chapter 32
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Chapter 32
The Building of Global Empires
11899 advertisement from McClure’s Magazine
The Idea of Imperialism
What does the term mean? Term dates from nineteenth
century In popular discourse by
1880s Military imperialism of late
19th-century Later, economic and cultural
varieties U.S. imperialism
2
Motivations for Imperialism
Military Conquest to bolster national prestige
Domestic Politics Overseas conquests take focus off domestic problems
Economic European capitalism: hope that expansion would help to ease a
nation’s economic health through global cycles of boom and bust Religious Demographic
Ease urban overcrowding Shipping criminal populations and dissident populations overseas
3
Economic Exploitation
Exploitation of natural resources: diamonds in gold in sub-Saharan Africa; rubber in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia; bananas and coffee in Latin America
Exploitation of cheap labor: Contracted laborers known as “coolies” sent to colonies as cheap agricultural labor to replace slaves
Expansion of markets: Colonies supposedly new markets for mother country’s manufactured goods The extent that this happened was limited; the colonized
rarely had enough money to buy these goods.
4
Geopolitical Considerations
Strategic footholds Waterways: Panama and Suez Canals; city of Singapore
founded to control key strait between Indian and Pacific Oceans Supply Stations: Cape Town in South Africa used as a way
station for ships on their way to India and the East Indies; Hawaiian Islands serve as base for U.S. naval presence in the Pacific.
Imperial Rivalries: territory seized to check the power of nearby areas controlled by imperial rivals across the globe: German Southwest Africa and East Africa were territories taken in the 1880s to counter British presence in South Africa
5
The “White Man’s Burden”
Rudyard Kipling (1864-1936) 1899 Poem excerpt:Take up the White Man's burden--
Send forth the best ye breed--Go bind your sons to exileTo serve your captives' need;To wait in heavy harness,On fluttered folk and wild--Your new-caught, sullen peoples,Half-devil and half-child.
French: mission civilisatrice
6
The “White Man’s Burden”
7
French propaganda poster from the late 1800s
Domestic Political Considerations
Crises of industrialism and growing class consciousess
Global capitalist crashes in the 1870s and 1890s Pressure from nascent socialist movements, such
as in Germany Imperial policies distract proletariat from
domestic politics Cecil Rhodes: imperialism alternative to civil war
8
Technology and Imperialism
Transportation Steamships: Quick transport of personnel and goods Railroads: Allow quick deployment of troops to quell
uprisings Infrastructure
Suez Canal (1859-1869) Panama Canal (1904-1914) Both waterways strategically important to respective
empires (British & American)
9
Weaponry
Mid-century: breech-loading rifles Reduce reloading time
1880s: Refinement of the machine gun Maxim Gun: American-born
Hiram Maxim invents a gun that can fire 11 rounds per second for the British
10
Maxim Gun; England, 1884
Repeating breech-loading rifle; U.S., 1850s – 1860s
Old muzzle-loading muskets take a long timeto reload between each shot.
The Military Advantage
Battle of Omdurman (near Khartoum on Nile), 1898 Five hours of fighting British: six gunboats,
twenty machine guns British force lost a few
hundred men; thousands of Sudanese killed
11
Communications
Correspondence 1830 Britain-India: A letter could take two years After Suez Canal: A letter would arrive in two weeks
Telegraph Experiments with submarine cables begin in 1850s Britain-to-India cables are connected in 1870; it then
takes five hours for a message to make its way from London to Calcutta by relays
12
British Empire in India
East India Company founded in 1600 Obtains a monopoly on India trade Originally needed permission from the Mughal
emperors to trade The Mughal empire begins to declines after death
of Aurangzeb in 1707 The company begins to assert its own power with
a private army and government
13
British Conquest
East India Company: Protects its economic interests through political and military conquest
“Doctrine of lapse”: Between 1848and 1856, any Indian princely statewould be annexed by the companyif its ruler died without a heir orwas judged incompetent.
British use Indian mercenaries who become known assepoys; they are paid poorly and treated poorly
14
Sepoy Revolt, 1857
Newly issued rifles had cartridges in wax paper greased with animal fat Problem for Hindus: beef Problem for Muslims: pork
Small-scale rebellion ignites a general anti-British revolution
Company loses control of much of its holdings, but British troops at gain upper hand in late 1857
15
British Imperial Rule
In response to the rebellion, Britain: Abolishes Mughal empire Exiles emperor to Burma Abolishes the East India Company Establishes direct rule of India by British government Queen Victoria adds “Empress of India” to her many
titles
16
British Imperial Rule
17Queen Victoria, Empress of India, in 1887
British Rule in India
Organization of agriculture Cash Crops: Tea, coffee, opium
replace sustenance crops, leading to horrific famines Stamp of British culture on Indian environment
Common language of English imposed on a land of over 400 different languages
British education system helps to create a class of lower-level Indian civil servants; top tiers of government still occupied by British
British game of cricket becomes a huge Indian pastime
18
Indian cricket team that toured England in 1886
Imperialism in Central Asia British, French, Russians compete for influence in
central Asia France drops out after Napoleon falls from power Russia active after 1860s in Tashkent, Bokhara, Samarkand; and approached
India through its machinations in independent Afghanistan
The “Great Game”: Russian vs. British intrigue inside Afghanistan British feared Russians using Afghanistan to stage an invasion of India, the
“Crown Jewel” of the empire. Britain fought two costly wars to bring the nominally independent Afghans
in line and check Russian influence: First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842) and Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880).
Rudyard Kipling’s vivid novel Kim (1901), about an poor orphan son of an Irish soldier in India, uses the “Great Game” as its backdrop.
19
Imperialism in Southeast Asia Spanish: The Philippines
Spanish colonization of these islands began with the Legzapi expedition in 1565; founded Manila in 1571. Ruled from Mexico City until 1821, and then directly from Madrid after that.
Dutch: Indonesia (Dutch East Indies) British establish presence from 1820s
Had conflict with kings of Burma (Myanmar) in the 1820s; established colonial authority by 1880s
Thomas Stamford Raffles founds Singapore for trade in Strait of Melaka Base of British colonization in Malaysia, 1870s-1880s
French: Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, 1859-1893 Encouraged conversion to Christianity
20
Sir Thomas Raffles(1781-1826)
Imperialism in Asia, ca. 1914
21
The Scramble for Africa (1875-1900)
French, Portuguese, Belgians, and English competing for “the dark continent”
Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (1899): promulgates negative stereotypes of the Congo but also a savage critique of imperialism
Britain establishes strong presence in Egypt, South Africa, and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe and Zambia) Suez Canal accounts for strategic interest in Egypt Rhodesia: Cecil Rhodes consolidates diamond mines in
1870s and 1880s
22
Rewriting African History Ancient African history is purposefully erased to portray
sub-Saharan Africans as “uncivilized”/“savage” Justification of imperialist rule: bringing “civilization” European “discovery” of great river sources (Nile, Niger,
Congo, Zambesi) becomes a near mania Information on interior of Africa comes from explorers like David
Livingstone, who sought the source of the Nile King Leopold II of Belgium creates his personal fiefdom, the
“Congo Free State” in 1885, along the Congo River, opening up the area to commercial ventures, like rubber cultivation. Slave-like labor conditions and abuses lead Belgian government to take control of colony in 1908, and renamed it Belgian Congo
23
Rewriting African History
24
“Dr. Livingstone, I presume?”
Welsh journalist and explorer Henry Morton Stanley (1841-1904) was paid by the New York Herald to find the Scottish explorer and missionary, David Livingstone (1813-1873), who had been in the African interior for years without being heard from. Stanley found him near near Lake Tanganyika in present-day Tanzania in November 1871. Newspaper accounts of the meeting in 1872 disseminated the famous question, which was likely journalistic fabrication.
Colonizing South Africa Dutch East India
Company establishes the colony of Cape Town in 1652
25
Farmers (Boers) follow to settle territory fertile farmlands, later call themselves Afrikaners
Competition and conflict with indigenous Khoikhoi and Xhosa peoples as Boers push eastward (Nelson Mandela is an ethnic Xhosa)
South African (Boer) War 1899-1902 British take over the Cape Colony in 1806 British ban slavery in 1833; this causes a conflict with Afrikaners
who rely heavily on slavery Afrikaners migrate north-eastward in the Great Trek in the 1830s and
1840s, overpower Ndebele and Zulu resistance with superior firepower; known as “Voortrekkers”
Establish independent republics British tolerate Boer republics until “mineral revolution” of 1870s:
gold and diamonds discovered and mined White-white conflict, black soldiers and laborers Afrikaners concede in 1902; 1910, their republics are integrated
into Union of South Africa
26
South African (Boer) War 1899-1902
27
South Africa in the late 1800s, before the outbreak of the Boer War
The Berlin West Africa Conference (1884-1885) Fourteen European states and the United States
No African states present Rules of colonization: any European state can take
“unoccupied” territory after informing other European powers
European firepower dominates Africa Exceptions: Ethiopia fights off Italy (1896); Liberia
protected by the U.S.
28
Imperialism in Africa, ca. 1914
29
Systems of Colonial Rule
Concessionary companies Private companies get large tracts of land to exploit
natural resources Companies get freedom to tax, recruit labor: horrible
abuses Profit margin minimal
Direct rule: France “Civilizing mission” Chronic shortage of European personnel; language and
cultural barriers French West Africa: 3,600 Europeans rule 9 million
30
Indirect Rule Frederick D. Lugard (Britain, 1858-1945)
The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (1922)
Argues for the use of existing indigenous institutions to consolidate and maintain power: co-opt local leaders into colonial rule.
Legacy of Colonizers: Europeans had difficulty in establishing tribal categories, they imposed arbitrary boundaries, and exaggerated or inflamed ethnic tensions to their advantage. Rwandan Genocide of the 1990s: Belgian colonizers in what is now Rwanda
favored the Tutsi ethnic group over the Hutus, creating animosity that fed the Rwandan genocide: the government-sponsored massacre of Tutsis by the Hutu groups.
31
European Imperialism in Australia and New Zealand English use Australia as a penal colony from 1788 Voluntary migrants follow; gold discovered 1851 Smallpox, measles devastate natives Territory called terra nullius: “land belonging to
no one” New Zealand: natives forced to sign Treaty of
Waitangi (1840), placing New Zealand under British “protection”
32
European and Native Population in Australia and New Zealand
33
European Imperialism in the Pacific Islands Commercial outposts
Whalers seeking port Merchants seeking sandalwood and sea slugs for sale
in China Missionaries seeking souls
British, French, German, American powers carve up Pacific islands Tonga remains independent, but relies on Britain
34
Imperialism in Oceania, ca. 1914
35
U.S. Imperialism
President James Monroe warns Europeans not to engage in imperialism in western hemisphere (1823) The Monroe Doctrine: All Americas a U.S. protectorate
1867 purchased Alaska from Russia (“Seward’s Folly”)
1875 established protectorate over Hawai`i Locals overthrow queen in 1893, persuade U.S. to
acquire islands in 1898
36
Spanish-Cuban-American War (1898-1899) U.S. declares war in Spain after battleship Maine
sunk in Havana harbor, 1898 U.S. takes possession of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam,
Philippines U.S. intervenes in other Caribbean, Central American
lands; occupies Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Honduras, Haiti
Filipinos revolt against Spanish rule, later against U.S. rule, under leader Emiliano Aguinaldo
37
Spanish-Cuban-American War (1898-1899)
38
Lithograph of the U.S.S. Maine explosion in Havana harbor, 1898
Filipino leader Emiliano Aguinaldo around 1900
The Panama Canal President Theodore Roosevelt (in
office 1901-1909) supports insurrection against Colombia (1903); Roosevelt thinks the Colombian price is to high for the land
Rebels establish state of Panama U.S. gains territory to build canal,
Panama Canal Zone Roosevelt Corollary of Monroe
Doctrine U.S. right to intervene in domestic
affairs of other nations if U.S. investments threatened
39
Panama Canal under construction in 1907
The Panama Canal
40
1909 cartoon from Puck Magazine making fun of Teddy Roosevelt’simperialist tendencies
Early Japanese Expansion
Resentment over unequal treaties of 1860s In the 1870s, Japan colonizes northern regions in
Hokkaido and Kurile Islands; also southern Okinawa, and Ryukyu Islands as well
1876, Japanese purchase warships from Britain, dominate Korea
Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) over Korea results in Japanese victory
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) also ends in Japanese victory
41
Early Japanese Expansion
42
Japanese woodblock illustration of Russo-Japanese War naval battle
Economic Legacies of Imperialism Colonized states encouraged to exploit natural resources
rather than build manufacturing centers Encouraged dependency on imperial power for
manufactured goods made from native raw product Indian and Egyptian cotton Iron ore and tin in Southeast Asia
Introduction of new crops Tea in Ceylon Coffee in South America Rubber in Malaysia, French Indochina, and the Congo Cocoa in Sub-Saharan Africa: Gold Coast (now Ghana), Nigeria
and the Ivory Coast
43
Labor Migrations
Europeans move to temperate lands Work as free cultivators, industrial laborers 32 million to the U.S., 1800-1914
Africans, Asians, and Pacific islanders move to tropical/subtropical lands Indentured laborers and manual laborers 2.5 million between 1820 and 1914 Chinese laborers in the Caribbean
44
Imperialism and Migration during the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century
45
Colonial Conflict Many insurrections against colonial rule
Example: Tanganyika Maji Maji rebellion against German colonial forces(1905-1906)—Rebels sprinkle selves with magic water (maji-maji) as protection against modern weapons; 75,000 killed.
“Scientific” racism developed Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau (1816-1882): French diplomat (who was
not really a noble) published An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races in 1850s, which argued for the superiority of northern Europeans. Actually against imperialism since he thought it would lead to race-mixing
Herbert Spencer (1820-1902) combines classical liberalism with theories of Charles Darwin (1809-1882) to form pernicious doctrine of “Social Darwinism”: “survival of fittest.” Darwin was too careful of a scientist to apply his theories of evolution to human society.
46
Nationalism and Anticolonial Movements Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1883)
Bengali often called “father of modern India” Sought to eliminate Hindi practices of sati, caste rigidity, polygamy,
and child marriages, which the British used as evidence of European moral superiority
Reformers call for self-government and adoption of selected British practices; looks to Enlightenment thought/Deism
Indian National Congress formed 1885 Founded to discuss ways for educated Indians to obtain a greater share
in government; not initially opposed to British rule and even contained British members
Congress joins with All-India Muslim League in 1916
47
Nationalism and Anticolonial Movements
48
Indian National Congress in 1885
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