the introduction of traditional and indigenous institutions in
development processes.
2.3. The Ghanaian Context
2.3.1. Political Decentralization in Ghana
According to Owusu (2004), the present form of decentralization being
implemented in Ghana can be traced back to 1988 when a comprehensive set of
policies were designed to decentralize the system of Government. The aim of
these policies is to promote popular participation and ownership of the
machinery of government by shifting the process of governance from command
to consultative processes, and by devolving power, competence and resources
to the district level.
In this context of decentralized government, Owusu (2004) suggests that
District Assemblies were given responsibilities for the development of the
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
23/98
23
districts. For this purpose, they were provided with executive, legislative and
deliberative powers, as well as administrative and technical support in order to
articulate the views and aspirations of the people within districts. On a lower
level are the sub-district structures, Unit Committees (UCs) and Area Councils
(ACs) that are local organs of the District Assemblies with no independent
powers. UCs and ACs are essentially consultative bodies with no budgets of
their own.
According to Oppon Sasu, (unpublished) UCs are the base structure of the local
government system, which play the important roles of education, organization
of communal labor, revenue raising, ensuring environmental cleanliness, and
implementing and monitoring self-help projects among others. Oppon Sasu
(unpublished), observes that District assemblies are made up of 67 percent
elected representative and 33 percent government appointees. This split
between elected and appointed members leaves a significant participation and
accountability deficit, with the appointment system encouraging upward
accountability to the Central Government rather downward accountability to
the local electorate.
Owusu (2004) mentions two different sources of revenue for the District
Assemblies, internal and external, the latter includes grants from central
governments, whilst internal ones includes rates, fees, licenses, and trading
services. However, Owusu suggests that in many districts these internal
revenue generating resources are either inadequate or poorly developed due to
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
24/98
24
the general poverty level and the underdevelopment of infrastructure and
services. Therefore most District Assemblies depend on government revenue
for the implementation of their development projects.
Evaluating the effectiveness of Ghanas decentralization process, Korateng &
Larbi (2008) argue that notwithstanding all the institutional and legal backing
to decentralization, in practice there has been an increased concentration of
power and resources in key sector Ministries, Departments and Agencies. The
authors affirm that key actors in the process have been competing rather than
cooperating, resulting in a weakening of the local governments capacity to
manage the decentralization process.
In addition, Wardell & Lund (2006) suggest that recent decentralization
initiatives in Ghana have witnessed a proliferation of actors with the
maintenance of central government controls that are aimed to limit the political
and fiscal autonomy of the District Assemblies. This has led to an increasing
reliance of District assemblies on the central government and/or external
funding. As a result, the authors conclude, District Assemblies are now more
dependent on central government assistance and/or external funding to meet
their recurrent expenditure than they were in the 1960s.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
25/98
25
2.3.2. Forest management and participation in Ghana2.3.2.1. Background
Wiggins et al. (2004) highlight the importance of sound environmental policies
for rural communities of the forest margins suggesting that given the high
degree to which they depend on the use of local natural resources,
inappropriate environmental policy may reduce jobs and incomes of people,
most of whom are already poor by any definition.
According to Appiah-Opoku & Mulamoottil (1997) Ghana has experienced
development planning without systematic analysis of the potential
environmental impacts since 1919 when the colonial British government
introduced a 5-year development plan. According to the authors, this trend
continued after the countrys independence from the British with a strong
reliance on modernization theory as the major development strategy which
focused on urban industrialization and rejected indigenous life-styles in favor of
modern systems.
In the late 1980s under the auspices of the Forest Resource Management
Project, a Rural Forestry Division (RFD) was established with a specific
mandate to promote community participation in forestry activities in
northern Ghana. The RFD channeled much-needed resources to the regional
and district forest offices to support the maintenance and patrolling of forest
reserve boundaries as well as the establishment of village woodlots. RFD was
dissolved as part of the major sectoral reforms implemented in the late 1990s
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
26/98
26
through the Forest Sector Development Project that culminated in the creation
of a Forest Services Division accountable to a revamped Forestry Commission
(Forestry Commission, 2001; cited in Wardell & Lund 2006). The FC formed
community forestry committees at the unit level to enhance community
empowerment and participation in resource management (Oppon Sasu,
unpublished).
2.3.2.2. Problems faced in forest management in Ghana
Oppon Sasu (unpublished) suggests that in Ghana decentralization policies in
the forest sector have been evaluated by several studies, which in many
occasions concluded that implementation of policies on decentralization of
forest management has been slow despite the fact that policies are well
developed.
Major problems outlined by the literature are: top-down approaches from
government, the capture of power by local elites, under-resourcing of local
institutions, under-value of indigenous knowledge, low women participation in
decision making processes.
2.3.2.2.1. Top-Down approaches to Natural Resources Management
Amanor (2003) suggests that most West African states have initiated
decentralization programs, with devolution of natural resource management as
an important component. Most national forestry services in the region now
recognize the importance of community forestry, collaborative forestry, or joint
forest management and have developed a critique of previous practices based
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
27/98
27
on exclusionary top-down approaches. However, the author argues that global
and national agencies aim to get rural communities to participate in the
programs, rather than creating a platform where rural people can make their
own inputs into natural resource policy. (Amanor 2003:1)
Moreover, the author highlights that participatory forest management policies
applied are rooted in neoliberal economic philosophy which needs to make
forestry management more efficient by involving communities therefore
lowering the transaction costs of management (Amanor 2003:1). This, in the
authors opinion would explain the low participation in forestry projects of
many local communities.
2.3.2.2.2. Capture of power by the local elites
The problem of local elites capture ofpower in Ghanaian communities has been
described by Crook (2003). The author observes that even though in recent
years local peoples participation in community development associations has
thriven, these are run by local elites that do not necessarily enhance
representation of the poor. Thus, existing social hierarchies are seldom
challenged in decisions taken in public meetings called by such associations.
Wardell and Lund (2005) study on access to forest reserves in Northern Ghana
shows that the restrictive laws on access to land and resources in forest
reserves and policies put in place by the government as well as regulations of
the Forestry Department, have provided a context for monetary and political
rent seeking for other political agents (Wardell and Lund, 2005: 1888) who
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
28/98
28
may use central government policy and directives to reinforce their authority at
the local level. The authors demonstrate in their study that access to land is not
a right but a tolerated crime.
2.3.2.2.3. Under-resourcing of local institutions
Agrawal and Gibson (1999) suggest that effective institutionalization of
community-based conservation requires that local groups have access to
adequate funds for implementing the rules they create. In addition, Amanor and
Brown (2003) in a review of the impact of decentralization and local
environmental management observed that the performance of the
decentralized structures have been weak as far as environmental management
is concerned due probably to the chronic under-resourcing of the
decentralization process and its resulting incapacity.
Oppon Sasu (unpublished) further suggests that the weaknesses of local
institutions in the Ghanaian decentralization process and effective
implementation of collaborative forest management approaches are one of the
key shortfalls of the decentralization process.
2.3.2.2.4. Low women participation in forest management
The importance of including women in forest management in West African
Countries is highlighted by several studies. A major reason is, as Agrawal et al.
(2006) point out, that women are active users of forest management. This has
to do, in large part, with social and cultural expectations which accord women
primary responsibility for collecting forest products for household use.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
29/98
29
Elmhirst & Resurreccion (2008) suggest that sustainable development policy
initiatives that seek to ameliorate environmental degradation and its negative
livelihood effects not only bring gendered impacts and responses, but also
produce particular framings of gender and gendered power relations. In this
sense, Agrawal et al. (2006) suggest that the state plays a very important role in
ensuring the interests of women are protected.
Someshwar (1993) emphasizes the importance of the state on facilitating the
formation of institutions that give voice to the disempowered groups suggesting
that in unequal societies, decentralization of decision-making does not
necessarily result in increased participation by all sections of the population,
the disempowered groups would likely continue to be outside such process.
Someshwar argues that contrary to current perceptions, management of natural
resources cannot and should not be completely divorced from the state.
Leach (1994) points out that a gender-sensitive forest management strategy
accounts for gender-differentiated activities, property rights, and forest
resource claims, and situates them within the context of a web of social
relations. A gendered approach to community-based resource management
recognizes that questions of rights and control, above all others, implicate the
social relationships within which resources are managed and used.
Furthermore, focusing exclusively on women obscures their relations with men,
implying that womens and mens resource-management activities proceed
along isolated, parallel tracks.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
30/98
30
2.4. Problems Found in Forest Management Globally
2.4.1. Communities seen as static bodies
According to Biesbrouck (2002) working with communities has become a
cultural policy paradigm alongside linked to attempts at sustainable forest
management. Mearns et al (1999) suggest that communities are assumed to be
relatively homogeneous, with members' shared characteristics that distinguish
them from 'outsiders'. Equally fundamental is the assumption of a distinct and
relatively stable local environment which may have succumbed to degradation
or deterioration, but has the potential to be restored and managed sustainably.
The community is seen as the appropriate unit to carry out such restoration and
care, and is envisaged as being capable of acting collectively towards common
environmental interests.
Agrawal & Gibson (1999) expand on this matter suggesting that the vision of a
community as a homogeneous whole fails to attend to differences within
communities. This vision ignores how these differences affect resource
management outcomes, local politics, and strategic interactions within
communities as well as the possibility of layered alliances that can span
multiple levels of politics. The authors conclude that the term community must
be examined in the context of development and conservation by focusing on the
multiple interests and actors within communities, on how these actors
influence decision-making, and on the internal and external institutions that
shape the decision-making process. The authors suggest that a focus on
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
31/98
31
institutions rather than community is likely to be more fruitful for those
interested in community-based natural resource management.
2.4.2. Assumptions about deforestation and forest cover
Leach & Fairhead (2000) suggest that analyses of determination of past forest
cover in Ghanaian forests used in today's estimates are highly questionable.
Many authors have simply assumed that the entire forest zone (around 8
million hectares) was forest. Such statistics are usually linked to images of rapid
population growth from and initially low baseline, swelled by immigration into
forest areas. The authors argue that in fact even as early as 1933, the forester
Meniaud suggested that statistics exaggerated the extent of forest cover.
Moreover, study renders invalid the notion that an equilibrium of low (or no)
population and undisturbed forest existed throughout the West African forest
zone at the turn of the twentieth century.
Leach & Fairhead (2000) argue that neo-Malthusian deforestation narratives
misrepresent the relationships between people and forests and obscure
processes by which people have enriched landscapes with trees, and in which
the peopling of a landscape has sometimes meant an expansion of tree and
forest cover. These perspectives usually result in policies and programs that fail
to include local people from taking part on decision making processes, and end
up excluding local peoples access to their property (to combat or redress forest
loss) in the name of biodiversity and resources preservation or climate change.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
32/98
32
2.5. Alternative approaches to participation in forest management
Mathbor (2008) suggests thatpeoples involvement in all stages of development
projects (such as needs assessment, decision making, implementation and
evaluation) enhances effective participation. Taking into account the problems
faced by mainstream participatory approaches put in practice by the central
and local governments of Ghana, this study reviews alternative approaches that
may be incorporated to address the issues of sustainable forest uses and
practices.
2.5.1. Indigenous approaches or Endogenous Development
According to Wiersum (1997) several studies have indicated that local people
living in or near forests should not be considered as mere gatherers of forest
products and/or as people who are transforming forests into agriculture. In
many cases they are active forest managers who are involved in purposeful
activities to safeguard the continuous availability of the valuable forest
management.
Wiersum (1997: 9) suggests that for common property forest management
regimes to function properly there should exist an indigenous institution for
forest management with the following characteristics:
A structure for group members to make decisions on the required resource
management practices;
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
33/98
33
Group control over the behavior of the group members, which ensures that
the planned management practices are carried out;
Control over the distribution of collected forest products;
Ability to exclude outsiders.
Such an institution need not be a formal forest management organization. A
cultural/religious institution may ensure a similar effect (Wiersum 1997: 9).
Appiah-Opoku & Mulamoottil (1997) highlight some limitations that can be
found in the integration of indigenous systems in environmental assessment.
The barriers include the higher illiteracy rate among members of indigenous
institutions, language problems, and the difficulty in changing entrenched
attitudes. There is also skepticism on the part of government officials and
scientists that indigenous institutions and their ecological knowledge systems
have been almost irreversibly eroded by the assimilation of indigenous peoples
into Western culture. The authors observe that some of these barriers could be
removed through community-based action research and intensive public
education through the media, formal education system, and with the help of
non-governmental organizations.
2.5.2. Adaptive and Deliberative governance approaches
According to Leach (2008), moves towards alternative governance approaches
that respond adaptively and reflexively must be seen as essentially political.
Such politics is in part a politics of knowledge, which can be informed by
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
34/98
34
scientific analyses of contexts, systems, and their properties, but fundamentally
requires an opening up of debate through a diversification of knowledge bases.
But it is also a politics linked to the real political economy of environment and
development.
Leach (2008) suggests that science policy processes which have emerged
historically through the intersection of national and globalised needs and
practices, have produced a set of dominant concepts and approaches which
strongly drive environmental development in relation to tropical forests. By
contrast, the author observes that recent work on adaptive governance offers
suggestions for addressing some of the challenges of dealing with intertwined
and dynamic socio-ecological systems. Rather than the implementation of
singular plans, adaptive governance emphasizes the interaction of multiple
institutions in guiding a complex system towards an improved state or
trajectory (transformability) or maintaining it in a desired state or trajectory
(resilience) (Leach, 2008: 1791).
Leach (2008) emphasizes that adaptive governance emphasizes flexibility,
experimentation and learning as strategies for anticipating and dealing with
unintended consequences. Such governance approaches are thus deemed
appropriate to situations of rapid change and high uncertainty. Nevertheless,
they tend to assume that there are shared goals around what system properties
should remain resilient, or that consensus can be built through the governance
process. To address these, it could be argued, requires approaches to forest
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
35/98
35
governance that are also deliberative and reflexive which emphasize bringing
together diverse actors to render explicit, and discuss and negotiate, their
particular views of the world.
Leach (2008) suggests that deliberation would need to bring local forest users
into dialogue with policy makers and scientists of both equilibrial and
nonequilibrial persuasions. Reflexive governance goes further to engage with
the implications of plural framings of what constitutes the social-ecological
system, and the implications of sustainability goals, recognizing that these are
contingent and conditioned by divergent social values, historical experiences,
interests, and institutional commitments. Goals are thus rarely determined once
and for all, since knowledge, values and interests in social-ecological systems
evolve and develop over time.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
36/98
36
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
Models and policies could go awry if intra-household dynamics are assumed
(as they often are) to exist in isolation, without examining the extra household
socio-economic and legal institutions within which households are embedded,
and how these institutions might themselves be subject to change (Agarwal,
1997: 2).
In order to gather information which would contribute to an understanding of
the complexity of issues surrounding community participation and local
people's use of forest management, no one method is sufficient. Thus, a multiple
methodology is required in order to clearly understand the complex
relationship between nature (forests), society (human activities) and the
authorities.
This chapter discusses the strategy and the various methods of data collection
employed in this study. Some methodological issues in research design and
fieldwork have also been considered. The chapter begins with a description of
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
37/98
37
the study area and choice of the study sites. The final section discusses the main
methods of data analysis applied in this study.
3.2. General description of the study area and sites
The study was conducted in the Yilo Krobo District which covers an estimated
area of 805 sq km. It shares boundaries with Manya Krobo District in the North
and East, Damgbe West and Akwapim North Districts in the South; New
Juabeng, East Akim and Fanteakwa Districts in the West (Yilo Krobo, 2006).
There are two forest reserves in the district. These are the Boti Falls Forest
Reserve and the Volta River Block 2 Forest Reserve at Klo-Begoro. Together,
they add up to 21.83sq km. The specific area of study lays in the surrounding
communities of the Boti Forest Reserve specifically the villages of Boti, Amanfro
and Huhunya.
According to the District's Authority (Yilo Krobo, 2006) one of the most
important items of aesthetic and scientific importance in the district is the
forest reserve of Boti. In this reserve, there are various tree species of scientific
importance due to conservation of biodiversity. These forest reserves also serve
as habitats for wildlife and as water sheds for the rivers.
3.2.1. Selection of the study area
A number of factors influenced the selection of the Boti Forest Reserve
surrounding villages for the purpose of this study.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
38/98
38
Firstly, Boti is a rural area. According to the 2000 Census the Boti area council
has the lowest per capita income of the seven area councils in the district (Yilo
Krobo, 2006), which means that many households rely on subsistence farming
in order to provide for their basic needs. Therefore the reserve provides a great
potential for land use, subsistence farming and trade in non-timber forest
products (NTFP) for the communities of the area.
Secondly, as the Medium Term Development Plan (Yilo Krobo, 2006) shows, the
Boti Falls Forest Reserve is one of the most important items of aes thetic and
scientific importance in the district. However, as the same document states,
problems with the maintenance of the reserves include illegal farming and
illegal felling of trees. The extraction of wood is done for fuel-wood and
charcoal burning. Therefore this zone offered the opportunity to uncover or
reveal possible conflicts and divergent opinions (regarding use rights) between
the local people who depend on the forests for NTFPs and the district
authorities whose motive has been to raise revenue by utilizing the Forest
Reserve as a tourist attraction.
Thirdly, Chambers analysis of project biases on field research notes that
research generate more research, and investment by donors draws research
after and funds it (Chambers, 1983: 17). As a consequence of what he calls
project bias, the area has not yet attracted the attention of researchers, more
attracted to study areas that have already been supported by donors funds (e.g.
areas utilized for commercial timber production or that have already been
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
39/98
39
exploited as tourist attraction). Hence, the Boti Falls Forest Reserve is an area
where little information has been previously gathered.
In order to capture the full set of issues about how forest and tree resources
form part of livelihood structures, data was collected from communities around
the Boti forest reserve area for a period of five months - between February and
June 2009. The communities studied are Boti Falls Village, Asiafo Amanfro and
Huhunya, which are situated near the forest reserve margins.
3.2.2. General description of the Yilo Krobo District
3.2.2.1. TopographyThe district lies within the semi-deciduous rain forest and the coastal savanna
zone of the country. There is the dry semi-deciduous (fire zone) which stretches
from the district to the lower part of the Manya Krobo District covering 855
square kilometers.
The area is predominantly mountainous. The Akwapim Ranges stretch into the
district from south-west to north-east across the district. With its
accompanying deep valleys, it provides an undulating landscape.
There are two main watersheds forming three river basins in the district. One of
the watersheds is located on the Akwapim Ranges where rivers flow in the
eastward direction on the lowlands into the Volta River. On the west of the
ranges, the rivers flow into he Ponpong River, which empties into the Volta
Lake.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
40/98
40
3.2.2.2. Climate and drainageThe Yilo Krobo District lays within the dry equatorial climatic zone which
experiences substantial amount of precipitation. This is characterized by a bi-
modal rainy season, which reaches its maximum during the two peak periods of
May June and September October. The annual rainfall is between 750mm in
the southeast and 1600mm on the slopes of the ranges in the northwest.
Temperature ranges between a minimum of 24.90 C and a maximum of 29.90 C.
A relative humidity of 60 93 percent is characteristic of the district.
3.2.2.3. Local natural resourcesThe Akwapim Range stretches into the district and divides it into a series of
highlands starting from the west of Somanya. There are several other isolated
rock outcrops depicting an undulating landscape. In between these highlands,
there are relatively flatlands of about 800ft above see level. Most of the
settlements are found on these lowlands.
Part of the Volta Lake stretches into the district at Bukunor. This has provided
opportunities for fishing and fishing related activities in the area. Numerous
streams and rivers drain into the lake. River Ponpong is the major river that
runs through the district.
There are two forest reserves in the district. These are the Boti Falls Forest
Reserve and the Volta River Block 2 Forest Reserve at Klo-Begoro. Together,
they add up to 21.83sq km. There are herbal species in these forest reserves.
Apart from individual herbalists who have been collecting some species from
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
41/98
41
here, the Mampong Centre for Herbal Research is known to have harvested
some plants there for the purpose of preparing herbal medicine. Other species
that are found in these reserves are Wawa, Odum, Onyina and Mahogany.
The District is endowed with deposits of quality limestone and other stones that
are good for constructional works. There are also clay deposits in several parts
of the district including Okwenya.
3.2.2.4. Population, settlements and roadsThe district total population, according to the 2000 population Census was
86,107 signifying a 4.1% increase over the population in 1984. With a growth
rate of 2.6%, the districts population is currently estimated at 97,898. The
district is predominantly rural with more than 67% of its population living in
rural areas. The district is divided into seven area councils namely, Somanya,
Oterkpolu, Boti, Nkurakan, Nsutapong, Klo-Agogo and Obawale (Yilo Krobo,
2006). Table 3.2.2.4 shows the population distribution for selected Area
councils.
Table 3.2.2.4 - Population Distribution by Area Council (selected)
Area Council Total Population % No. of % hhold
households size
Somanya 33,080 38.42 8,065 4.1
Nkurakan 16,078 18.67 3,343 4.8
Boti 12,321 14.31 2,347 5.3
Source: Yilo Krobo Medium Term Development Plan, 2006; Compiled from
2000 Population Census.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
42/98
42
3.3. Methods applied
The complexity of the issues investigated, the use of both quantitative and
qualitative methodologies was needed and a less standardized and more
flexible approach.
A desktop data search was conducted in various institutions resources during
the initial stages of the study. Other methods of data collection applied included,
focused groups, interviews with key informants, survey and participant
observation. These methods are described in detail below.
3.3.1. Use of Rapid Appraisal Techniques
Rapid appraisal (RA) refers to a family of methodologies designed to
encourage the participation of local communities in the collection and use of
information to improve their livelihoods (Freudenberger, 1994: 1).
Given the nature of the study and the kind of information to be collected, the
research was based on qualitative data and complemented by the use of
quantitative methods. According to Bryman (1988), the advantages of
combining quantitative and qualitative research include:
The logic of 'triangulation'. This is an approach in which multiple
observers, theoretical perspectives, sources of data, and methodologies
are combined. Within this context, quantitative and qualitative research
may be perceived as different ways of examining the same research
problem albeit with differing objectives. By combining the two, the
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
43/98
43
researcher's claims for the validity of his or her conclusions are
enhanced if they can be shown to provide mutual confirmation.
Quantitative and qualitative research can be combined in order to
produce a general picture
Structure and process - qualitative research presents a processual view
of social life whereas quantitative research provides a static account.
RRA has been considered an appropriate tool to be applied throughout this
study, as it helped to identify the competing, convergent, complementary and
conflicting interests and knowledge base among individuals as well as among
the 'experts' and 'locals', in the overall environmental/forest management and
community participation issues.
Furthermore, adopting on field work a learning principle has enabled the
researcher to obtain important and sensitive information about the local setting
and to reduce the influence of ethnocentrism. This principle is based on the
premise that rural forest dwellers are a repository of knowledge about their
local environment, trees, management skills and utilization of resources,
therefore, researchers should be able to open their mind, be good listeners and
be open to learn from the local people respecting their culture and traditions.
Sampling, data collection and analysis techniques are described in the following
sections.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
44/98
44
3.3.2. Sampling Methods
The communities studied were selected considering their location near Boti
Falls Forest Reserve. However, it was not possible to obtain adequate sample
frame from the District authorities, as no such list was readily available. In
addition, it would have been very time consuming and expensive to survey all
the households and population features, hence the use of purposive sampling.
Considering these aspects, a sample of 50 people willing to participate in the
survey were selected, which would be the sample frame of the study. Following
this, 24 forest users were selected using a systematic random sampling
technique.
Participants from the District Assembly, Forestry Commission, Ministry of Food
and Agriculture and Traditional Authorities were purposively selected. The
same applies for participants of the focused group discussion. Discussions were
held with the district Planning Officer and Assembly Person, the Forestry
Commission Regional Manager and field and administrative officers as well as
the Director of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture.
3.3.3. Methods of data collection
In investigating how local people interact with their environment and the local
authorities it seemed that neither qualitative nor quantitative methodology
alone were able to achieve the research objectives. Therefore, an integration of
quantitative and qualitative methods was chosen to help unpack the
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
45/98
45
interlocking deep-seated structures and processes that influence decision
making in the communities studied.
Methods of data collection applied include focused group discussions, desktop
data search, key informant interview, survey and participant observation.
3.3.3.1. Desk-top data search
A literature search was conducted in various institutions in Ghana, including the
districts Forestry Commission Office and Achimota Headquarters, District
Assembly offices and the Traditional council as well as the University of Ghana
and ISSER libraries to bring together what has already been done relating to
forestry and local livelihood security in Ghana. Also on-line journals and foreign
academic institutions' on-line sources were searched. Relevant documents
(such as policy and legislation materials) obtained from the search were
analyzed, in order to provide the framework for evaluating the situation on the
ground.
3.3.3.2. Focused group discussions
Focused group discussions and transect walks were used in the initial stages of
data collection to gain an initial understanding of the rural setting and to
establish rapport with the local people as well as village leaders and key
informants. After the initial participation by the researcher in community
meetings as an outsider, separate meetings were held with different groups
such as women, men and youths.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
46/98
46
In addition, individual meetings with the 'experts' of each village were
organized in order to give them the opportunity to talk freely and to capture a
wide range of issues relating to forest use and participation. These meetings
were aimed at capturing information relating to aspects of culture, attitudes
and perceptions regarding farming practices and forest product use, land rights
and access issues and local people's perception of participatory approaches.
3.3.3.3. Key informant interview
Key informants are persons with particular occupational skills, persons in
positions of leadership in village political and/or administrative units, activists
or representatives of particular groups in the community and individuals who
for one reason or another are in a position to know 'something special' about
the community.
Following the forest user questionnaire interviews and analysis of the data,
semi-structured interviews were conducted with selected respondents and key
informants to further investigate key issues that emerged from the analysis of
the data. Interviews were held in different places and times with teachers,
members of the traditional authority, the director of the Ministry of food and
Agriculture and older residents living in the area.
3.3.3.4. Survey
A household is usually defined as a set of persons most of whom are linked by
kinship and marriage, acting as a joint consumption/residential unit having a
single budget; operationally, members of the group, whose core is a "family",
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
47/98
47
eat from the same pot and live under the same roof (Almeida, 1996: 122). Elson
recognizes that households are in some sense pooling and sharing
organizations, but instead, she argues that this intra-household interaction is
problematic as there is considerable evidence that while women typically pool
and share their income, especially with their children, men are more inclined to
reserve part of their income for discretionary personal spending (Elson, 1995 in
Agarwal, 1997). In Addition, Agarwal (1997) argues that households are
comprised of a variety actors, with often conflicting preferences and interests.
They are arenas where decisions are made with respect to consumption,
production and investment of labor and resource allocation.
In this sense, ignoring the gender division of labor that happens intra-
household would have undermined the results of this study, hence interviewing
forest users at an individual level has been considered a more appropriate
approach. For the reasons above presented, the Forest User Questionnaire was
designed and administered to even number of male and female forest users
randomly selected from the villages studied and in depth interviews were
conducted to gather the data used in the analysis.
The questionnaire contains relevant sections for this study such as Socio-
demographic Characteristics, Economic Activities, Community Participation and
Forest Perceptions. The Forest User Questionnaire is enclosed to this study as
Appendix I. In order to interview the district authorities and other officials the
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
48/98
48
Forest User Questionnaire was adapted to cover all the relevant information
needed. Open ended questions were used to collect qualitative data.
3.3.3.5. Participant observation
To supplement the above methods, I have also conducted my own detailed
direct observation and assessment of the environment as pertains to the
condition of the forests and forest management use, farm and off-farm activities
of the villagers, and product gathering in the forest reserve whilst engaging in
informal talks and discussions with the villagers. These informal discussions
were an essential component of this study as they allowed the researcher to
gain the confidence from the community and get informed of cultural and
everyday life issues villagers live.
According to May (2001), one of the main advantages of participant observation
is its flexibility. May suggests that participant observation is a continual
process of reflection and alteration of the focus of observations in accordance
with analytic developments. It permits researchers to witness people's actions
in different settings and routinely ask themselves a myriad of questions
concerning motivations, belief, and actions (May 2001: p.159).
3.4. Data analysis
The data was analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively using statistical and
non-statistical techniques. The various responses for the close ended questions
were edited and coded accordingly. The open ended questions were classified
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
49/98
49
into categories after studying the responses and analysis was based on
discussion and interpretation of trends and patterns in target participants
perceptions. Thereafter the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was
used for data entry and analysis. The analysis yielded frequency tables and
cross tabulations to facilitate examination of relationship between variables.
Some of the results are presented in tables, diagrams and figures where it was
considered necessary.
The conclusions drawn from the statistical analysis supplemented qualitative
assessments conducted in each community. These assessments allowed for
checks on indicators against the perceptions of community members to ensure
that they were accurate and reflected the reality of each community.
3.5. Some methodological issues in research design
An important issue has been how to become an insidee of the communities
studied, so as to achieve a thorough observation and acquire a deep and
comprehensive understanding of the issues being studied.
In order to identify potential informants and introduce myself to the
communities, assistance from the Forestry Commission District Manager and
officers was required given their experience working with the communities.
Prior to the field visit, a series of meetings were held with the District Forestry
Commission Manager, Forestry Officials and MOFA Officers aimed to ensure
that the study is focused on relevant themes and to establish the relevance of
the study objectives. After these initial discussions, mostly held in Somanya,
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
50/98
50
permission to enter the communities was first sought from the District
Assembly's Planning Officer. After gaining permission from him, permission
was sought from the local chiefs and their elders followed by the local
committee chairman and its members.
3.5.1. Ethics in the interviewing process
Problems concerning the privacy and anonymity of sensitive issues that arose
during the interviews were avoided by maintaining constant neutrality and a
careful use of the information provided throughout the interviewing process
and subsequent stages of the research.
Despite the precautions taken, difficulties were found in communicating with
some members of the community given the fact that I can not speak Krobo, the
language used by most members of the communities for communication. In
these cases, I mediated these difficulties through the use of an interpreter and
cultural translator.
3.5.2. Limitations
Understanding in what ways values and research practice interact is the
beginning of the process of pursuing maximum accuracy. In this sense, May
(2001:47) suggests that an awareness of the limitations of our work, as well as
its strengths, enables us to reflect upon them in a productive fashion and take
appropriate action. In this respect, I am conscious that the research dynamic
and the data I collected have been influenced by my status as a white, male
researcher.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
51/98
51
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
52/98
52
CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.1. Introduction
This chapter presents critical, objective and systematic analysis of empirical
data collected from a survey on Community Participation in Forest Management
in Yilo Krobo District. The research findings are presented in 7 sections that
reflect the studys objectives. The first section deals with the socio-demographic
characteristics of the population surveyed. The chapter is further organized into
sections and sub-sections that deal with forest management and community
participation issues in Yilo Krobo District.
4.2. Demographic Characteristics
Before discussing the main issues this research presents the demographic
characteristics of respondents.
4.2.1. Age distribution of forest users interviewedIn order to undertake systematic analyses, the study surveyed respondents of
varying backgrounds and occupations.The age distribution of the twenty-four
forest users interviewed is given in figure 4.2.1
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
53/98
53
Source: Authors survey , 2009.
Figure 4.2.1 shows that majority of interviewees occupied age groups 25-34
and 35-44, forming 50% of forest users interviewed. In the 25-34 group, 12.5%
of women and 16.7 % of males were interviewed, whilst for the age group 35
44, 12.5% of women and 8.3% of men were interviewed. This implies the
survey covered more youthful respondents with a cumulative response rate of
66.7% when we include the 15-24 group.
4.2.2. Educational level of respondents by sexAccording to Mohamed-Anwar (unpublished), education is usually associated
with greater knowledge and participation in decision making at both the
household and community levels. Table 4.2.2 below shows the educational level
of respondents disaggregated by sex. From this table it is clear that 21% have
completed primary school and 58% of the respondents have completed
secondary school. 8% of the respondents have completed post secondary
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
54/98
54
education and 13% had no formal education. 88% of respondents had
completed at least one form of formal education. Level of education is an
important variable to consider as it has positive relationship with participation.
Table 4.2.2 shows the level of education disaggregated by sex.
Table 4.2.2 Level of education by sex (Percentages)
Educational level (Percentage)
TotalNone Primary Secondary
Post
secondary
Sex Male 4% 13% 29% 4% 50%
Female 8% 8% 29% 4% 50%
Total 13% 21% 58% 8% 100%
Source: Authors survey , 2009.
4.2.3. Occupational Distribution of respondents
Farming was the occupation of 29% of the people interviewed. The second most
common occupation of interviewees was trading with 21% of the survey
respondents. These occupational groups represent 50% of the respondents
against a remaining 50% composed of occupations such as charcoal burners,
teachers and civil servants among others. Table 4.2.3 shows the occupational
distribution of respondents.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
55/98
55
Table 4.2.3 Occupation of respondents
Frequency Percent
Farmer 7 29
Charcoal burner 2 8
Teacher 2 8
Civil servant 2 8
Student 2 8
Trader 5 21
Tour guide 2 8
Other 2 8
Total 24 100
Source: Authors survey , 2009.
4.3. Extent and nature of participation
4.3.1. Participation in forest management projects
Participation in Forest Management in Yilo Krobo District is described in Figure
4.3.1 which shows that 29.2% of the people interviewed participate in Forest
Resource Management projects, whilst 70.8% do not. This number does not
show the extent and character of participation, which is analyzed in section
4.3.4.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
56/98
56
Source: Authors survey , 2009.
4.3.2. Participation in forest management by sex
Figure 4.3.2 below shows the participation in forest management projects
disaggregated by sex; the majority of interviewees that participate in forest
resource management are male (57% of participants).
Source: Authors Survey, 2009.
4.3.3. Project ActivitiesAs shown in Figure 4.3.3, from the respondents that have participated in forest
activities, 42.9% participated in tree planting, 28.6% participated in workshops,
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
57/98
57
14.3% participated in afforestation projects and 14.3% in environmental
education projects.
Source: Authors Survey, 2009.
4.3.4. Character of activities performed by participants.As shown in figure 4.3.4 , 57% of the respondents described their participation
as manual labor,, 29% described their participation as attending project
meetings and 14% participated in the financial management.
Source: Authors Survey, 2009.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
58/98
58
4.4. Capacity for effective participation
The decentralized model of forest management that Ghana adopted relies
largely on the ability of the Unit Committees to identify the community
priorities (see Owusu, 2004). In this light, how projects are proposed is one of
the variables that this study seeks to analyze. From the projects in which people
participated, 42.9% were brought to the community by NGOs, 14.3% of
projects were brought by the Forestry Commission and 14.3% by the District
Assembly.
It is important to highlight that, according to the district authorities, Unit
Committees (UCs) have not been set up in the Yilo Krobo District. This would
mean that district authorities have limited information on the communitys
needs at the time of decision making as UCs, as we have seen in previous
sections, are the structures put in place that take the decentralization process to
the grass-root level.
Another problem highlighted by the district authorities is the lack of competent
personnel working for the District Assembly. This was identified as a
contributory factor to the UCs ineffectiveness in mobilizing community
participation. This situation is unlikely to change in the shorter term as the
district authorities have not planned any major training for their personnel on
participatory practices. District authorities cited persistent lack of resources for
the implementation of the decentralization process as one of the main reasons
they did not provide capacity-building in participatory methods for UCs staff.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
59/98
59
Source: Authors Survey, 2009.
4.5. Forest Resource Management and political decentralization
It is not possible to separate participation in forest management from the
broader context of political decentralization in which it happens. For this
reason, this study evaluated the perception of political decentralization of the
inhabitants of the villages selected. In particular, perceptions of measures that
promote participation of women were analyzed.
4.5.1. Perception of participation in decision makingWhen participants were asked about their ability to influence political decisions
in their communities, 75% answered yes,, and no in 20.8% (See Table 4.5.1)
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
60/98
60
Table 4.5.1 - Perception of participation
in decision making
Do you influence
decision-making? Frequency Percent
Yes 18 75.0
No 5 20.8N/A 1 4.2
Total 24 100.0
Source: Authors Survey, 2009.
4.5.2. Perceptions of Community Meetings by SexAn important finding of this study arose when we cross-checked peoples
perceptions of their political participation by asking them about their
participation in community meetings, one of the key arenas of participation in
rural towns. The results, cross tabulated by sex, were that women perceive
their opinions in community meetings are not as valued as male participants.
While 75% of respondents perceive that participate in decision making, only
20% of women think their opinions are as valued as men s. This discrepancy
may in some way be explained by the fact that participation in decision-making
takes place largely through community meetings, in which mens opinions were
felt to hold greater weight.
Table 4.5.2 - Perception of Consideration Given to Opinions in
Community Meetings by sex
Do you perceive your opinion is
considered in community
meetings?Yes No
Sex Male 80% 11%
Female 20% 89%
Total 100% 100%
Source: Authors Survey, 2009.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
61/98
61
It seems unlikely that womens opinion will be increasingly considered in the
short term as 91% of the respondents were not aware of mechanisms for
womens participation in the Yilo Krobo District, including district authorities
and Forestry Commission officers.
4.6. Forest Resource Management and the Boti Falls Reserve
4.6.1. Brief description of the Forest ReserveAccording to the Districts Medium Term Development Plan 2006-2009, the
Boti Falls Forest Reserve, serves as habitat for wildlife and as watershed for
the river (Yilo Krobo,2006: 121). The ecological purpose of the reserve is
complemented by the use of the site as a tourist attraction.
The reserve is, according to the district authorities, a strictly reserved site. The
area is demarcated with boundary pillars, walls around the entrance, and lines
of trees along the back perimeter. Staff is paid by the local government to
control these boundaries, enforce laws governing use and access, and to carry
out management activities. According to the caretakers, there are also Forestry
Commission wildlife officers patrolling the site, although they were not
available to meet with the researcher at the time of surveying the reserve.
As a consequence of access restrictions, villagers are not allowed to enter the
reserve to enjoy the ecological benefits of the site unless they pay an entry fee
to the district authorities; an entry fee that due to the level of poverty of the
villages studied many villagers cannot pay.
-
7/28/2019 Community Participation in Forest Management in the Yilo Krobo District, Eastern Ghana - Gerardo Oscar Paez
62/98
62
It is important to point that even though the Boti Forest Reserve has been kept
by the district authorities for conservation purposes, there are noticeable signs
of human activity inside the reserve. For example, there ar
top related