chapter 19 current of electricity
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CAMBRIDGE A – LEVEL
PHYSICS
ELECTRICITY
CURRENT OF
ELECTRICITY
L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E SNUMBER LEARNING OUTCOME
i R e c a l l c e r t a i n p r o p e r t i e s o f c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s .
ii U n d e r s t a n d w h a t c a u s e s f r e e m o v i n g c h a r g e s t o f l o w
p r o d u c i n g e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t .
iii W h a t i s p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e ?
iv U n d e r s t a n d t h e c o n c e p t o f r e s i s t a n c e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i t s
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h e l e c t r i c p o w e r d i s s i p a t e d
v S k e t c h t h e c u r r e n t v s . p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e c u r v e s f o r
c e r t a i n m a t e r i a l s
vi U n d e r s t a n d O h m ’s L a w
vii U n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f r e s i s t i v i t y a n d r e l a t e i t t o t h e
r e s i s t a n c e o f a m a t e r i a l
viii U n d e r s t a n d t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e a n d
l e a r n h o w i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e a f f e c t s p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e
a c r o s s a d . c . s o u r c e
P R O P E R T I E S O F C H A R G E D
PA R T I C L E S
P R O P E R T I E S O F C H A R G E D
PA R T I C L E S• Molecules that have an acquired an• Molecules that have an acquired an
excess of electrons will be negativelycharged, while molecules that areelectron deficient are positivelycharged.• Charged particles, whether positive or
negative will experience a force in anelectric field.• Charge is the property of matter that
will cause it to experience an electricforce in an electric field.
ELECTRIC CURRENT• Electric current is the net movement
no current
• Electric current is the net movement of charges from one region to another.
• When the electric field across a conductor is zero, there is no current even though some electrons are free to move about in random directions.
ELECTRIC CURRENT• What happens when we apply a• What happens when we apply a
electric field across the ends of aconductor?
• There will be a resultantdisplacement causing the electronsto drift in the direction of theelectric force causing a current toflow.
ELECTRIC CURRENT• The blue path indicates the path
of a random moving electron
without an E – field acting across
the conductor.
• The pink path shows the path of
an electron under the influence of
an external E – field.
• Notice that this produces a net
displacement on the electron.
• This net displacement produces a
flow of charges through the
conductor.
• This results in an electric current.
Diagram 25.1, page 819, Sear’s and Zemansky’s University Physics, Young and Freedman,
13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
ELECTRIC CURRENT• In conductors, the free
moving charges areelectrons.
• However, current is the netflow of positive particles.
Diagram 25.2, page 820, Sear’s
and Zemansky’s University Physics,
Young and Freedman, 13th edition,
Pearson Education, San Francisco,
2012.
ELECTRIC CURRENT• Assume we a conductor of cross
sectional area, �������.
• The amount of current flowing is
defined as the net charge
flowing through the cross
sectional area, per second.
• If is the net charge flowing
through the surface area � in
time �, then the current, � �
�• Unit of electric current = A
(Ampere)
Diagram 25.3, page 820, Sear’s and Zemansky’s University Physics, Young and
Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
ELECTRIC CURRENT• From the previous slide we have • From the previous slide we have
.
• The unit for Coulomb (C) or .
• Definition: “1 Coulomb is defined as the amount of electric charge carried by an electric current of 1 Ampere in 1 second.”
•
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, Question 34.
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 11, Question 34.
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, Question 31.
H O M E W O R K
1. May/June 2009, Paper 1, question 30.
2. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, question 31.
3. May/Jun 2011, Paper 11, question 31.
P OT E N T I A L D I F F E R E N C E
• As learned in the previous chapter, the• As learned in the previous chapter, thedirection of electric force on a chargedparticle in an E – field is opposite to thedirection of increasing electric potentialenergy.• Hence, (conventional ) current flows in
the direction of decreasing electricalpotential energy.• When current flows, the charges lose
electric potential energy.
P OT E N T I A L D I F F E R E N C E
• Since the amount of charges that flow is• Since the amount of charges that flow isgreat, another quantity is used tomeasure the change in electric potentialenergy that occurs.• This quantity is known as potential
difference.• Definition: “Potential difference is the
amount of electric energy transformedinto other forms, like heat, per unit ofcharge. ”
P OT E N T I A L D I F F E R E N C E
• The unit for potential difference is the • The unit for potential difference is the Volt (V) (or J/C).
• Definition: “1 Volt is the potentialdifference between two points when 1Joule of energy is transferred by oneCoulomb passing from one point to theother.”
P OT E N T I A L D I F F E R E N C E
Diagram 25.7, page 825, Sear’s and Zemansky’s University Physics, Young and
Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
• When charges flow, they flow
from a point higher potential
to a point with lower
potential.
• This causes the charges to
transfer their energy into
forms (e.g. heat, light).
• This energy transferred is the
potential difference between
the two points.
E X A M P L E S
May/June 2008, Paper 1, Question 33.
H O M E W O R K
1. May/June 2008, Paper 1, question 35.
2. May/June 2009, Paper 1, question 31.
3. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 12, question 32.
RESISTANCE• When electric current flows, there is a
� �
�
• When electric current flows, there is aresistance offered by the ions in theconductor.
• This is due to the collisions that occurbetween the moving charges and the ions inthe conductor.
• Definition: “The electric resistance, � isdefined as the ratio of potential differenceacross (in V) to the amount of current (in A)that flows through a specific conductor” or
� �
�.
RESISTANCE• The unit of electrical resistance is
�����
• The unit of electrical resistance isthe ohm (Ω).
• Definition: “1 ohm is defined as theresistance of a conductor that has apotential difference of 1 volt when 1Ampere of current flows through it.”or
1 ٠=�����
�����.
RESISTANCE• When electric current flows through• When electric current flows through
certain elements, there is a decrease inelectric potential energy in the charges.
• What happens to this energy?• As the charges flow, they collide with the
ions of the element and the electricpotential energy is transferred to theions as internal energy.
• The increased internal energy will causeheat to be dissipated from the element.
RESISTANCE• Let us say that we need to do work,
�
• Let us say that we need to do work, to move Coulombs of charge
across a potential difference of V.This work, or
• Hence, we obtain ��
��.
• Electric power dissipated (in Watts), or � (since )
E X A M P L E S
May/June 2008, Paper 1, Question 32.
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 11, Question 31.
H O M E W O R K
1. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, question 34.
2. May/June 2011, Paper 12, question 32.
3. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 11, question 34.
4. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 21, question 5.
I – V C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S
and a filament lamp.
• We plot current (I) versus potential
difference (V) graphs to show how a
varying potential difference across a
specific material will affect the current
through the conductor.
• We will limit our discussion to a
constantan wire, a semiconductor diode
and a filament lamp.
I – V C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S
Diagram 25.10 (a), page 827, Sear’s and Zemansky’s University Physics, Young and
Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
The constantan wire
• The diagram shows the I – V
curve for a specimen of
constantan wire at a
constant temperature.
• The curve is a straight line
indicating a linear
relationship between
current, I and potential
difference, V.
I – V C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S
Diagram 25.10 (a), page 827, Sear’s and Zemansky’s University Physics, Young and
Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
• The slope of the straight line
passing through the origin
gives the inverse of the
resistance of the specimen, or�
�in Ω-1.
• When potential difference is
negative, current is also
negative indicating that when
the polarities of the ends are
reversed, the current will flow
in the opposite direction.
I – V C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S
The semiconductor diode
• The diagram shows the I – V curve
for a specimen of a
semiconducting diode.
• For positive voltages, the current
increases non – linearly with the
potential difference across it once
the threshold voltage is crossed..
• For negative potential differences,
there will be a very small current
flowing, in the direction opposite
to the direction of the positive
current, up till before the
breakdown voltage.
Source: http://www.societyofrobots.com/images/DiodeChart.gif
I – V C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S
• Diodes are devices that allow
current to flow in one
direction; i.e., a one – way
valve.
• To find the resistance of the
diode for a particular
voltage, V, we read off the
graph the value of current, I.
We then find the resistance,
R, as � �
�
Source: http://www.societyofrobots.com/images/DiodeChart.gif
I – V C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S
The filament lamp
• The diagram shows the I – V
curve for a specimen of a
filament lamp.
• Initially, the current flowing in it
and the voltage across it are
linearly proportional.
• As the voltage increases, the
slope of the curve decrease.
This means that as the voltage
gets larger, the incremental rise
in current gets smaller.
Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/ph_elect14.gif
I – V C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S
• This only could happen if the
resistance gets larger.
• Why does the resistance of the
filament lamp increase as voltage
across it gets larger?
• As the voltage across it gets larger,
the heat generated will be greater,
causing the metal ions to vibrate
with a greater amplitude. The
frequency of collisions between
charges and the metal ions will
increase. This leads to higher
resistance offered to current flow
by the filament.
Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/ph_elect14.gif
OHM’S LAW
• Definition: “Ohm’s Law states that for a
conductor at a constant temperature,
the current through it is directly
proportional to the potential difference
across it.”
OHM’S LAW• If we examine the I – V curves for the three devices
as shown above, only of the devices exhibits a
proportional relationship between current and
potential difference.
• This means that if we plot an I – V curve for a
material at a constant temperature and obtain a
linear relationship, that material obeys Ohm’s Law.
• For such devices, we can obtain the resistance by
finding the inverse of the gradient of the I – V curve.
RESISTIVITY
• The resistance of a material depends on
the:
1. The type of material,
2. The length of the material, and
3. The cross sectional area of the material.
• The effect of the type of material on the
resistance of the material is known as the
resistivity of the material.
RESISTIVITY
• Definition: “The resistivity of a
material is numerically equal to the
resistance between the opposite
faces of a cube of the material, of
unit length and unit cross sectional
area. ”
RESISTIVITY
length of conductor, in m.
• How are the resistance of a wire and
resistivity of the wire’s material related
mathematically?
•��
where = resistance, in Ω; ρ
= resistivity, in Ωm; = cross
sectional area of the wire, in m2,
length of conductor, in m.
E X A M P L E S
May/June 2008, Paper 1, Question 34.
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, Question 31.
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 11, Question 32.
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, Question 34.
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, Question 34.
H O M E W O R K
1. Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, question 32.1. Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, question 32.
2. Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, question 33.
3. May/June 2010, Paper 11, question 31.
4. May/June 2010, Paper 21, question 6.
5. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, question 32.
6. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, question 33.
7. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 23, question 8.
8. May/Jun 2011, Paper 11, question 33.
H O M E W O R K
9. May/Jun 2011, Paper 11, question 34.
10. May/Jun 2011, Paper 12, question 33.
11. May/Jun 2011, Paper 21, question 1.
12. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 12, question 33.
13. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 12, question 34.
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )• To move charges around in a circuit, energy• To move charges around in a circuit, energy
must be transferred to the a unit charge tocause the charge to traverse the circuit.
• Definition: “The electromotive force (emf) isthe amount of change of other forms ofenergy, like chemical or mechanical intoelectrical energy per unit of charge.”
• “The emf can also be defined as the energytransferred by the source on a unit of chargeto drive the unit charge around the circuit.”
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )• Diagram on the left shows an ideal
emf source
• �� is the electric force acting on the
positive charge produced by the E -
field.
• The non – electrostatic force, �� is
produced by an external source.
• In a battery / fuel cell, � is produced
by the chemical reactions that occur.
In a generator � is produced by the
magnetic forces that act on the
charges.
Diagram 25.13, page 829, Sear’s and Zemansky’s
University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition,
Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )• Diagram shows what happens when
the ideal emf source is connected to
an external circuit.
• Let us assume that the positive
charge starts at point b, and is
moved to point a. The work done by
� ,��� "ε. Work done per unit
charge,���
$ %
• The work done per unit charge by
�� is the emf causing current to
flow.
Diagram 25.14, page 829, Sear’s and Zemansky’s
University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th
edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )• The charge gains electric potential
energy as it moves from b to a.
• The E – field that is produced by the
circuit will cause the charges to flow
(in the circuit) from a to b (higher to
lower potential)
• When the charges return to point b
after a completing a loop, the gain in
electric potential energy in moving
from b to a (in source) will have to
“dropped” across the circuit.
• Hence, & '(, where ' current
that flows, ( resistance of circuit.
Diagram 25.14, page 829, Sear’s and Zemansky’s University Physics, Young and
Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )• The diagram shows an electric
source.
• A electric source has an internal
resistance, � between points b and
a.
• This produces a lower potential
difference between a and b as
compared to the ideal source.
• �)* % + �� ��
• Hence, % �� , �� ��� , ��
• Or, � %
��-��
Source: http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/302l/lectures/img635.png
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )
E L E C T R O M O T I V E F O R C E
( E M F )• For an electric source, the potential
difference across the terminals
would be equal to the emf only if
there is no current flowing through
the source.
• For example, a dry cell with an emf =
1.5 V would have a potential
difference = 1.5 V across the
terminals when I = 0. When current
flows, the potential difference across
the terminals would be less than 1.5
V.
Source: http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/302l/lectures/img635.png
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, Question 36.
E X A M P L E S
May/Jun 2009, Paper 1, Question 32.
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 11, Question 30.
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 21, Question 6.
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 21, Question 6(cont’d).
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 21, Question 6(cont’d).
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 21, Question 6(cont’d).
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 21, Question 6(cont’d).
E X A M P L E S
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, Question 32.
H O M E W O R K
1. May/June 2010, Paper 11, question 30.1. May/June 2010, Paper 11, question 30.
2. May/June 2010, Paper 11, question 35.
3. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, question 33.
4. May/June 2011, Paper 11, question 32.
5. May/June 2011, Paper 12, question 34.
6. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 11, question 35.
7. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 11, question 36.
8. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 12, question 35.
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