chapter ii: literature review - home | …writingcenter.ashford.edu/sites/default/files/inline...17...
Post on 12-Jun-2018
215 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
17
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
There is substantial research on STEM and women, in large part due to studies that
the U.S. government has funded, and continues to fund, including substantive data collection
related to recruiting women into STEM professions and the barriers to progress. The majority
of published works include a focus toward the academic years and/or why women leave
STEM professions. While these previous studies offer valuable insight in correcting our
actions, they provide only partial solutions for the modern STEM professions and women
professionals. A limited body of knowledge exists regarding what contributes to women’s
motivation to stay in STEM professions.
The goal of this literature review is to summarize the history of barriers for women in
STEM and provide background as to the importance of STEM professions internationally
and in the United States. There is also a focused section on three groups in the literature that
are most relevant to this study: women at the university level studying to become STEM
professionals, STEM faculty, and women in the STEM workforce. Also included in this
discussion are some considerations from the literature for overcoming barriers in the STEM
profession. Finally, as this study seeks to develop theory in the framework of motivation, a
summary of employee motivation, turnover, and retention is included.
Search Strategy
The search strategy for this study started with establishing a literature review
components outline, which guided the keywords used in search databases. Keywords
included, but were not limited to science, engineering, technology, math, women, STEM,
workforce, employee, turnover, motivation, and satisfaction. The ProQuest, ERIC,
EBSCOHOST, and SAGE databases were searched. Google Scholar was also leveraged to
The top, bottom, and right margins should be set to 1 inch. The left margin should be set to 1 ¼ inch.
No information in the header.
Discuss the organization
of the chapter.
Include the specific
search terms you used and put them in
italics. Include the
specific databases.
Page numbers should continue from Chapter I.
18
search for information. Sources of information included peer-reviewed journal articles,
books, government statistics, theses, and dissertations. Over 250 sources, dating from the
1950s to the present, were identified with relevant material. The majority were published
within the last 5 years.
Older sources were included to provide the reader a perspective of the longevity and
history of the topic. RefWorks was leveraged to help identify duplicate material. A subset of
the sources retrieved, as listed in the references section of this dissertation, was identified as
the most relevant sources for this study and provide the foundation of the literature review.
History on Barriers for Women in STEM
Many examples of barriers for women in STEM in the literature exist, some
consistently cited over time. Some barriers cited more recently have emphasized primary
contributors to women leaving careers STEM fields permanently. Some barriers apply to
STEM fields in general, for both men and women. For example, trying to keep skills
sharpened to stay current with the high pace of technology change is a barrier for anyone in
STEM professions (Hira, 2010). Another general barrier is the evolution of business models,
including downsizing and outsourcing, to stay competitive in a global business environment
for women in STEM professions (Hira, 2010; Preston, 2004; Rhea, 1996). These types of
barriers are arguably barriers for many professions. Women in STEM professions seemingly
face much more over their academic and industry careers.
The most commonly cited barriers include workplace recognition barriers (Glass &
Minnotte, 2010; Lincoln et al., 2012; Thilmany, 2010); workplace culture barriers (Beddoes
& Borrego, 2011; Cheryan, 2012; Kerr et al., 2012; Marques, 2011); self-efficacy barriers
(Cordero et al., 2010; Deemer et al., 2014; Jones, Paretti, Hein, & Knott, 2010); career fit
Tip: Consult with your committee about any
limits on the dates of
published research.
Provide relevant
historical information
on your topic to provide
context for your study.
Tip: If you’re struggling with finding literature, reach out to the wonderful team at the library! You can find their contact information, here.
19
(Giles et al. 2009; Preston, 2004); and social system bias (Matusovich et al. 2010). Many of
these barriers are rooted in early stereotypes (Ambrose, Dunkle, Lazarus, Nair, & Harkus,
1997). While modern legislation has helped facilitate some positive changes, many of these
barriers remain rooted in early stereotypes (Ambrose et al., 1997) and still exist in the
workplace (Etzkowitz, 2008).
Early Stereotypes
In the early 19th century, science fields had a hierarchy: white men were at the top,
then white women, followed by other races and ethnicities at the bottom (Ambrose et al.,
1997). When the 20th century brought more military-related demands for engineering and
technology professionals, white men were still positioned at the top of this hierarchy
(Ambrose et al., 1997). Today, some progress was made for equal rights for women and
other minorities in the workforce during the civil rights movement. Over 200 years of
cultural stigma in scientific professions has not gone away completely; the remnants of this
archaic way of looking at the capabilities of men versus women remain woven into the fabric
of workplace cultures.
Doors Opened by Equal Rights Legislation
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the enactment of Title IX in 1972 fostered notable
differences in the workforce (Etzkowitz, 2008). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits
discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. Title IX in 1972
protects from discrimination based on sex in education programs and activities that receive
federal assistance (U.S. Department of Labor Report, 2011). Women’s attendance at the
college level increased steadily since the early 1970s, in no small part due to this legislation.
Tip: Use appropriate level headings so your reader can understand the organization of your document.
20
Today, more than half of the students enrolled in U.S. colleges are women (Morganson et al.,
2010).
While Title IX certainly helped to break down some barriers, many of the same
barriers may still exist. In the 110thth Congress in 2007, both the U.S. House of
Representatives and Senate signed resolutions to celebrate Title IX, reinforcing the need to
uphold it (Congressional Record Daily 110thth Congress, 2007). The House resolution stated
that a need remains to bring visibility to Title IX, because women continue to earn less for
work than men with the same educational background, and girls face substantial barriers in
pursuing high-STEM fields.
Workplace Recognition Barriers
The Matilda Effect, The Matthew Effect, and The Athena Factors include the
description of overt and covert discrimination towards women in STEM fields. The Matilda
Effect is the under-recognition of women in science with the same credentials as their male
peers (Lincoln et al., 2012). The Matthew Effect is the male over-recognition in science
fields or the act of enhancing an already large reputation for a male in science through
repeated reference of their work, for example (Lincoln et al., 2012). The Athena Factor was
comprised of five antigens found in private industry following a study called the Athena
Project that identified challenges for women in reaching higher levels of management
(Thilmany, 2010). Studies found that women remained in STEM fields, but feel like tokens
of diversity in their positions or are ghettoized, meaning they reach leadership levels, but
have the least perceived importance or rank on the leadership team (Glass & Minnotte, 2010;
Lincoln et al., 2012). While these different recognition barriers impact women in STEM
21
fields, these experiences may be rooted in how women are viewed within the culture of
STEM.
Workplace Culture Barriers
Men have dominated the STEM fields, creating a masculine culture where women are
viewed differently than men. There has been a heavy emphasis on the challenges for women
in the masculine culture of STEM (Espinosa, 2011; Gilbert, 2009; Kerr et al., 2012; Servon
& Visser, 2011). One of the challenges that this culture perpetuated for women is the lack of
access to information and invitations into informal networks in the workplace (Glass &
Minnotte, 2010; Kerr et al., 2012). The implicit biases and the stereotypes projected on
women stemming from and fostered by this masculine culture continued to reduce
opportunities for women in STEM and created a hostile environment for those motivated to
stay long-term (Beddoes & Borrego, 2011; Cheryan, 2012; Deemer et al., 2014; Glass &
Minnotte, 2010; Kerr et al., 2012; Lincoln et al., 2012; Marques, 2011). Ultimately, the
underlying masculine culture of STEM may push women out of the field, as it creates a
culture where it is difficult to build and maintain positive relationships in the work setting.
Self-Efficacy Barriers
One factor related to recruiting women in STEM and their persistence through the
university years is low self-efficacy compared to their male peers (Deemer et al., 2014;
Leslie et al., 1998). Self-efficacy is specific to a capability, unlike self-esteem, which is
more associated with feelings of self-worth. Having math self-efficacy is particularly helpful
for women pursuing STEM careers (Cordero et al., 2010), but Jones et al. (2010) found that
men had higher competency or self-efficacy beliefs than women. This importance of self-
Tip: Use active voice in academic writing.
Tip: The writer has introduced the topic, provided some supporting evidence, and concluded with a sentence, in her own words, that pulls everything together. For help with paragraph development, see this resource.
22
efficacy, combined with the lower levels of self-efficacy in women, likely contributes to
reasons women stay out of, or leave, positions in STEM.
Career Fit
Another barrier cited as contributing to women leaving early in their professional
careers is career fit (Preston, 2004). Giles et al. (2009) found that interest in the topic was
critical to success for women in science and engineering. It seems imperative that the
recruitment of women in STEM, therefore, is not done so blindly, but should consider
intrinsic factors that motivate an individual and lead to a good career fit. However, it is
important to acknowledge that although the ideal state may be that women and men choose
careers based on interest, societal factors remain or exist that strongly influence these
interests, starting from childhood (Barber, 1995).
Social System Bias Barriers
Matusovich et al. (2010) emphasized the social system of peers, faculty members, and
family support as part of the equation in increasing the potential for persisting and achieving
a degree. The U.S. society is image-driven and filled with gender stereotypes (Matusovich et
al., 2010). Many existing government-sponsored programs exist that try to expose young
girls and women to STEM fields deliberately in order to overcome some of these societal
barriers (Matusovich et al., 2010). Unfortunately, these programs may do women a
disservice in some ways because they may lure young girls and young women into a fantasy
(Matusovich et al., 2010). These programs somewhat deceptively leave out the details of the
known challenges women would encounter in the androcentric culture of the STEM
workplace, where gender stereotypes are magnified (Matusovich et. al, 2010). In the absence
of corrections to the current gender stereotypes and masculine culture, women who enter
23
STEM professions will likely have to assimilate and, over time, will potentially lose part of
their identities (Barber, 1995).
Additional Barriers for Women in Non-linear Careers
STEM work cultures have been particularly inflexible to anything that does not fit
into the traditionally long work weeks heralded in these professions (Tomlinson, Olsen, Neff,
Purdam, & Mehta, 2005). Women face a particular barrier when they choose to leave their
career to become a mother and later return to work. Thirty-seven percent of women and 43%
percent of women with children leave their career at some point (Hewlett, 2007). When
women do leave, over 93% want to return to their careers, but only 74% ultimately do and
only about half of those women returned to the workplace full-time (Hewlett, 2007). Those
who returned to work part-time instead of full-time experienced a 16% lower salary for the
same type of job for working less hours (Tomlinson et al., 2005). Not surprisingly, the wage
gap that starts in the beginning of one’s career rises exponentially throughout. As raises and
bonuses are based on one’s salary, the compounding compensation gap increases. The U.S.
Department of Labor (2011) provided some staggering projections on the wage gap effect
over time. If, for example a man at age 25 earns $6,000 more annually than a woman at the
same age, the earnings gap grows to $28,000 by age 35 and $379,000 by age 65. It is clear
that wage inequity can be severe over the span of a career. These differences in pay could
keep women from entering STEM fields, or push them to change to a new career when
returning to the workforce after becoming a mother.
International Emphasis on STEM Professions
STEM government initiatives absorb a lot of attention, time, and tax-payer-funded
resources. Hira (2010) argued that U.S. policy action addressing STEM field concerns have
Tip: In referencing quotes or paraphrasing others, sentences should be written in past tense.
24
been too singularly focused, not allowing for the broader contributing factors and conflicts of
interests that often result. Hira (2010) and Preston (2004) called for the U.S. government to
mobilize for change. Other advanced western countries such as Australia, England, Sweden,
New Zealand, and Canada also have efforts to increase recruitment and retention of women
in STEM (Giles et al., 2009; Preston, 2004).
These countries expanded their higher education systems in STEM at a time when the
U.S. system struggled to expand (Giles et al., 2009; Varma & Freehill, 2010). Sweden is
perhaps the most aggressive in their national policies in general, which require employers to
balance the numbers of men and women in the workforce (Preston, 2004). Sweden’s
government also enforces what seems to be a progressive family-friendly workplace,
requiring 12 months of maternity and paternity leave to be offered to employees, more than
any other country (Preston, 2004). China and India challenge all countries in another way.
Their STEM-related industries evolved as global leaders in high technology, manufacturing,
and IT sectors, respectively, claiming sections or whole parts of these industries once
strongholds in the United States (Varma & Freehill, 2010). These changes in the field have
resulted in a focus on recruiting and retaining women in these important fields.
The notion of a pipeline is referenced often in STEM literature (Espinosa, 2011;
Glass & Minnotte, 2010; Lincoln et al., 2012; Servon &Visser, 2011). The phrase STEM
pipeline described the journey of recruiting and retaining women in STEM fields starting
with grammar school, to include efforts to expose young girls to STEM fields as potential
career choices. The pipeline then moves to the university years and finally to the workplace.
The leaky pipeline is a well-documented phrase meant to represent the junctures where the
highest numbers of candidates moving through the pipeline drop out (Glass & Minnotte,
Tip: Try to end
paragraphs with your own ideas
and analysis of the
research. This keeps
the focus on your study
and what you can add to
the scholarly conversation on the topic.
Tip: For
help with when to use
hyphens, see page 98 in the APA
Manual.
25
2010; Mavriplis et al., 2010; Servon & Visser, 2011). The logic of a pipeline concludes that
increasing the amount of women recruited into STEM professions will result in more women
receiving STEM field degrees and subsequently pursuing work in these fields (Lincoln et al.,
2012). The pipeline notion, however, has not been realized (Glass & Minnotte, 2010;
Mavriplis et al., 2010; Servon & Visser, 2011). Therefore, more research is needed to
examine why some women remain in STEM fields; this information may help to address
reasons for the leaky pipeline.
STEM Workforce
STEM professions constitute a minority of the U.S. workforce with only 5% of U.S.
workers participating in STEM professions (Lowell, 2010). The supply and demand of the
STEM workforce shifted since the 1960s because of various factors such as globalization,
worker attrition, and the rise of technology, but still remains a critical part of the U.S.
competitive advantage (Giles et al., 2009; Hira, 2010; Jolly, 2009; Lowell, 2010; Preston,
2004; Varma & Freehill, 2010; Washburn, 2007).
General Population Workforce
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics report, Labor Force Projections to 2020: A More
Slowly Growing Workplace, indicated that the participation of women in the overall
workforce was on a steep climb from the 1960s to the 1990s, increasing from approximately
37% participation to 57% participation, and peaking in 1999 at 60%. The percentage of
women in the workforce has been declining since dropping to 58.6% (U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2008). Women 25-54 years of age saw a peak percentage of 76.7% in 2000,
declining to 75.2% today (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008).
Tip: Avoid general statements of time. In this case, it would be better to state the current year.
26
Male workforce participation has been on a continuously downward trend as well,
since the 1960s decreasing from 84% participation in 1960 to 71% in 2008 with projections
showing a continuing decrease (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). Men 25-54 years of age have a
workforce participation rate of 89.3% (U.S. Census, 2008). Thus, for the prime-age men and
women, women have almost 15% fewer participants in the workforce (U.S. Census Bureau,
2008). The number of women in the workforce is not expected to increase in the near-term
projections. Although the gap between the percentage of women and men in the overall
workforce decreased, women continue to be underrepresented in the workforce.
STEM Workforce Supply and Demand
The number of STEM degrees and advanced degrees fluctuates. Although the
number of STEM degrees awarded in the United States increased across the broad spectrum
of STEM professions, there has been a decrease in the physical sciences and engineering and,
more recently, in computer science (Varma & Freehill, 2010). The supply and demand for
STEM professions changes over time, as new industries emerge and some older technologies
and methods become obsolete (Rhea, 1996). The STEM workforce grew more than three
times the rate of the overall U.S. workforce from 1950 to 2000 (Lowell, 2010). An alarming
drop in the STEM workforce from 2000-2006 caught the attention of the highest office in the
United States. The STEM workforce was a topic of interest in the George W. Bush
presidency in the early 2000s, during which President Bush launched several campaigns
supporting STEM fields (Varma & Freehill, 2006). The interest continues into the Obama
presidency. President Obama launched a campaign in 2009, Educate to Innovate, which calls
for an expansion of STEM education and career opportunities for women interested in STEM
careers.
27
One reason for this labor shortage in STEM professions is that men, who make up the
bulk of staff in these professions historically, indicated a marked decline in pursuing STEM
professions since the 1980s (Preston, 2004). Knowledge loss is a growing concern for the
future of STEM professions, as the baby boomer generation reaches retirement age (Giles et
al., 2009). It is estimated that the STEM workforce will have a 50% attrition rate between
2012 and 2017 (Washburn, 2007).
There were many other environmental factors contributing to drop in demand. One is
that the U.S. United States became more service, and less, manufacturing focused.
Computers went mainstream, creating other job specializations (Hira, 2010; Lowell, 2010).
Globalization is also a key factor in supply and demand for STEM professions, providing a
platform for engineering and science industries to move toward service industries (Jolly,
2009; Varma & Freehill, 2010). The United States, overall, did not retain its competitiveness
in some of these industries.
Groups Studied in the Literature
Researchers examining women in STEM professions have largely focused on four
population groups: (a) girls and boys of grade school and high school age, (b) students
studying STEM fields at the university level, (c) STEM faculty, and (d) STEM professionals
in private industry (Ambrose et al., 1997; Cordero et al., 2010; Hewlett, 2007; Lee, 2012;
Powell, 1992). For the current study, the literature review largely focuses on students
studying STEM fields at the university level, STEM faculty, and STEM professionals in
private industry as these groups are most relevant to the STEM workplace experience.
Include literature focused on the population and context or setting
of your study.
28
University Students Studying in STEM fields
Studies related to students in STEM professions clarified that, based on math testing
scores, women and men have an equal academic chance at succeeding in STEM professions
(Cordero et al., 2010). Despite the testing scores, self-efficacy in math and science is higher
for men than women (Cordero et al., 2010). Because self-persuasion in belief perseverance
affects self-efficacy, women in STEM fields would benefit from external positive influences
such as mentors and social networks that help persuade them to believe in their capabilities
(Cordero et al., 2010). Lee (2012) explored what factors influence choices in education and
career paths using stereotypical images of STEM career settings. Women’s motivation in
this study was not affected by the stereotypical male images (Lee, 2012). The study
participants in Cordero et al. (2010) and Lee (2012) were students.
Faculty Specializing in STEM
Some studies exist that largely consist of women in academic STEM fields (Ambrose
et al., 1992). Common themes for these women contributing to staying in the profession
were personal influences in their lives such as family members and a genuine interest in their
field of study (Ambrose et al., 1992). Other themes contributing to their success were (a)
mentors, (b) professional networks, (c) having a hobby or an outlet outside of work, and, for
some, (d) the supportive environment that all-female schools provided. Discrimination was a
common obstacle (Ambrose et al., 1992). This study was conducted in 1992. Because it is
highly probable that that academic and working environment in 1992 was a different
environment than when this dissertation was published, the studies are not duplicative.
Professionals in STEM Industries
Studies on professional women in STEM included executive level women and
women working within the engineering profession. Powell (1992) cited two primary
Tip: In APA style, you can
separate items in a
series using lowercase
letters within parentheses.
29
strategies for executive level women: impression management (acting like a man) and
finding a pocket of sanity (finding a place they could be themselves while assimilating to the
norms of the profession). Marques (2011) cited strategies for high-achieving women such as
over-delivering, taking stretch assignments, and establishing a reputation of competence.
Marques’ study focused on women in engineering only. A high-level of competence in
technical acumen is very important to move into higher level positions (Marques, 2011;
Powell, 1992). The participants in Powell (1992) and Marques (2011) were all upper level,
executive management, whereas the participants for this dissertation research included
women in STEM at any level of the organization. It is important to understand what
motivates women in STEM at any level in the organization, particularly in lower
management levels, as not every person defines career success as achieving a position in the
C-suite and, conversely, organizations require engaged employees at every level of the
organization in order to be most profitable.
Some studies focused on a specific STEM profession. Themes that were factors in
one study that addressed women in engineering persisting included (a) coping skills for
workplace inequities and workplace culture, (b) support from family, (c) having a personal
interest in engineering work, and (d) taking advantage of family-friendly workplace policies
(Fouad, Fitzpatrick, & Liu, 2011). Those that persisted said that they did make compromises
in career advancements, especially management opportunities, to take care of their families.
All of the above studies in this section either focused on women at senior levels or in a single
STEM profession. This current dissertation research focused on women in STEM at any level
of the organization and across all STEM professions.
Extrinsic Considerations in Removing Barriers for Women in STEM
Tip: Discuss existing research and show how your study will add to the literature.
Think about why your study is
important.
Don’t leave a heading stranded at the bottom of the page without any text. To fix this, simply move the heading down to the next page.
30
Society
Societal shifts in how STEM professionals are perceived could help minimize bias in
the STEM workplace. Beddoes and Borrego (2011) suggested that future research on science
and engineering fields should include gender theories which may help to deconstruct the
masculine culture and the stereotypes that are an integral part of the science and engineering
professions cultures. Washburn (2007) suggested that using the media to promote expanded
interests in STEM careers could help broaden the views of these professions and create more
social support for individuals in them.
The U.S. government is in the best position to shift policies and other variables in the
overall STEM system in the United States (Hira, 2010). Instead, the U.S. government has a
tendency to address only a very small part of the problem (Hira, 2010). The U.S. federal
government’s enactment of both the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title IX in 1972 helped
minimize overt sexism, as previously noted. One of the overt discrimination barriers still
documented in literature is wage inequity (Barber, 1995; Brawner et al., 2012). Barber
(1995) and Brawner et al. (2012) suggested that a U.S. federal tax incentive may help remove
wage discrimination in private industry.
The U.S. Federal government’s Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs
(OFCCP) established federal wage compliance to ensure that equal pay acts were instituted
in the government (U.S. Department of Labor, 2011). U.S. taxpayers fund 200 new
compliance officers in the U.S. federal government to review compensation fairness in the
federal government and provide recommendations to resolve any cases uncovered (U.S.
Department of Labor, 2011). However, the government has not committed to leveraging
these 200 new compliance officers to take on the role of compliance for private industry
31
(U.S. Department of Labor, 2011). Equal pay then, for women in the private sector, is either
up to industry to become fair and more transparent in compensation or up to women to stand
up for themselves.
Government, industry, and society in general have a role in improving environments
for sex-segregated occupations (McIlwee & Robinson, 1992). The concepts of strengthening
Affirmative Action, redefining work-family relationships, and changing power relations
focus require more change (McIlwee & Robinson, 1992). Changes require not just
improvements, but changing the game entirely for women in STEM professions, largely by
reinvigorating the feminist movement in the modern day context (McIlwee & Robinson,
1992). More work is needed to change the profession so that it is fair and balanced for
women.
Industry
Industry has the longest list of improvements proposed in the literature. Two
solutions to help overcome barriers, instituting mentoring programs and better work-life
balance policies, have been part of the checklist of improvements for decades (Glass &
Minnotte, 2010; Kerr et al., 2012; Marques, 2011; McLaren, 2009; Powell, 1992; Preston,
2004). No documented evidence exists in the literature reviewed on this topic to prove that
mentoring or plans to improve work-life balance have been of value in keeping women in
STEM fields, although many women in studies cite mentoring has helping them in their
professional lives (Glass & Minnotte, 2010; Kerr et al., 2012; Marques, 2011; McLaren,
2009; Powell, 1992; Preston, 2004).
With regard to work-life balance policies that offer flexible hours, workplace cultures
have to have the stigma against flexible arrangements removed before any policies have a
32
chance at being successful (Hewlett, 2007). Some more progressive workplace policies that
acknowledge instituting more equity, include more targeted career development for women
and leadership development for the managers who work with them (McLaren, 2009). The
latter would be a victory for women in STEM, as it moves away from the blame-the-victim
tactics that are often a part of proposed solutions.
Diversity programs have increasingly been introduced in the workplace and have
been expected to have a positive effect on STEM fields, potentially providing a platform to
address the underlying problems of stereotypes and implicit bias in the workplace (Barber,
1995; Beasely & Fisher, 2012; Ibison & Bailey, 2009; Servon & Visser, 2011). If companies
plan to attract the best combination of talent, they should recruit and retain a diverse
workforce (Ibison & Baily, 2009). Having more women in the STEM workforce will
potentially help prevent other women from leaving and may increase the number of women
in STEM professions over time (Drury, Siy, & Cheryan, 2011). More research in this area is
necessary in order to determine if diversity programs can have a long-term impact on the
retention and recruitment of women in STEM.
Heilbronner (2013) highlighted that motivational behaviors include the influence by
both internal and external factors. While the environment where one works is important, an
individual’s self-efficacy is also important (Heilbronner, 2013). The focus on the individual
is important to consider in motivation for organizations. If organizations focused only on
improving or changing the extrinsic factors, they would miss the importance of individual
differences, and the personalities and their values that contribute to them (Furnham et al.,
2009).
Tip: Use “who” to refer to people. Use “that” to refer
to things.
33
Intrinsic Considerations for Overcoming Barriers
STEM fields will continue to work within male-dominated work environments for the
foreseeable future. The extrinsic barriers will not go away overnight. Some scholars
acknowledged this, suggesting that in addition to participating in the workplace solutions,
women could work on a few personal skills to help them survive and persist in STEM fields
(Kerr et al., 2012; Khanin, Turel, & Mahto, 2012; Morganson et al., 2010). These skills
include dealing with stress, being assertive, and engaging in personal reflection.
Developing good coping skills for job stressors is one suggestion (Morganson et al.,
2010). Coping skills are good skills for anyone to have in any career. Coping mechanisms
help employees stay, and are useful to develop as a transportable skill (Kerr et al., 2012;
Khanin, Turel, & Mahto, 2012; Morganson et al., 2010). Kerr et al. (2012) argued that
perceived status or power in any environment can be a motivator or de-motivator to persist,
as the psychology of a person’s perceived status may or may not help those overcome
barriers or stressors.
Other strategies proposed by Marques (2011) included emphasis on over-delivering,
building a reputation for being competent and assertive, and having a career development
plan that those in positions to help you get there know about. Part of maintaining
competence is to maintain currency with industry knowledge and skills, either through
internal or external courses or industry conferences (Preston, 2004). Maintaining a level of
current industry knowledge helps scientists and engineers continue to develop the skills
required to stay current and maintain professional licenses (Preston, 2004).
Knowing oneself and one’s values is another suggestion, helping to ensure that the
STEM fields are a good fit for an individual from the onset. Matusovich et al. (2010)
Tip: Introduce the major topics that
will be discussed in the section.
34
concluded that college students who persisted simply had strong interest in engineering itself,
whereas those that had entered engineering because of an outside influence or because of
simply being good at math were less likely to persist. Matusovich et al. (2010) suggested
that if a person has a strong interest in engineering, they will have a higher rate of persisting,
despite challenges. Jones et al. (2010) emphasized that these interests are better predictors of
persistence than competency beliefs.
Employee Motivation, Retention, and Turnover
Motivation for Individuals
Theories focused on explaining and understanding human motivation have been
emerging for centuries. Freud (as cited in Nebel, 1978) explained motivation through
instinct theory, suggesting that unconscious thought, or instincts, motivated behavior.
Philosophers such as Locke (1789), Mill (1869), and Bentham (1689) all developed theories
that are in some way grounded in the principle that human beings seek a balance of
experiencing more pleasure than pain (Nebel, 1978; Steers et al., 2004). Psychologists
Thorndike, Woodworth, and Hull (1943) later developed drive theories, which suggested the
motivation of humans was based on past experiences (Steers et al., 2004). Later, cognitive
theories emerged, focused on an individual’s expectation of future events (Nebel, 1978).
Motivation in Groups
A major influencer in industrial psychology and understanding group motivation was
Elton Mayo, who performed the Hawthorne studies from 1927 to 1932 (Robbins & Judge,
2009). One of the significant discoveries in the Hawthorne studies was the increased
motivation and productivity of a small group of women, sectioned from the rest of the group
and made to feel as if they were elite, compared to the other workers (Robbins & Judge,
Tip: Avoid back-to-back
headings without any text. Instead, write a brief introduction
for each section.
Tip: For rules on when to use et al.,
see the APA Style Elements
guide.
Tip: Limit the use of
secondary sources. If you need
help locating the primary
source, reach out to the librarians.
35
2009). Notably, women were absent less for sickness and personal reasons in this perceived
elite group (Robbins & Judge, 2009). Social factors, such as status, seem to increase
motivation and commitment within workers.
Another discovery was that group norms, established informally by the group and not
by any other sets of controls, drove performance motivation (Robbins & Judge, 2009). The
Hawthorne Studies previously verified the significance of social factors in workers’ level of
satisfaction, and that social norms of efficiency had a more significant effect than capability
(Etzioni, 1964). Communications across the hierarchy, particularly in attending to the social
needs of the worker, are also an important factor in employee motivation (Etzioni, 1964).
Katz and Kahn (1966) cautioned that organizational approaches to management
should not completely reject the concept of formal structure for an organization. Referred to
as the structuralist approach with roots in the structure-conduct-performance paradigm, this
technique is a synchronized effort to ensure that individuals and organizations are in sync
with each other is also important (Etzioni, 1964). Latham (2009) suggested that increasing
job satisfaction is an outcome of good job performance. Regardless of organizational
structure, minimizing dissatisfaction across the group is a key to organizational motivation
and performance (Etzioni, 1964).
Contemporary Workplace Motivation Theories
Many different theories have been proposed to understand and address motivation
within the workplace setting. While some theories have focused on internal factors of the
employee, such as equity theory, others, such as reinforcement theory, have focused on
external factors within the workplace environment. Still others, such as Maslow (1964), have
explained motivation by combining different internal and external factors. Each of these
Integrate theories related to the topic in order to demonstrate the current state of knowledge on the topic.
36
theories has viewed motivation differently, but put together, all of these theories have helped
to gain a deeper understanding of human motivation in the workplace.
Equity theory, which suggests that individuals compare their rewards with others and
seek to eliminate the inequities, is another contemporary theory (Robbins & Judge, 2009).
Equity theory contends that individuals will compare to others, both inside and outside of
their companies (Robbins & Judge, 2009). Through this comparison, they assess the fairness
of their current state (Robbins & Judge, 2009). Equity theory sees motivation as a largely
social experience, as individuals are concerned with the fairness in their environment. In this
view, it’s not just the reward that employees receive, it’s the perceived fairness of
management when giving rewards.
Reinforcement theory, alternatively, is based in behavioristic theory (Robbins &
Judge, 2009). Reinforcement theory suggests that the environment, not the individual, has the
most influence in employee motivation (Robbins & Judge, 2009). An individual will repeat
behaviors that are positive for them (Robbins & Judge, 2009) without any focus on social
comparisons. When an individual is rewarded, such as with a bonus, they are more likely to
repeat that behavior again. Ultimately, according to this theory, rewards from an employee’s
environment will motivate them to work for future rewards.
Herzberg (1959) expanded the view of motivation to look at multiple factors, rather
than single influences. Herzberg’s (1959) work in two-factor theory motivation suggested
that there are extrinsic and intrinsic factors related to job satisfaction and motivation
respectively (as cited in Furnham et al., 2009). The extrinsic factors include hygiene factors
such as salary, working conditions, and relationships with other employees (Furham et al.,
2009). The intrinsic factors, or motivators, relate to the individual’s job such as achievement,
Compare and contrast key
theories.
37
development, and recognition (Furham et al., 2009). One intrinsic factor that may influence
work motivation is goal-setting.
Goal-setting theory, based on setting a goal, or a challenge, and performance
feedback, complements self-efficacy theory, because goal-setting theory is instrumental in
helping individuals set and reach goals. Self-efficacy is elevated, assuming the performance
feedback is positive (Robbins & Judge, 2009). Goal-setting, especially setting specific goals,
is important in terms of employee motivation (Latham, 2009). Latham (2009) cautioned,
however, to understand the balance between ability and motivation in expecting outcomes.
“Performance is the product of ability and motivation” (Latham. 2009, p. 49). Latham
suggested that although motivation and ability link to performance, a person has to have at
least some ability to move forward with a task before he or she can be completely motivated
to reach certain goals. Alternatively, if an individual realizes he or she has the ability to do
something well, they are more apt to continue doing it (Latham, 2009). Therefore, human
motivation in the workplace is much more complex than just rewards, fairness, or goals.
Employees must also believe they are capable of completing goals they set in order to receive
reinforcements from their employer.
In a comprehensive model of motivation, Maslow (1964) suggested that the binding
principle for human motivation is the higher motive emerges once the lower needs have been
gratified. Self-actualization is “the ongoing actualization of potentials, capacities, and
talents, as fulfillment of a mission, as a fuller knowledge of, and acceptance of, the person’s
own intrinsic nature, and as an unceasing trend toward unity, integration or synergy within
the person” (Maslow, 1964, p. 25). People have to first satisfy the needs of physiological,
safety, belonging, and self-esteem before reaching self-actualization (Maslow, 1964).
Make connections
between the
different theories or
research presented.
38
Maslow described growth as a “rewarding and exciting process, where the fulfillment of
yearnings and ambitions is whetted by, rather than gratified by the experience” (p. 30). The
growth process for someone primarily motivated by self-actualization is continuous.
It is important to understand that the first four layers of physiological, safety,
belonging, and self-esteem can only be satisfied with considerable influence and in some
cases, even dependence from others (Maslow, 1964). Latham (2009) brought a modern view
on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and the links to the workplace, focusing on the link to
employee performance and growth. There are needs that must be met in a certain order, to
deliver the highest performance outcome: (a) physiological (food, water, shelter), (b) security
(insurances), (c) belonging (feeling like part of something, acceptance by a team), (d) self-
esteem (confidence, respect for and respected by), and (e) self-actualization (desire to feel
fulfilled, to maximize potential; Latham, 2009). Latham (2009) offered some ways
employers can contribute to helping employees meet Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, such as
providing access to healthy food, helping ensure employees know the expectations related to
keeping their job, team-building, praise for good work, and helping employees explore how
to grow professionally. The current study was designed to expand on existing theories related
to motivation by developing a model focused specifically on the motivation of women in
STEM professions.
Motivation of Women in the Workplace
Women face unique barriers within the workplace when it comes to motivation.
Balancing career success with decisions to delay building a family are real issues confronting
women, and upward mobility comes at a cost, for some, such as having a partner or having
children (Smith et al., 2012). The desire to be the ideal mother, ideal wife, and ideal
professional perpetuates a feeling of failure for some highly-educated career women as they
39
struggle to balance being everything to everyone (Pas et al., 2014). Women internalize all of
these roles, and in trying to gain approval from society, the workplace, and their private
social circle, they place a demand of energy on themselves that has proven difficult to sustain
(Pas et al., 2014). Smith et al. (2012) suggested that the workplace should accept that society
still places the primary responsibility of parenting and home responsibilities on women and
advocated not necessarily for equality for women in the workplace, but equity for women in
the workplace. Creating a fair workplace that takes into consideration the pressures on
women, is what is important if organizations are going to engage women long-term.
Pas et al. (2014) suggested that highly-educated career women should not be
mislabeled as less motivated to advance in their careers simply because they are also
balancing a family. Perhaps a woman’s personal definition of advancing in her career is
different from the traditional, male-shaped rise through the hierarchy view. London (1983)
discussed three dimensions of career motivation: career centrality, career insight, and career
ambition. Pas et al. (2014) summarized these definitions as follows: “Career centrality is the
importance of a career in one’s life, career insight is the degree to which one makes strategic
plans to obtain career goals, (and) career ambition is the will to achieve a higher position in
the field” (p. 9). The definition of career success, from an organizational and societal
perspective, is often a combination of career insight and career ambition (Pas et al., 2014).
The individual, then, is left to balance career centrality based on their personal situation,
which, more often than not, changes over time (Pas et al., 2014). All three are factors in
motivation. Career success for the organization and career success for the individual are
defined differently by both parties. How best to motivate and retain employees is not a one-
size-fits-all task.
Tip: Your literature review should synthesize the research. Each paragraph should contain multiple sources. Notice that the author does not quote, but provides a general overview of the sources while remaining the dominant “voice” in the paragraph.
Tip: For help with when and when not to use italics, see these Guidelines on Using Italics.
40
Retention and Job Satisfaction
Retention is closely linked to job satisfaction. Noe et al. (2010) suggested that values
and perception are important factors in job satisfaction, emphasizing that job satisfaction is
unique to each individual. While customizing the workplace to meet the ideals of every
individual is probably not practical, understanding what is important to individuals, or groups
of individuals that share similar values, may help companies motivate and retain talented
employees.
For example, life events and personal desires may outweigh professional
advancement at a given time in an individual’s lifespan. Being employed in an interesting
job may be important to the individual, but advancement may not be. This strategy goes
against the typical hierarchical progression that is assumed in some motivation and retention
policies. Another way of viewing company policies on career paths may be to view rewards
based on an individual’s value to the company. If employability is more important to the
individual than career advancement, and the individual’s skills are valuable to the company,
exposure to other roles within the company may be a win for the worker and for the company
in retaining key talent (Sullivan & Baruch, 2009). In time, these types of retention practices
may also change the cultural perception that motivation directly relates to a linear trajectory
up the company hierarchy.
Noe et al. (2010) proposed that while not unique to individuals, there are several
practices that may help improve working conditions in general, and provide a satisfactory
environment. An employee’s identification with a job is a contributor to motivation, and a
sense of belonging is a contributor to identifying with a job (Katz & Kahn, 1966). Katz and
Kahn (1966) noted that an individual’s sense of belonging to a group and a sense of being
Tip: Contribute your own ideas and analysis.
41
important to the organization resulted in decreased turnover and absenteeism. Workplace
safety, personality fit, task complexity, management support, organizational culture,
compensation and benefits are all important factors in employee retention (Noe et al., 2010).
When employees are dissatisfied with these factors, they often leave. Turnover is the term
used to describe employee voluntary exits from a company.
Katz and Kahn (1966) noted that rewards are motivational only if they link to the
desired behaviors, resulting in an individual’s desire to continue increasing performance.
Random rewards are received more positively by employees, particularly more experienced
employees who tend to show more satisfaction when rewards are granted on an intermittent
schedule (Latham, 2009). Rewards for system benefits given collectively and rewards for
individuals are different, received with different levels of appreciation depending on the
individual’s needs (Katz & Kahn, 1966). System benefits include salary, health benefits, and
cost of living increases (Katz & Kahn, 1966). Individual benefits, such as bonuses or
promotions, are based on individual merit (Katz & Kahn, 1966).
These benefits do not necessarily have to be in the form of money. Social rewards,
for example a higher title or a bigger office, are just as important in some respects than
simply pay itself (Etzioni, 1964). Friedman and Lackey (1991) emphasized that extrinsic
rewards importance to the worker, such as perks, prizes, and bonuses are often inflated and
suggested that incentives that increase a worker’s control over their lives, such as time off or
flex-time arrangement, contribute far more to worker satisfaction.
Flex-time, or flexible work policies aid workers in achieving work-life balance.
These policies may include flexible working hours, paid leave for family or personal matters,
working from home (telecommuting), or other similar practices. Exercising a flexible work
42
policy is often at the approval of an individual’s manager, leaving workers subject to the
social expectations of the manager they work for, which often times leaves the worker with
very little flexibility (Gill, 2012).
No industry-wide evidence exists that flexible work policies help retain women in
STEM professions, although some companies with flexible work policies have been
highlighted as good places to work in general. In April 2013, Catalyst, a research
organization focused on women in the workplace, published a report that interviewed 726
MBA graduates, both men and women, from 20 Fortune 500 companies to determine the
importance of flexible work arrangements for high potentials in the workplace (Beninger &
Carter, 2013). Flexible work arrangements are more valued by women than men according to
the study conclusions (Beninger & Carter, 2013).
One attractive flexible work policy for women is telecommuting; women are almost
twice as likely as men to telecommute during their careers (Beninger & Carter, 2013). The
women who do opt to telecommute often consciously downsize their aspirations in the
workplace because although their work policy may document telecommuting as an
acceptable way of working, men and women who telecommute are not typically rewarded
equally when compared with those who work a traditional work week at the office (Beninger
& Carter, 2013).
External social support, for families with two full-time working professionals, also
seems critical to career longevity and work-life balance (Baumgartner & Scheinder, 2010).
The correlation between external support, work-life balance, and career longevity could
prove important, as high levels of organizational commitment have been linked to women
who also have high levels of social support (Baumgartner & Scheinder, 2010).
43
Turnover
Lambert and Hogan (2009) suggested that the work environment is very important in
shaping people’s job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Baumgartner and
Schneider (2010) noted that although women progress professionally at the lower levels
within an organization, progress becomes somewhat halted at the upper levels, in turn,
increasing turnover. Understanding what factors contribute to voluntary turnover in the
workforce, and more specifically, in the female workforce, is important background for this
dissertation study.
There are two types of turnover, voluntary turnover and involuntary turnover. Both
are important to business because they cost companies money. There are many causes of
voluntary turnover, both external and internal to organizations. External factors may include,
for example, a growing economy where the availability of jobs is high or increasing, a
change in personal circumstance, relocation, and many others. Internal factors closely link to
job satisfaction attributes such as reward and recognition (Furnham, et al., 2009; Lee, 2012).
Most employers actively manage ways to help prevent turnover because turnover has
direct and indirect costs to business (Lambert & Hogan, 2009). Direct costs include
recruiting, testing, training, and costs to backfill positions with temporary staff or overtime
(Lambert & Hogan, 2009). Knowledge loss, inexperienced staff, and sometimes decreased
morale are some of the indirect costs common to and associated with turnover (Lambert &
Hogan, 2009). Age is also a factor in turnover, especially in STEM professions, as many
STEM workers feel age discrimination is practiced in these professions and is a very real
deterrent to staying long-term (Hira, 2010). Turnover rates are higher for women, especially
in the earlier stages of their careers (Lee, 2012). However, the differences as to why men and
44
women leave the workplace are not substantially different, although women are more likely
than men to leave their jobs for family-related reasons (Lambert & Hogan, 2009; Lee, 2012).
There is a paradox related to women’s satisfaction in the workplace. Women
consistently show higher job satisfaction than men overall, but have increased voluntary
turnover rates (Lee, 2012). Lee also noted that higher women turnover rates may be a root
cause of inequities of the workplace, as the biases related to the value of investing in women
become self-fulfilling. Lee also suggested that higher satisfaction rates could merely be a
consequence mirroring the fact that the proportions of women that do stay are satisfied.
Barclay, Stoltz, and Chung (2011) proposed that job insecurity and workplace
bullying are social factors that contribute to a worker’s motivation for voluntary turnover.
Barclay et al. also cited factors that link to attitude and perceived control. Barclay et al.
suggested factors such as a worker feeling a lack of identity with the career they are presently
in, and having the confidence to explore a different career that better fits their present
interests and life responsibilities contribute to motivation.
Latham (2009) noted the importance of minimizing demotivation by ensuring people
feel fairly treated in the workplace. It is a mistake for organizations to assume that removing
a symptom, rather than a cause of a de-motivator, will help, as if the cause persists, another
symptom will surface (McClelland, 1984). When people feel like they have been treated
unfairly, they begin to have a lack of trust in their workplace (Latham, 2009). Organizations
can create trust by being transparent about the distribution of wages, applying company
policies consistently, and taking into account employee feedback (Latham, 2009).
The psychological contract between an employee and the workplace takes into
account very basic human needs and desires such as being treated with dignity and offering
45
growth (Latham, 2009). Breaking this contract can be extremely demotivating because of the
impact of distrust and violating the basic psychological contract, most likely ending in an
employee’s decision to leave the company (Latham, 2009). Latham (2009) emphasized that
keeping psychological contracts with employees was critical to minimizing employee
turnover.
Summary
More research is needed to further understand and address barriers women face
within STEM professions. The problems facing women in STEM fields are certainly bigger
than any one person, institution, or company. U.S. Federal legislation has helped improve
equality in education and in the workforce; STEM professions do benefit from these laws as
they help open doors to male-dominated environments. It is what happens once women are
in the STEM university and workplace environment that remains troublesome.
Many government-sponsored studies have been done on attracting girls and young
women into STEM professions and the University environment. Today, women represent
more than half of the college population and entry of women into the university system is
increasing, the percentage of women in STEM professions in the workplace remains small
compared to their male counterparts. Non-profits, businesses, and universities have further
explored why women leave STEM professions. Over the past 15-20 years, there has been a
marked shift in the literature, emphasizing the responsibility of private industry to address the
deeply rooted cultural and structural barriers to women in STEM fields. The workplace is
keen to advertise equal opportunities, flexible workplace policies and environments that
welcome diversity and inclusion, but the application of these programs seems inconsistent for
women in STEM professions.
Briefly summarize key points
of the literature
review.
46
The barriers for women in STEM seem fairly consistent over time, with new barriers
being added as societal norms seemingly are outpaced by the growth of women in the
workplace. Discovering new insights into overcoming these barriers for the women working
in STEM is important in addressing retention and motivation and reducing turnover.
Arguably, the current workplace motivation models do not address the problems for women
in STEM professions, as no evidence exists that any model has addressed how to effectively
keep women from leaving STEM professions.
Researchers have largely focused on what keeps women from pursuing and staying in
STEM professions. The topics covered in the literature review addressed what keeps women
from pursuing and staying in STEM professions. However, there is no known research that
has examined why some women choose to stay in the STEM field. This study is an
opportunity to fill the knowledge gap that exists today regarding what motivates women to
actually stay in STEM professions. The goal of this study was to discover a theory and
develop a model related to the motivation of women in STEM professions. An overview of
the qualitative approach, using grounded theory to discover theory from the data (Glaser &
Strauss, 1967), is provided in Chapter III.
*This sample paper was adapted by the Writing Center from an original paper by a student. Used by permission.
Discuss why your study is
important.
Discuss how your study
will contribute to the literature.
Bridge to Chapter III.
Tip: Chapter II is expected to be 30 to 50 pages.
top related