chapter 5 organizational behavior ( dr. ahmed abdel hady)
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Learning Objectives
Define the key terms in expectancy theory Distinguish between inputs and outputs in
equity theory
Understand the different types of organizationaljustice
Identify the key steps in goal setting
Describe the concept of the psychologicalcontract
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Learning Objectives
Describe the three determinants of jobperformance
Identify the need levels in Maslow's hierarchy
Explain Alderfer's ERG Theory
Compare motivators with hygiene factors
Discuss the factors that reflect a high need for
achievement
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Determinants of Job Performance
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Determinants of Job Performance
Intensity
PersistenceDirection
Motivation
components
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The Starting Point:The Individual
Most managers must motivate a diverseand unpredictable group of people
They have varying needs and goals
Needs Deficiencies an individual experiences at a
particular time
May be physiological, psychological, orsociological
Those with deficiencies are more susceptible
to motivational efforts
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The Starting Point:The Individual
Needs trigger tension and a search for waysto reduce it
A course of action is selected
Goal-directed behavior occurs
The behavior triggers either a reward or
punishment
The deficiencies are reassessed
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The Starting Point:The Individual
Three main areas affect employee motivation
Organizational
issuesLeader issues
Job issues
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The Motivational Process: A General Model
The
Employee
I.
Need deficiencies
II.
Search for ways to
satisfy needs
III.
Goal-directedbehavior
IV.
Performance(evaluation of goals
accomplished)
V.
Rewards orpunishments
VI.
Need deficiencies
reassessed bythe employee
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Motivation Theories
Content theories focus on Factors within the person
The needs that motivate people
Process theories describe, explain, andanalyze how behavior is
Energized
Directed Sustained
Stopped
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Content Motivation Theories
Alderfers ERG theory
McClellands learned
needs theory
Herzbergs two-factor
theory
Maslows need
hierarchy
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Maslows Need Hierarchy
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Maslows Need Hierarchy
The Need-Hierarchy Approach
A satisfied need ceases to motivate
Unsatisfied needs can cause
frustration, conflict, and stress
People have a need to grow and develop;they strive to move up the hierarchy
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Maslows Need Hierarchy
Need-hierarchy issues Little data proves that a needs hierarchy exists
Only two needs levels exist: physiological and
then all others
Security needs decrease as managers advance
With a corresponding increase in need for social
interaction, achievement, and self-actualization
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Alderfers ERG Theory
Alderfers ERG needs correspond toMaslows hierarchy
Existence = physiological and safety
Relatedness = belongingness, social, love
Growth = esteem and self-actualization
A frustration-regression process exists
If one continually fails to satisfy growth needs,relatedness needs reemerge
Efforts will be redirected toward satisfying a
lower-order need
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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
A content theory with two motivation factors Dissatisfiers-satisfiers (hygiene factors)
Salary, job security, working conditions, status,
company procedures, interpersonal relations
Satisfiers-motivators (intrinsic conditions)
The job content, achievement, recognition,
responsibility, advancement, possibility of growth
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Traditional View Versus Herzberg
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Criticisms of Herzbergs Theory
Requires people to look
at themselves
retrospectively
Little testing of
motivational and
performanceconsequences of
the theory
Only self-reports of
performance over longperiod of time were
used in original study
Over-simplifies the
nature of job
satisfaction
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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
Job enrichment
Builds personal achievement, recognition,challenge, responsibility, and growthopportunities into a job
Increases individual motivation by providingmore discretion and accountability
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McClellands Learned Needs Theory
McClelland believes needs are acquiredfrom culture
Need forachievement (n Ach)
Need foraffiliation (n Aff)
Need forpower(n Pow)
When a need is strong, there is motivation
to use behavior that leads to its satisfaction
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McClellands Learned Needs Theory
Factors reflecting a high n Ach
Likes to take responsibility for solving problems Sets moderate achievement goals and takes
calculated risks
Desires feedback on performance
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McClellands Learned Needs Theory
Factors reflecting a high n Pow
Concentrates on obtaining and exercising
power and authority
Concerned with influencing others andwinning arguments
Power can be negative or positive
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McClellands Learned Needs Theory
Factors reflecting a high n Aff
Desires social interaction
Concerned about the quality of personalrelationships
Social relationships take precedence over task
accomplishment
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Criticisms of Learned Needs Theory
Use of projective
psychological personality
tests is unscientific
Supporting evidence
was supplied by
McClelland and his
associates
Claim that n Ach can be
learned counters theory
that motive acquisitionoccurs in childhood and is
hard to alter
No proof that acquired
needs are sustainedover time
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Comparison of Content Theories
Maslow(need hierarchy)
Self-actualization
Esteem
Belongingness,
social, and love
Safety and security
Physiological
Herzberg(two-factor theory)
The work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Achievement
Recognition
Quality of inter-
personal relations
among peers, with
supervisors, with
subordinates
Job security
Working conditions
Salary
Alderfer
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
McClelland
Need for
achievement
Need forpower
Need for
affiliation
Motivators
Hygiene
conditions
Higher
order
needs
Basic
needs
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Process Theories of Motivation
Content theories focus primarily on the
needs and incentives that cause behavior They try to explain how behavior is energized,
directed, maintained, and stopped
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Vrooms Expectancy Theory
Employees are
more likely to
be motivated
when they
perceive that
effort =
successful
performance +desired
rewards and
outcomes
Motivation is a
processgoverning
choices among
alternative
forms of
voluntaryactivity
Most behaviors
are under the
voluntary
control of the
individual and
consequentlyare motivated
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Vrooms Expectancy Theory
First-level
Outcomes
Result from behavior
associated with doing thejob itself
Productivity
Absenteeism
Turnover
Production quality
Second-level
Outcomes
Result from the rewards
and punishments that first-level outcomes produce
Pay increases
Group acceptance
or rejection Promotion
Termination
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Vrooms Expectancy Theory
Instrumentality
The perception that first-level outcomes
(performance) are tied to second-level
outcomes (rewards or punishment)
Valence
An individuals preferences for outcomes
Expectancy Belief that a particular behavior will be followed
by a particular outcome
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Expectancy Theory
Effort Performance
First-level
outcome
First-level
outcome
First-level
outcome
Second-level
outcome
Second-level
outcome
Second-level
outcome
Second-level
outcome
Second-level
outcome
Second-level
outcome
E P EXPECTANCY
Perceived probability of
successful performance,
given effort
E O EXPECTANCY
Perceived probability of
receiving an outcome, given
performance
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Equity Theory
Ones perception of being treated fairly in
social exchanges can influence motivation Equity exists when one perceives that the ratio
of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes(rewards) equals the ratios of other employees
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Important Equity Theory Terms
Person The individual for whom equity
or inequity is perceived
ComparisonOther Any group or persons used as areferent by Person, regarding the
ratio of inputs and outcomes
Inputs The individual characteristics
brought by Person to the job
Outcomes What Person received from the job
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Equity Theory
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Change Procedures to Restore Equity
Change attitudes
Change the reference person
Change the inputs or outcomes
Leave the field
Change the inputs or outcomes
of the reference person
Ways to restore equity
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Organizational Justice
The degree to which individuals feel fairlytreated at the workplace
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Types of Organizational Justice
Organizational
The degreeto whichindividuals feelthey are fairlytreated at the
workplace
Distributive
The perceivedfairness of howresources andrewards aredistributed
throughout anorganization
Procedural
The perceivedequity of theprocesses and
proceduresused to make
resourceallocationdecisions
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Organizational Justice
Organizationalcommitment
Work effort
Organizational
citizenship
Intent to stay withthe organization
Trust in
supervisor
Satisfaction with
decision outcome
Performance
Positive Reactions to Procedural Justice
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Procedural Justice
People are more inclined to interpret
decisions as fair when
They have a voice in the decision
Decision making is consistent
The process and procedures conform to ethical
and moral values
P d l J i
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Procedural Justice
Why does it work?
Group Theory
Fair group procedures
are a sign of respect
and an indication
that group membersare valued
Self-interest Theory
People want fair
procedures because it
enables them to obtain
desired extrinsicoutcomes
P d l J ti
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Procedural Justice
Interpersonal justice
Judgments made by employees as to whether
they feel they are treated fairly
Perceptions of justice are higher when
employees are treated with dignity and respect
Abusive supervisors are common
Employees who experience bullying and
incivility are more likely to quit
P d l J ti
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Procedural Justice
Informational justice
Perceived fairness of the communication
provided to employees from authorities
Keep many channels open and communicate
frequently
Utilize informal chats
Dont sugarcoat bad news
G l S tti
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Goal Setting
A goal is a result that a person or group is
trying to accomplish through behavior andactions
Lockes view
An individuals conscious goals and intentionsare the primary determinants of behavior
Once a person starts something, he/shepushes on until a goal is achieved
Harder goals result in higher levels ofperformance if the goals are accepted by theindividual
G l S tti T
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Goal Setting Terms
Goal specificity
Goal difficulty
Goal intensity
Goal commitment
Degree of quantitative
precision (clarity) of the goal
Level of performance requiredto achieve the goal
Process of setting the goal or
determining how to achieve it
The amount of effort used
to achieve a goal
G l S tti A li d t O i ti
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Goal Setting Applied to Organizations
Goal Characteristics Performance Rewards
Moderators
Clarity
Meaningful
Challenging
Ability
Commitment Feedback
Desired by
Organization
Preferred by
Individual or Team
I l ti G l S tti P
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Implementing Goal Setting Programs
When implementing goal-setting programs,
consider individual differences
Personality
Career progression
Training background
Personal healthMonitor goal-
setting programs
for attitudinal and
performanceconsequences
M ti ti d th P h l i l C t t
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Motivation and the Psychological Contract
Exchange theory
Organizational members engage in reasonably
predictable give-and-take relationships
Per Schein, the degree to which employeesexert effort, commit to goals, and derive
satisfaction from work depends on
The extent to which employee expectations
match the organizations expectations
The specific nature of what is exchanged
The Ps chological Contract
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The Psychological Contract
Specifies what each expects to give
and receive from the other
Can change over time
An unwritten agreement between theindividual and the organization
These implicit agreements may take
precedence over written agreements
Mutual expectations constitute part
of the psychological contract
The Psychological Agreement
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The Psychological Agreement
These contracts may focus on
Satisfaction
Challenging work
Fair treatment
Loyalty
An opportunity to be creative
Managing the psychological contract is a
key aspect of most managers jobs
Reviewing Motivation
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Reviewing Motivation
Expectancy
Theory
Emphasizes
individual,jobs, and
environmentalvariables
Recognizes
differences inneeds,
perceptions,and beliefs
Content
Theories
Individual-
oriented
Equity
Theory
Addresses the
relationshipbetweenattitudes
toward inputsand outputsand reward
practices
Goal-Setting
Theory
Emphasizes
the cognitiveprocesses
and the role ofintentionalbehavior inmotivation
Reviewing Motivation
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Reviewing Motivation
Be sensitive to variations in employeesneeds, abilities, goals, reward preferences
Provide jobs that offer task challenge,diversity, and need satisfaction
Managers can influence the
motivation state of employees
Responsibility is shared between
managers and the HR dept
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