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Chapter 22: Children and Sport Psychology

22

Children and Sport Psychology

C H A P T E R

Session Outline

•  The importance of children’s sport psychology

•  Why a psychology of the young athlete?

•  Why children participate in sport

•  Why children discontinue participation in sport

•  Role of friends in youth sport (continued)

Session Outline (continued)

•  Stress and burnout in children’s competitive sport

•  Effective coaching practices for young athletes

•  Role of parents

•  The professionalization of children’s sports

•  Stages of athletic talent development

The Importance of Children’s Sport Psychology

•  Some of the most important implications of sport psychology are found in the children’s sport arena, where participants are plentiful and are highly involved.

Why a Psychology of the Young Athlete?

•  So many children are involved (an estimated 45 million in the United States).

•  Children are intensely involved in youth sport.

•  Participation peaks at a critical developmental period in the child’s life (~age 12).

•  Organized sport is not automatically beneficial; qualified, competent adult leadership is needed.

Why Children Participate in Youth Sport

•  Children have different reasons for participating in sport than adults (have fun, improve skills, get exercise, be with and make new friends, compete).

•  Boys and girls have similar motives for involvement but these may vary in importance.

•  See “Motives for Participation in Youth Sports” on p. 517 of text.

Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport

•  Participation statistics –  Peak participation occurs between the ages of 10

and 13 years.

–  For every 10 children who begin a sport season, 3 to 4 quit before the start of the next season.

(continued)

Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport (continued)

•  Motives for withdrawal –  Major reason: Other things to do

–  Some negative reasons (e.g., not as good as they wanted to be, boredom, didn’t like the pressure) cited by some children

(continued)

Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport (continued)

•  The importance of perceived competence: Children with low perceptions of their athletic abilities drop out or do not participate in sport, whereas children with high perceptions of their competence participate and persist.

(continued)

Figure 22.1

Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport (continued)

•  Sport-specific dropouts withdraw from a particular program but enter into other sports.

•  Sport-general dropouts withdraw from all sport participation.

•  Sport-general dropouts are a special concern.

(continued)

Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport (continued)

•  Key: Understand underlying motives for withdrawal.

•  Summary –  Most of the motives children have are intrinsic (e.g.,

to have fun, to learn skills). Winning clearly is neither the only nor the most common motive for participation.

–  Most young athletes have multiple reasons for participation, not a single motive.

(continued)

Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport (continued)

•  Summary –  Although most children withdraw because of change

of interests, a significant minority discontinue for negative reasons (e.g., pressure)

–  Underlying the descriptive motive (e.g., fun) is the child’s need to feel worthy.

Strategies for Structuring Sport Situations to Meet the Needs

of Young Athletes

•  Coaches can enhance motivation by structuring environments to meet specific needs.

Facilitating Motivation in Young Athletes: Implications for Practice

•  Implications for practice –  Enhance perceived competence—teach young

athletes to define success as exceeding their own goals, not simply winning.

–  Keep participation and withdrawal statistics.

(continued)

Facilitating Motivation in Young Athletes (continued)

•  Implications for practice –  When children discontinue, rigorously analyze why

they are withdrawing from sport.

–  Is the child interested in another sport?

–  Is withdrawal permanent or temporary?

–  Did the child have a say in the decision?

–  What are effects on long-term welfare?

Positive Role of Friends in Youth Sport

•  Companionship: Spending time together

•  Pleasant play association: Enjoying being around one’s friends

•  Enhancement of self-esteem: Having friends say things or take actions that boost one’s self-esteem

(continued)

Positive Role of Friends in Youth Sport (continued)

•  Help and guidance: Providing assistance in learning sport skills as well as general assistance, such as in school

•  Prosocial behavior: Saying and doing things that conform to social convention, such as sharing or not saying negative things

•  Intimacy: Mutual feelings of close, personal bonds

(continued)

Positive Role of Friends in Youth Sport (continued)

•  Emotional support: Expressing feelings of concern for one another; absence of conflicts (some friends do not argue, fight, or disagree)

•  Conflict resolution: Ability of friends to resolve conflicts

•  Attractive personal qualities: Positive characteristics such as personality or physical features

Negative Role of Friends in Youth Sport

•  Conflict (e.g., insults, arguments)

•  Unattractive personal qualities (e.g., self-centered)

•  Betrayal

•  Inaccessibility (lack of opportunity to interact)

Role of Friends in Youth Sport

•  Peer relations affect motivation for physical activity.

Friendship in Sport: Implications for Practice

•  Enhance peer relationships by creating motivational climates that enhance task goals and foster cooperation versus competition.

•  Conduct drills that require small groups of players to interact, which will maximize involvement.

•  Reduce displays of social status (e.g., public picking of teams).

(continued)

Friendship in Sport: Implications for Practice (continued)

•  In sport settings, provide time for children to be with friends and to make new friends.

•  Encourage positive peer reinforcement.

•  Emphasize teamwork, foster cohesion, and emphasize the pursuit of team goals.

Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport

•  Are young athletes placed under too much stress?

•  No. The majority of young athletes are not under excessive stress (less than 10% are).

(continued)

Figure 22.2

Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport (continued)

•  Is state anxiety heightened in young athletes? –  High stress (state anxiety) levels are relatively rare

but affect 2.5 million children in specific situations.

–  Stress among elite junior competitors is caused by fear of failure and feelings of inadequacy.

–  Children at risk for heightened state anxiety exhibit certain personal characteristics.

(continued)

Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport (continued)

•  Excessive trait anxiety does not appear to be associated with youth sport participation.

Personal Characteristics of Children at Risk for Heightened State Anxiety

•  High trait anxiety

•  Low self-esteem

•  Maladaptive perfectionism

•  Low performance expectancies relative to team

•  Low self-performance expectations

•  Frequent worries about failure (continued)

Personal Characteristics of Children at Risk for Heightened State Anxiety

(continued) •  Frequent worries about adult expectations

and evaluation by others

•  Less perceived fun

•  Less satisfaction with their performance, regardless of winning or losing

(continued)

Personal Characteristics of Children at Risk for Heightened State Anxiety

(continued)

•  Perception that participation is important to parents

•  Outcome goal orientation and low perceived ability

Situational Sources of Stress

•  Defeat versus victory: Children experience more state anxiety after losing than after winning.

•  Event importance: The more importance is placed on a contest, the more state anxiety is experienced by participants.

(continued)

Situational Sources of Stress (continued)

•  Sport type: Children in individual sports experience more state anxiety than children in team sports.

Stress-Induced Burnout

•  Burnout is a special case of sport withdrawal in which a young athlete discontinues sport involvement in response to chronic stress.

•  Characteristics of burnout include one-dimensional self-definitions and little or no control in decision making.

Factors Associated with Burnout in Young Athletes

•  Very high self- and other-imposed expectations

•  Win-at-all-costs attitude

•  Parental pressure

•  Long repetitive practices with little variety

•  Inconsistent coaching practices

(continued)

Factors Associated with Burnout in Young Athletes (continued)

•  Overuse injuries from excessive practice

•  Excessive time demands

•  High travel demands

•  Love from others displayed on the basis of winning and losing

•  Perfectionism

Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport

•  Practical implications –  Develop confidence and constructive attitude toward

mistakes.

–  Use concrete physical strategies (e.g., stress bag to put worries in).

–  Use fun strategies (e.g., jelly belly, spaghetti toes relaxation).

(continued)

Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport (continued)

•  Practical implications –  Use simple strategies (e.g., change channels).

–  Vary approaches to the same exercise.

–  Individualize approaches to the child’s interests.

–  Remain positive and optimistic.

–  Use role models (e.g., Michael Jordan).

Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes

•  Children have special coaching needs different from the needs of adults.

What the Research Says About Coaching Children

•  Smith, Smoll, and Curtis’ (1979) classic research notes that a coach’s instruction, reinforcement, and mistake-contingent instruction and encouragement correlate with a player’s self-esteem, motivation, and positive attitudes.

•  Learning a positive approach to coaching results in lower player dropout rates (5% compared with 26% for untrained coaches).

Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes

•  Implications for practice –  Catch kids doing things right and give them plenty of

praise.

–  Give praise sincerely.

–  Develop realistic expectations.

–  Reward efforts as much as outcome.

–  Focus on teaching and practicing skills (maximize participation in an activity).

(continued)

Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes (continued)

•  Implications for practice –  Modify skills and activities so they are

developmentally appropriate.

–  Modify rules to maximize action and participation.

–  Reward correct technique, not just outcome.

–  Use a positive “sandwich” approach when you correct errors.

(continued)

Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes (continued)

•  Implications for practice –  Create an environment that reduces fear of trying

new skills.

–  Be enthusiastic.

Different Parental Roles in Youth Sports (Fredericks & Eccles, 2004)

•  Socializer

•  Role model

•  Interpreter of child’s sport experience

Research Findings on Parental Roles

•  Parental enjoyment of physical activity is related to parental encouragement and a child’s perceived competence and participation.

•  Parental support buffers the adverse stressful effects that players experience.

(continued)

Research Findings on Parental Roles (continued)

•  The goal orientations of parent and child are significantly related.

•  Parents can play a highly positive or a highly negative role in the youth sport experience.

Parental Roles in Youth Sports

•  Educate parents about their responsibilities and the sport parent code of conduct: Appreciate the tricky business of parental support.

Sport Parent Responsibilities

•  Encourage your children to play sports, but don’t pressure them. Let your child choose to play—and quit—if she or he wants.

•  Understand what your child wants from sport and provide a supportive atmosphere for achieving those goals.

(continued)

Sport Parent Responsibilities (continued)

•  Set limits on your child’s participation in sport. Determine when your child is physically and emotionally ready to play and to ensure that conditions are safe.

•  Make sure the coach is qualified to guide your child through the sport experience.

•  Keep winning in perspective, and help your child do the same.

(continued)

Sport Parent Responsibilities (continued)

•  Help your child set realistic performance goals.

•  Help your child understand the valuable lessons sport can teach.

•  Help your child meet his or her responsibilities to the team and coach.

•  Discipline your child appropriately when necessary.

(continued)

Sport Parent Responsibilities (continued)

•  Turn your child over to the coach at practices and games—don’t meddle or coach from the stands.

•  Supply the coach with information regarding any allergies or special health conditions your child has. Make sure your child takes any necessary medication to games and practices.

Sport Parent Code of Conduct •  Remain in the spectator area during games.

•  Don’t advise the coach on how to coach.

•  Don’t make derogatory comments to coaches, officials, or parents of either team.

•  Don’t try to coach your child during the contest.

•  Don’t drink alcohol at contests or come to a contest having drunk too much.

(continued)

Sport Parent Code of Conduct (continued)

•  Cheer for your child’s team.

•  Show interest, enthusiasm, and support for your child.

•  Be in control of your emotions.

•  Help when asked by coaches or officials.

•  Thank coaches, officials, and other volunteers who conduct the event.

Professionalization of Children’s Sports

•  Youth sports is becoming professionalized in the sense that a shift is occurring from a focus on physical, social, and psychological developmental to more extrinsic goals like winning, rankings, fame, and earning college athletic scholarships.

•  Early sport specialization, year-round intense training, and private coaching characterize a professionalized approach.

(continued)

Professionalization of Children’s Sports (continued)

•  Myths associated with the professionalized approach to athletic talent development in youth: –  Myth 1: Athletic talent can be accurately predicted at

a young age.

–  Myth 2: More is always better!

–  Myth 3: Stages of talent development can be skipped.

(continued)

Professionalization of Children’s Sports (continued)

–  Myth 4: Intense training will lead to a college athletic scholarship.

–  Myth 5: Early single-sport specialization is essential.

–  Myth 6: One cannot have fun if he or she is going to be an elite athlete.

–  Myth 7: Talented children need different entry programs and coaching approaches than their less talented counterparts.

(continued)

Professionalization of Children’s Sports (continued)

•  Opportunities for athletic talent development are important.

•  Programs must be carried out in developmentally appropriate ways, guided by scientific evidence, and not pushed on children at younger and younger ages.

Stages of Athletic Talent Development

•  Entry (initial) phase

•  Investment phase

•  Elite performance excellence phase

•  Excellence maintenance phase

(continued)

Stages of Athletic Talent Development (continued)

•  Most champion athletes did not start out with champion aspirations in mind.

•  Most champion athletes were exposed to active lifestyles and played multiple sports as children.

•  Champions must fall in love with the sport before pursuing intense involvement.

•  To optimize talent, young athletes should not specialize in a single sport too early, and parents and coaches should emphasize fun and development.

(continued)

Stages of Athletic Talent Development (continued)

•  Sport specialization guidelines (ISSP) –  Early diversification (sampling of different sports)

–  High amounts of deliberate play

–  Opportunity to specialize (~age 13)

–  Highly specialized training (late adolescence or ~age 16)