chapter 19

Balanced Scorecard:Quality, Time,

and the Theory of Constraints

Quality as a Competitive ToolQuality—the total features and

characteristics of a product or a service made or performed according to specifications to satisfy customers at the time of purchase and during use.

A quality focus reduces costs and increases customer satisfaction.

Quality as a Competitive ToolFocusing on the quality of a product will

generally build expertise in producing it, lower the costs of making it, create customer satisfaction for customers using it, and generate higher future revenues for the company selling it.

Two Basic Aspects of Quality1. Design quality—refers to how closely the

characteristics of a product or service meet the needs and wants of customers

2. Conformance quality—refers to the performance of a product or service relative to its design and product specifications

Quality and Failure

ActualPerformance

DesignSpecifications

CustomerSatisfaction

ConformanceQualityFailure

DesignQualityFailure

Four Perspectives of theBalanced Scorecard1. Financial2. Customer3. Internal business process4. Learning and growth

The Financial Perspective: Costs of Quality (COQ) Four categories of quality costs:

1. Prevention costs—incurred to preclude the production of products that do not conform to specifications

2. Appraisal costs—incurred to detect which of the individual units of products do not conform to specifications

3. Internal failure costs—incurred on defective products before they are shipped to customers

4. External failure costs—incurred on defective products after they are shipped to customers

Elements of Costs of Quality Reports

Determining COQ using Activity-Based Costing1. Identify the chosen product.2. Identify the product’s direct costs of

quality.3. Select the cost-allocation bases to use for

allocating indirect costs of quality to the product.

Determining COQ using Activity-Based Costing4. Identify the indirect costs of quality

associated with each cost-allocation base.5. Compute the rate per unit of each cost-

allocation base used to allocate indirect costs of quality to the product.

Determining COQ using Activity-Based Costing6. Compute the indirect costs of quality

allocated to the product.7. Compute the total costs of quality by adding

all direct and indirect costs of quality assigned to the product.

Activity-Based COG Analysis Illustration

Cost of Quality Exclusions Opportunity costs as a result from poor

quality:1. Contribution margin and income foregone

from lost sales2. Lost production3. Lower prices

These opportunity costs are not recorded in the financial accounting systems.

The Customer PerspectiveNonfinancial measures of customer

satisfaction include:Surveys on satisfactionMarket shareNumber of defective units shipped to

customersNumber of customer complaintsProduct fail ratesDelivery delays/On-time deliveries

The Internal Business Process Perspective Three techniques for identifying and

analyzing quality problems:1. Control charts2. Pareto diagrams3. Cause-and-effect diagrams

Control ChartsStatistical quality control (SQC) is a formal

means of distinguishing between random and nonrandom variations in an operating process.

Control charts are a part of SQC.

Control ChartsControl charts are a graph of a series of

successive observations of a particular step, procedure, or operation taken at regular intervals of time.

Each observation is plotted relative to specified ranges that represent the limits within which observations are expected to fall.

Only those observations outside the control limits are ordinarily regarded as nonrandom and worth investigating.

Quality Control Charts Illustrated

Pareto DiagramsObservations outside control limits serve as

inputs for Pareto diagrams.Pareto diagram—a chart that indicates how

frequently each type of defect occurs, ordered from the most frequent to the least frequent.

Pareto Diagram Illustration

Cause-and-Effect DiagramsIdentifies potential causes of defectsProblems identified by the Pareto diagram

are analyzed using cause-and-effect diagramsAlso called fishbone diagrams because they

resemble the bone structure of a fish

Cause-and-Effect Diagram Illustration

Nonfinancial Measures of Internal Business Process QualityPercentage of defective productsPercentage of reworked productsNumber of different types of defects foundNumber of design and process changes made

The Learning and Growth Perspective for QualityExperience and qualifications of design

engineersEmployee turnover ratioEmployee empowerment—number of

processes in which employees have the right to make decisions without consulting supervisors

Employee satisfactionEmployee training

Advantages of COQ (Financial) MeasuresCOQ focuses managers’ attention on the

costs of poor quality.COQ measures assist in problem solving by

comparing costs and benefits of different quality-improvement programs and setting priorities for cost reduction.

COQ provides a single, summary measure of quality performance for evaluating trade-offs among the costs of prevention, appraisal, internal failure, and external failure.

Advantages of Nonfinancial Measures of QualityNonfinancial measures of quality are often

easy to quantify and understand.Nonfinancial measures direct attention to

physical processes and to areas that need improvement.

Nonfinancial measures provide immediate short-run feedback on whether quality-improvement efforts have succeeded.

Nonfinancial measures are useful indicators of future long-run performance.

Time as a Competitive ToolCompanies view time as a driver of strategy.Operational measures of time: how quickly

firms respond to customers’ demand for their products and services, and their reliability in meeting scheduled delivery dates.

Two Operational Measures of Time1. Customer-response time—how long it takes

from the time a customer places an order for a product or service is delivered to the customer

2. On-time performance—delivering a product or service by the time it was scheduled to be delivered

Customer-Response Time Illustrated

Time Drivers Time driver is any factor in which a

change in the factor causes a change in the speed of an activity.

Two time drivers:1. Uncertainty about when customers will order

products and services.2. Bottlenecks due to limited capacity. A bottleneck

occurs in an operation when the work to be performed approaches or exceeds the capacity available to do it.

Simple Time PresumptionsWhen demand uncertainty is high, some

unused capacity it desirable.Increasing the capacity of a bottleneck

resource reduces manufacturing lead times and delays.

Reduce set-up times.Invest in new equipment to increase

capacity.Careful scheduling of production.

Theory of Constraints and Throughput- Contribution AnalysisThe theory of constraints (TOC) describes

methods to maximize operating income when faced with some bottleneck and some nonbottleneck operations.

TOC focuses on a short-run time horizon and assumes that operating costs are fixed costs.

Throughput margin equals revenues minus the direct material cost of the goods sold.

Four Steps in Managing Bottleneck Operations1. Recognize that the bottleneck operation

determines throughput contribution of the entire system.

2. Identify the bottleneck operation by identifying operations with large quantities of inventory waiting to be worked on.

Four Steps in Managing Bottleneck Operations3. Keep the bottleneck operation busy and

subordinate all nonbottleneck operations to the bottleneck operation.

4. Take actions to increase the efficiency and capacity of the bottleneck operation. The objective is to increase the difference between throughput contribution and the incremental costs of increasing efficiency and capacity.

Methods to Relieve BottlenecksEliminate idle time at the bottleneck

operation.Process only those parts or products that

increase throughput contribution, not parts or products that will remain in finished goods or spare parts inventories.

Shift products that do not have to be made on the bottleneck operation to nonbottleneck processes, or to outside processing facilities.

Methods to Relieve BottlenecksReduce setup time and processing time at

bottleneck operations.Improve the quality of parts or products

manufactured at the bottleneck operation.

The Balanced Scorecard and Time-Related MeasuresFinancial measures:

Revenue losses or price discounts attributable to delays

Carrying costs of inventoriesThroughput contribution minus operating costs

Customer measures:Customer-response timeOn-time performance

The Balanced Scorecard and Time-Related MeasuresInternal business process measures:

Average manufacturing time for key productsIdle time at bottleneck operationsDefective units produced at bottleneck

operationsAverage reduction in setup time and

processing time at bottleneck operations

The Balanced Scorecard and Time-Related MeasuresLearning and growth measures:

Employee satisfactionNumber of employees trained in managing

bottleneck operations

chapter 19

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