chemical reactions

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PHILIP DUTTONUNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AND BIOCHEMISTRY

TENTH EDITION

GENERAL CHEMISTRYPrinciples and Modern Applications

PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE

Chemical Reactions 4

Chemical Compounds

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4-1 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

As reactants are converted to products we observe:Color change

Precipitate formation

Gas evolution

Heat absorption or evolution

Chemical evidence may be necessary.

Precipitation of silver chromate

Figure 4-1

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Evidence of a chemical reaction

Figure 4-2

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Chemical Reactions

Nitrogen monoxide + oxygen → nitrogen dioxide

Step 1: Write the reaction using chemical symbols.

NO + O2 → NO2

Step 2: Balance the chemical equation.

2 1 2

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Molecular Representation

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Balancing Equations

Never introduce extraneous atoms to balance.

NO + O2 → NO2 + O

Never change a formula for the purpose of balancing an equation.

NO + O2 → NO3

An equation can be balanced only by adjusting the coefficients of formulas.

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Balancing Equation Strategy

Balance elements that occur in only one compound on each side first.

Balance free elements last.

Balance unchanged polyatomics (or other groups of atoms) as groups.

Fractional coefficients are acceptable and can be cleared at the end by multiplication.

States of Matter

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(g) gas (l) liquid (s) solid

Thus, the equation for combustion of triethylene glycol can be written as

2 C6H14O4(l) + 15 O2(g) 12 CO2(g) + 14 H2O(l)

Another commonly used symbol for reactants or products dissolved in water is

(aq) aqueous solution

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4-2 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry includes all the quantitative relationships involving:

atomic and formula masses

chemical formulas.

chemical equations

• Mole ratio or stoichiometric factor is a central conversion factor.

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KEEP IN MIND

that it is important to include units and to work from a balanced chemical equation when solving stoichiometry problems.

A generalized stoichiometry diagram

Figure 4-3

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The reaction of 2 Al(s) 6 HCl(aq) 2 AlCl3(aq) 3 H2(g)Figure 4-4

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4-3 Chemical Reactions in Solution

Close contact between atoms, ions and molecules necessary for a reaction to occur.

Solvent

We will usually use aqueous (aq) solution.

Solute

A material dissolved by the solvent.

Molarity

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Molarity (M) = Volume of solution (L) Amount of solute (mol solute)

If 0.440 mol of urea is dissolved in enough water to make 1.000 L of solution the concentration is:

curea = 1.000 L

0.440 mol urea = 0.440 M CO(NH2)2

C = V n

Solution Dilution

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Figure 4-6

Visualizing the dilution of a solution

Mi × Vi = ni

Mi Vi Mf Vf

= nf = Mf × Vf

M = n

V

Mi × ViMf = Vf

= Mi

Vi

Vf

Preparation of 0.250 M K2Cr2O7 —Example 4-9 illustratedFigure 4-5

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4-4 Determining Limiting Reagent

The reactant that is completely consumed determines the quantities of the products formed.

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Theoretical yield is the expected yield from a reactant.Actual yield is the amount of product actually produced.

Percent yield = 100%Actual yield

Theoretical Yield

4-5 Other Practical Matters in Reaction Stoichiometry

Theoretical, Actual and Percent Yield

Theoretical, Actual and Percent Yield

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actual yield = theoretical yield

quantitative

Side reactions reduce the percent yield.

By-products are formed by side reactions.

Consecutive Reactions, Simultaneous Reactions and Overall Reactions

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Multistep synthesis is often unavoidable.

Reactions carried out in sequence are called consecutive reactions.

When substances react independently and at the same time the reaction is a simultaneous reaction.

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Overall Reactions and Intermediates

The Overall Reaction is a chemical equation that expresses all the reactions occurring in a single overall equation.

An intermediate is a substance produced in one step and consumed in another during a multistep synthesis.

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End of Chapter Questions

Initial problem solving is linear and often based on memorizing solutions for particular situations.

Answer

a

bc