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Chapter 1.doc- Introduction to Data, DB and DBA
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1.1. INTRODUCTION:
Now, in the beginning of twenty first century which is called 'information
century ' this research study, intends to investigate the most important feature
of this era that is 'data' (''means: details, document, facts, figures, information,
input, materials, and statistics.''1)
1.1.1 Data definition:
Elmasri and Navathe defined data as: ''By data, we mean known facts that
can be recorded and that have implicit meaning."2
C. J. Date also defines data as: "The word data derives from the Latin for 'to
give'; thus, data is really given facts, from which additional facts can be
inferred."3
D. H. McBurney evaluates data as: "It is worth noting that data is a plural
word. The singulare form is datum. A datum is a fact, and data are a
collection of facts."4
1.1.2 Early data:
Early days, when man had not been developed by the means of
communication, in order to survive, he was in need of some information about
the world around him to find food and shelter that information in broader
initiatives and more serious concept can be called as data, today.
Half a million years ago our ancestors learned to make fire from scratch. They
crafted complicated tools from stone and developed mind-altering medicine
from honey. Their descendants transformed clay into pottery, wool into
clothing, etc. Now, man after millions of years still is in pursuit of his goal with
the same purpose, and nothing more than that. A part of this study has aimed
at the nature of human, and his instinct senses, which fear is one of mans
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nature, and in return of fear he desires to be safe, and safeguard what he
has, in order not to lose them.
It might be fear of darkness, hunting or
being hunted, fire, coldness, etc. from
caveman'si,5 point of view, and losing a
market or appealing others' fund / energy
in today’s human mind. "…we lived and
died in fear. Fear of the darkness which
harbors terrors unseen. Fear of the cold
which lulls us to sleep everlasting. Fear of
the tooth and the claw, which hound us
both in wakes and in dreams."6 But, clear
and obvious is that, when man was
getting something new, he has passed the
previous one on to others. Painting in the caves era and technology in this
epoch can approve it, but what were they doing, till achieving the new thing?
Hiding it..! Let’s say secure it. "…when he has first judged his character and
decided whether he can have a pious and just feeling about these things and
can keep them secure."7
So, we can say that, 'security'ii,8 is the contradictory point of 'fear'
iii,9 which is
another instinct sense of human. Man was staying in the caves, under the
ground or far from others sight with all his belongings in the past, and now
keep his belongings (information) far from himself, safe and easily accessible
in a 'database'iv,10
in Information Technology (21 Century) time to remain
secure.
i Caveman: prehistoric man who lived in cave. ii Security: Anything that gives or assures safety.
iii Fear: A feeling of alarm or disquiet caused by awareness expectation of danger.
iv Database: A collection of data arranged for computer retrieval.
Figure-1.1 Caveman Painting Source: http://images.google.com/images
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During the years, man has analyzed and segmented the data (even written
document) differently, according to the needs (daily) and precedence of the
work in various frames, to keep them secure, and not to be accessed by
unauthorized persons. The frame could be a file, directory, safe, locker… etc.,
but the most important aspect of it, was the security and safety, i.e. not to be
changed with other things or used by anyone and availability of deposit(s),
whenever needed.
Same thing is applicable to a database (DB), if we assume a database as a
frame of deposited data, we have to be able to retrieve (access) the data at
the time of necessity. It’s mentioned also, "The database system must ensure
the safety of the information stored, despite system crashes or attempts at an
unauthorized access."11
In the past, in order to access of data placed in one location, physical
presence was unavoidable because the means for access and managing
data from far distance was not known to man. Since it seems that, It's been a
barrier and troublesome.
1.1.3 New data:
Man persuaded to rectify this problem, in this effort computer played the best
role as soon as it came into existence. Thus, mans' nightmare came to an
end with the incredible ability of this machine.
With the help of this machine and the storage devices supplied at large, mans
perspective thoroughly changed about data, manipulation and security of it.
Raghu & Gehrke also noted that "From earliest days of computer, storing and
manipulating data have been a major application focus.”12
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But, to manage data in a multi tasking machine with various storage places
there has to be different methods to control that data. Data must be Sharable;
data should be available any how, any time, any where at any cost! Data
must be changeable, and data should not lose its reliability. "for data to be
managed better, four objectives must be achieved: (a) users must be able to
share data; (b) data must be available to users when it is needed, in the
location where it is needed, and in the form in which it is needed; (c) it must
be possible to modify data fairly easily in light of changing user requirement;
and (d) the integrity of data must be preserved."13
1.2. HISTORY OF COMPUTER AND DB:
In order to have a better idea researcher would take you back to libraries,
governmental, business, and medical records. Where; there is a very long
history of information storage, indexing, and retrieval. We can't ignore this
history; there is usually something to learn from these folks and their success
and failure. A computer is a machine for manipulating data according to a list
of instructions. Computers take numerous physical forms. Early electronic
computers were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as
several hundred modern personal computers.
1960's: Vacuum tube-based computers were
largely replaced in the 1960s by transistor-
based devices, which were smaller, faster, and
cheaper, used less power and were more
reliable. But Computers became cost effective
for private companies along with increasing
storage capability of computers. Accordingly
and at the same time for database, two main
data models were developed: network model
(CODASYL) and hierarchical (IMS).
Figure-1.2 Transistor
Source:
http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/compon.htm
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"IMS formed the basis for an alternative
data representation framework called
the hierarchical data model."14
1970-72: By the 1970s, the adoption of
integrated circuit technology and the
subsequent creation of microprocessors
such as the Intel 4004 caused another
leap in size, speed, cost and reliability. In this time E.F. Codd proposed
relational model for databases in a landmark paper on how to think about
databases. He disconnected the schema (logical organization) of a database
from the physical storage methods. This system has been standard ever
since. "…Edgar Codd, at IBM's San Jose Research Laboratory, proposed a
new data representation framework called the relational data model."15
1970's: Since the advent of the IC in the mid-
1970s, the microprocessor has become the
most prevalent implementation of the CPU,
nearly completely replacing all other forms.
Simultaneously for DB, several camps of
proponents argue about merits of the competing
systems, while the theory of databases led to
mainstream research projects. Two main
prototypes for relational systems were
developed during 1974-77. These provide nice
example of how theory leads to best practice.
"Ingres was not originally an SQL system; instead, it supported a language
called QUEL ("Query Language"), which in many respects was technically
superior to SQL."16
Figure-1.3 Integrated Circuit Source:
www.intel.com/museum/archives/4004.htm
Figure-1.4 Microprocessor Source:
www.intel.com/museum/online/hist_micro/hof/
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Figure-1.5 Entity Relationship
1976: P. Chen proposed the Entity-Relationship (ER) model for database
design giving yet another important insight into conceptual data models.
Such higher level modeling allows the designer to concentrate on the use of
data instead of logical table structure. "the term 'entity' is commonly used in
database circles to mean any distinguishable object that is to be represented
in the database."17
In addition to the basic entities themselves (Artist, Song,
and so on, in the example) "there will also be relationships linking those
basic entities together. Such relationships are represented by diamonds and
connecting lines."18
In figure No. 4 there is a relationship ("Performs")
between Artist and the Song: Each Artist performs different Songs and
conversely each Song would be performed by different Artists.
Early 1980's: By the 1980s, computers
had become sufficiently small and
cheap to replace simple mechanical
controls in domestic appliances such as
washing machines. Around the same
time, computers became widely
accessible for personal use by
individuals in the form of home
computers. So, commercialization of
relational systems begins as a boom in
Artist Performs Song
Figure-1.6 Age of PC's IBM PC 1981 Source: http://www-
03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/pc/pc_1.html
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computer purchasing fuels DB market for business. "In the 1980, the
relational model consolidated its position as the dominant DBMS paradigm;
and database system continued to gain widespread use."19
Mid-1980's: 1987 Apple took advantage of
the new Motorola technology and introduced
the Macintosh II, which used a 16 MHz
Motorola 68020 processor. This marked the
start of a new direction for the Macintosh, as
now, for the first time, it had open architecture
with several expansion slots, support for color
graphics and a modular break out design
similar to that of the IBM PC and inspired by
Apple’s other line, the expandable Apple II series. In the same time SQL
(Structured Query Language) becomes "intergalactic standard". "SQL was
standardized in the late 1980s, and the current standard, SQL-92, was
adopted by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and
International Standards Organization (ISO)."20
DB2 becomes IBM's flagship product. Network and hierarchical models fade
into the background, with essentially no development of these systems today
but some legacy systems are still in use. Development of the IBM PC gives
rise to many DB companies and products such as RIM, RBASE 5000,
PARADOX, OS/2 Database Manager, Dbase III, IV (later Foxbase, even later
Visual FoxPro), Watcom SQL. "Several vendors (e.g., IBM's DB2, Oracle 8,
Informx UDS) have extended their systems with the ability to store new data
types such as images and text, and with the ability to ask more complex
queries."21
Figure-1.7 Macintosh II Source:
http://images.google.com/images
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Early 1990's: An industry shakeout
begins with fewer surviving companies
offering increasingly complex products at
higher prices. Much development during
this period centers on client tools for
application development such as
PowerBuilder (Sybase), Oracle
Developer, VB (Microsoft), etc. Client-
server model for computing becomes
the norm for future business decisions. Development of personal productivity
tools such as Excel/Access (MS) and ODBC. This also marks the beginning
of Object Database Management Systems (ODBMS) prototypes.
Mid-1990's: The usable Internet/w.w.w emerges. A
mad scramble ensues to allow remote access to
computer systems with legacy data. Client-server
passion reaches the desktop of average users with
little patience for complexity while Web/DB grows
exponentially, as Silberschatz et.al. express "In
recent years computer networking has grown
enormously, and today tens of millions of computers
are connected on the global internet. Many of the
users (people as well as organizations) have
information stored on these computers that they would like to share with the
rest of the world."22
Late-1990's: The large investment in Internet companies fuels tools market
boom for Web/Internet/DB connectors. Active Server Pages, Front Page,
Java Servlets, Java Data Base Connectivity (JDBC), Enterprise Java Beans,
ColdFusion, Dream Weaver, Oracle Developer 2000, etc. are examples of
Figure-1.8 Supercomputer Age Source: http://images.google.com/images
Figure-1.9 World Wide Web Source:
http://images.google.com/images
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such offerings. Open source solution come online with widespread use of
GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), Common Gateway Interface (CGI), Apache,
MySQL, etc. Online Transaction processing (OLTP) and online analytic
processing (OLAP) comes of age with many merchants using point-of-sale
(POS) technology on a daily basis. "Most significantly, perhaps, DBMSs have
entered the Internet Age."23
Early 21st century: Decline of the Internet industry as a whole but solid
growth of DB applications continues. More interactive applications appear
with use of Personal Digital Assistance (PDA), POS transactions,
consolidation of vendors, etc. Three main (western) companies predominate
in the large DB market: IBM (buys Informix), Microsoft, and Oracle.
Up to here, researcher tried to give a brief idea about history of the computer
as well as database. Thus, as it's apparent, researchers' intention is to
elaborate database administration, but it is not possible before a slight
introduction of computer and database, while the researcher has referred to
the mans' intuition concerning safeguarding of his belongings.
Now, in the 21st Century, man still thinks about the belongings, but those
things are in the form of data now. The data being stored in a database has to
be controlled and protected by a Database Management System (DBMS).
DBMS has a concurrent control on all kinds of data stored in a database.
1.3 DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR (DBA):
"Increasingly, organizations are recognizing that data is a critical resource
that must be managed properly."24
Hence, a database administrator (DBA) is
a person who is responsible for the environmental aspects of a database. In
general, those include:
Recoverability - Creating and testing Backups
Integrity - Verifying or helping to verify data integrity
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Security - Defining and/or implementing access controls to the
data
Availability - Ensuring maximum uptime
Performance - Ensuring maximum performance given budgetary
constraints
Development and testing support - Helping programmers and
engineers to efficiently utilize the database.
"The technical person responsible for implementing the data administrator's
decision is the database administrator (DBA in short)."25
Awad defines it as
"A specialist whose main tasks are to protect and manage the data base,
resolve user conflict, and maintain and update the system."26
Figure-1.10 the chain of events
Need for
mediation
Compromise
Resource
sharing
User
conflict
Intervention
by the
data/database
administrator
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The role of a database administrator has changed according to the
technology of database management systems (DBMSs) as well as the needs
of the owners of the databases. For example, although logical and physical
database designs are traditionally the duties of a database analyst or
database designer, a DBA may be tasked to perform those duties. It is
pointed out also "…the task of designing and maintaining the database is
entrusted to a professional called the database administrator."27
Database administrator has got various definitions by different authors here
is another one "…using DBMSs is to have central control of both the data
and the programs that access those data. The person who has such central
control over the system is called the database administrator (DBA)."28
And "In
a database environment, the primary resource is the database itself, and the
secondary resource is the DBMS and related software. Administrating these
resources is the responsibility of the database administrator (DBA)."29
1.3.1. Duties of a DBA:
The duties of a database administrator vary and depend on the job
description, corporate and Information Technology (IT) policies and the
technical features and capabilities of the DBMS being administered. They
nearly always include disaster recovery (backups and testing of backups),
performance analysis and tuning, and some database design. The duties,
rather role of DBA can be categorized into managerial and technical aspect.
1.3.2 Concurrency Control:
In computer science more specifically, in the field of databases and database
theory, concurrency control is a method used to ensure that database
transactions are executed in a safe manner (i.e., without data loss).
Concurrency control is especially applicable to database management
systems (DBMS), which must ensure that transactions are executed safely
and that they follow the ACID rules, as described in the following part (1.3.3).
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Ron Weber has pointed out as "…a major goal was to allow users of the
database to share the same data resources."30
The DBMS must be able to
ensure that only serializable, recoverable schedules are allowed, and that no
actions of committed transactions are lost while undoing aborted transactions.
Such type of problems may arise in distributed databases also "…therefore,
to determine whether the concurrency control implemented in a distributed
database management system will maintain the integrity of data under all
situation in which data resource conflicts arise."31
In computer science - in the field of concurrent programming (also parallel
programming and parallel computing on multiprocessor machines) -
concurrency control is a method used to ensure that correct results are
generated, while getting those results as quickly as possible.
Several algorithms can be used for either type of concurrency control (i.e.,
with in-RAM data structures on systems that have no database, or with on-
disk databases).
1.3.3. ACID rules:
"More precisely, however, a transaction must have four properties-the so-
called ACID properties."32
(Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) ACID is a set of properties that
guarantee that database transactions are processed reliably. In the context of
databases, a single logical operation on the data is called a transaction. An
example of a transaction is a transfer of funds from one account to another,
even though it might consist of multiple individual operations (such as
debiting one account and crediting another).
1.4 DATA ADMINISTRATION:
As, it's been mentioned earlier Ron Weber and C. J. Date expressed that DA
can handle the functionality and type of data. Here, researcher tends to find
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whether these roles are practically performed by DBA to achieve the
organization goal. Secondly, as said by Ron Weber, DBA can be assisted by
Data Administrator (DA).
Researcher is trying to confirm that, whether DBA needs anyone else more
than a DA or not. Here, as far as large organizations are concerned the
complexity for process of the work would be also in an immense level and
needs more experts to be involved in to handle it. What researcher is trying to
do is, finding any shortage in performance of the roles delegated to DBA's
against any possibility like: manpower, skill, experience, etc. Now, let us
know who is data administrator and what does exactly he do? Various
authors have defined DA as:
C. J. Date define it as: " 'The concept implies that there will be some
identifiable person in the enterprise who has this central responsibility for the
data, that person is the data administrator (DA for short).' …'it is data
administrator's job to decide what data should be stored in the database in
the first place, and to establish policies for maintaining and dealing with that
data once it has been stored'."33
Ron Weber State it as: " 'The data administrator handles technical
matters.'…' A major task that data administrators and database
administrators perform is to mediate when conflict arises in a shared data
environment. In addition, they undertake the following five functions: (a)
defining, creating, redefining, and retiring data; (b) making the database
available to users, (c) informing and servicing users, (d) maintaining database
integrity, and (e) monitoring operations and performance.' "34
As far as its concerned a DA is more in technical aspects of data than the
other tasks, in the meantime he would be in touch with DBA for initial stages
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of database. They are the source of information for database which user can
refer to. Therefore; any type of problem should be communicate to them.
1.5 NEED OF THE STUDY:
What ever discussed earlier is about the database and its performance, ways
to design a database and database security. The main issue of this research
is on database administrator performance, one who handles database
anytime, anywhere, anyhow with high risk and the best possible method.
Thus, researcher intends to discover how a DBA is able to do his task, and
what actually the task (called roles) contains? What are those roles? And
whether the roles entrusted to him are performed accordingly or not.
In the 21st century, due to high explosion in each and every area of the large
industries specially size of the organizations. The volume of transactions
particularly through wires has increased enormously.
Consequently, some intellectual barriers in spite of the performance of those
transactions have aroused. Thus, researcher is persuaded to study the
administration of database to discover any probable shortage of performance
in result of administrative roles being assigned to database professionals.
To achieve this goal researcher has to find out different approaches about
need of a DBA in an organization and whether a person like him is able to run
the database singly or he has to be assisted by any one as DA and UA.
Through the research work something related to the same issue, observed by
the researcher. Even various authors have claimed the same matter also,
which researcher tends to bring the one by Ron Weber "When management
first recognized the need for independent mediator to resolve data-resource
conflicts, their response was to create the database administration role. A
single role proved inadequate, however, for two reasons.
First, It became clear that competency in the role required two different
types of skills: A set of administrative skills was needed to handle
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managerial and policy matters and to interact effectively with database
users, and a set of technical skills was also needed to handle the detailed
design work and to tune the database so it could be used efficiently. Few
people have both sets of skills.
Second, over time, the database administrator’s workload became
excessive. As the amount of end-user computing, decentralized
computing, and distributed computing in organization grew, substantially
more support has had to be provided, especially to database users who
were not information systems professional. Consequently, the database
administration role was split. A new role was created, the data
administration role, to handle administrative and policy matters. The
database administrator’s role was then redefined to focus on technical
matters."35
However; researcher through the research work achieved that in era data
(21st Century), which is named as explosion of information, a huge volume of
data and set of transactions on data, are transferred in each and every
second between users of database(s), even distributed database. Therefore;
such a top level of dealings might be locale or global to the database, that
may boost up complexity of a persons' job, who is responsible for database
as DBA. Such a density may be particular in distributed database (discovered
during research work). The result itself confirms that, existence of an
intermediary in charge of users' deficiency, who is in touch with database,
and can handle users' efficiency, is necessary. Such person can be called as
User Administrator. Characteristic of a user administrator can be specified
in different steps as follow:
1.1.1 Classify the users.
1.1.2 Qualify the users.
1.1.3 Examine the user-ability while handling the job.
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Data
Admin
istrator
Database
Administrator
User Administrator
1.1.4 Train the users.
1.6.5 Clarify the system for the user.
1.6.6 Rectify user problem at user end.
The next step is data administrator, according to Weber. Database users
need various tools to interrogate and update the database. These tools must
be purchased or developed. Moreover, since users need change over time
and enhance, when new tools become available, someone must monitor the
needs of user population, and remain aware of the current tool technology, to
ensure that required tools are available on a timely basis. DBA has the
responsibility of making database available for users, who plays an important
role, which is maintaining the integrity of database.
Figure 1-11 database administration hierarchy
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Job of a DBA has to differ with the size of the organization. In a decentralized
organization, that is large in size and has distributed DB the role of the DBA
would differ with one in a parallel DB. So, he might be more in touch with the
data administrator (DA). Here researcher illustrates a Database
Administration flow of work with the help of below chart.
The chart shown above, clears that according to the hierarchy of database
administration, more we get far from DBA responsibility, the job would deal
with data and user more, it should be considered that the technical part is still
available even C. J. Date Noted that "…the data administration is a manager,
not a technician (although he or she certainly does need to have some
appreciation of the capabilities of database systems at a technical level)."36
Now, in order to find the complexity of the “DBA” role in different size of
organizations, when the results are obtained the weak and strong points
would be indicated in the managerial aspects of the database management,
and will be depicted in a diagram, which would contain information and data
in a level-wise manner. Whatever mentioned before, would provide a better
idea for the researcher to draw a fine chart of “DBA” role’s, in order to make
assure “integrity and security” of “data” within “database and database
management”,
1.6 WHAT IS THE DILEMMA?
There are certain problems in different Organizations especially large scales
that still exist even by taking advantage of having DBA controlling DB.
Problems might be due to lack of a qualified DBA or inability of users to
access DB in an Organization, improper privileges given to unauthorized
users, …etc.
The dilemma, and One of the most important factors in the IT departments as
the heart of the organizations, which cause a severe problem for the entire
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process of work, is income of the personnel and career growth planning being
well thought-out by the organizations for them. One of the most important
factors in IT department of the organizations is DB Administration team. A
proper career planning has to be considered in order to avoid change factor
in the process of work. There has to be a proper database administration
team including: data administrator (DA), database administrator (DBA), and
user administrator (UA).
Therefore; researcher is trying to take into consideration the most reliable
tasks, the Oracle Database Administration roles as a base for the DBA to
evaluate whether, those roles are taken care by the concerned DBA in the
Organization or not.
1.7 CHAPTERISATION:
The study would be classified in five chapters excluding Appendix.
1.7.1 The First: chapter elaborates a brief introduction about Data,
Database Administrator, and Data Administration. What has been
done earlier by the term DBA and what researcher wants to do? As, it
is noticeable, increase in complexity of roles has made DBA to be
assisted by DA and UA. These issues, are explained in details in the
following chapters.
1.7.2 The Second: chapter provides literature review of the DB, DBMS and
the process of improvement of work DB types, design, and even the
significance of the study. Then the problem which may threaten
different types of organizations internally or externally through access
that is security of information's. As, the most of large scale
Organizations are updated with automated systems and store their
data in the database, why the necessity of using a DBA is more
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concerned than before? Certain circumstances in the name of roles
are specified for DBA's. Oracle Corporation Ltd. has given a very
perfect set of roles. To perform these roles DBA should be quit
capable and qualified. Therefore, performance of these roles and
capability of a trained DBA and his assistance(s) are two major points
for this study.
1.7.3 The Third: chapter discusses about Methodology and the types of
methods and techniques used in this study. Hypothesis of the study
and data collection that is been done in various places and institutions,
in different levels of users who are accessing the DB. Questionnaires
and interview schedule which are being done in various places, data
organizing and arrangement of collected data, data analysis which
gives the proper result out of research study and at last presenting all
the works being processed in an academic manner. Aims and
objectives would be elaborated in this chapter.
1.7.4 The Forth: The data which has been collected is processed and
analyzed according to the defined outline, by Chi-Square testing
through SPSS package. This can be considered as the base of
research study, further more ensuring that we have got all relevant
data for making a contemplate comparison and analysis. Technically
speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification and
tabulation of collected data so that they would be amenable to
analyze. "For a measurement to be of any use in science, it must
have both reliabilityi and validity
ii."
37
i The property of consistency of a measurement that gives the same result on different occasions.
Donald H. McBurney "Research Methodology"
ii (of a measurement) the property of a measurement that tests what it is supposed to test. Donald
H. McBurney "Research Methodology"
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Therefore, all collected data has been gathered according to the types
of the organizations (IT, Manufacturing, Service). Whatever found
analyzed and discussed. Then all the findings were interpreted to be
shown in a diagrammatic form for better conclusion. This has been
done with the help of respected guide in order to have perfect decision
out of the discussion.
1.7.5 The Fifth: this chapter enlists the research findings and suggestion.
All the findings are summarized, and the epigrammatic result in the
form of conclusion would be contributed for the same. Summaries are
included of all the matters discussed as well as findings. So, this
chapter gives a brief idea about the whole research work and the
obtained result to the reader of this research in order to have a precise
thought of the work done. Then, limitation is the next step to be
considered, that is Pune district.
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1.8 REFERENCES:
1 “COLLINS GEM THESAURUS” Pg. 104, 1990 2 Ramez Elmasri, Shamkant B. Navathe, 'Fundamentals of Database
Systems', (Forth Edition), Pearson Education (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. Indian Branch, India, 2005. Pg. 4
3 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh Edition),
Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 13 4 Donald H.McBurney 'Research Methods', Thomson Wads World, 2002
(5th Edition), Singapore. Pg. 381 5 'The American Heritage Dictionary', (Second College Edition), Pg. 112,
1st col., July 1989. 6 Kevin M. Dunn, 'Caveman Chemistry: 28 Projects, from the Creation of
Fire to the Production of Plastics', Universal Publishers: Parkland, 2003. Pg. 1
7 Kevin M. Dunn, 'Caveman Chemistry: 28 Projects, from the Creation of
Fire to the Production of Plastics', Universal Publishers: Parkland, 2003. Pg. 189
8 'The American Heritage Dictionary', (Second College Edition), Pg. 617,
2nd col., July 1989. 9 'The American Heritage Dictionary', (Second College Edition), Pg. 257,
1st col., July 1989.
10 'The American Heritage Dictionary', (Second College Edition), Pg. 180, 2nd col., July 1989.
11 Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, 'DATABASE
SYSTEM CONCEPTS', (Third Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2002. Pg. 1
12 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management
System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 5 13 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth
Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 206 14 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management
System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 5
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15 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management
System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 6 16 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh Edition),
Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 231 17 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh Edition),
Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 11 18 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh Edition),
Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 11 19 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management
System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 6 20 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management
System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 6 21 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management
System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 6 22 Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, 'DATABASE
SYSTEM CONCEPTS', (Third Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2002. Pg. 698
23 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management
System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 7 24 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth
Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 207 25 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh Edition),
Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 16 26 Elias M. Awad, 'System Analysis and Design', (Second Edition),
GalgotiaPvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Pg. 504 27 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management
System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 20 28 Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, 'DATABASE
SYSTEM CONCEPTS', (Third Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2002. Pg. 15
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29 Ramez Elmasri, Shamkant B. Navathe, 'Fundamentals of Database
Systems', (Forth Edition), Pearson Education (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. Indian Branch, India, 2005. Pg. 12
30 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth
Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 575 31 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth
Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 580 32 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth
Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 578
33 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh
Edition), Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. p. 16 34 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth
Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 206 35 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT' (Fifth
Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 209-210 36 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system' (Seventh Edition),
Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 16
37 Donald H. McBurney, 'Research Methods', (Fifth Edition), Second reprint, Wadsworth, Thomson Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2002. p. 127
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