chapter 09
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Chapter Nine
Measurement & Scaling
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Chapter Objectives
• Identify the four levels of measurement under which numbers generated through a survey can be classified.
• Distinguish among attributes, behavioral variables, beliefs, and attitudes.
• List and describe five methods for inferring people's attitudes.
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Chapter Objectives (Cont’d)
• Discuss the various dimensions on which rating scales can vary.
• Apply the formats of Likert, semantic-differential, and Stapel scales and discuss how data generated by these scales are analyzed and interpreted.
• Define validity, reliability, and sensitivity of a scale.
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Harris Interactive:U.S.Based Survey
Reputation Score of Top Ten Corporations
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Reputation
Workplace Environment
Products andServices
Emotional Appeal
Financial Performance
Social Responsibility
Vision and Leadership
Harris Interactive: U.S. Based Survey Six Dimensions of Reputation
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20 Attributes of the Six Dimensions Measured Using a 7 Point Scale
• Emotional Appeal– Like
– Respect
– Trust
• Workplace Environment– Well managed
– Appealing workplace
– Employee Talent
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20 Attributes of the Six Dimensions Measured Using a 7 Point Scale (Cont’d)
• Products and Services– Innovative– Strong brand– Quality– Value
• Social Responsibility– Citizenship– Environmental stewardship– Ethics
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Six Dimensions and Its Scales
• Vision and Leadership– Clear values– Strong leadership– Inspiring vision
• Financial Performance– Growth prospects– Past results– Recognizes opportunities– Low risk
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Measurement
• Measurement is “the assignment of numbers to observations [or responses] according to some set of rules”
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Measurement Levels
• Nominal• Ordinal • Interval• Ratio
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Nominal-Scaled Responses
• Numbers forming a nominal scale are no more than labels used solely to identify different categories of responses
• Example: What is your sex?– Male
– Female
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Nominal-Scaled Responses (Cont’d)
• Which one of the following media influences your purchasing decisions the most? – Television – Radio– Newspapers – Magazines– Internet
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Central Tendency– Mode
• The mode is the most frequent category - only statistics applicable to nominal variable
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Ordinal-Scaled Responses
• An ordinal scale is more powerful than a nominal scale in that the numbers possess the property of rank order
• How long do you spend reading newspapers on a typical weekday?– Less than 5 minutes– 5 minutes to less than 15 minutes– 15 minutes to less than 30 minutes– 30 minutes or more
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Mode and Median
• The mode and the median are the most meaningful measures of central tendency for ordinal-scaled responses
• Median – the category in which the 50th percentile response falls when all responses are arranged from lowest to highest (or vice versa)
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Response Category Percentage of Respondents Checking Category
1 40
2 25
3 25
4 10
Consider the following distribution of responses to the question about reading newspapers
• In this case, the mode is category 1, and the median is category 2.
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Interval-Scaled Responses
• An interval scale has all the properties of an ordinal scale and the differences between the scale values can be meaningfully interpreted
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Interval-Scaled Responses (Cont’d)
(Please check the most appropriate category.) Will definitely not buy _____
(1)
Extremely unlikely _____
(2)Unlikely _____
(3)
Likely _____
(4)Extremely likely _____
(5)
Will definitely buy _____
(6)
• How likely are you to buy a new automobile within the next six months?
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Exhibit 9.1 Impact of Arbitrariness of an Interval Scale’s Starting Point
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Ratio-Scaled Responses
• Ratio scales possess all the properties of an interval scale and the ratios of numbers on these scales have meaningful interpretations
• What is your annual income before taxes? $______
• How far is your workplace from your home? _____ miles
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Classes of Variables
• Attributes• Behavior• Beliefs• Attitudes
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Attitudes
• Attitudes are similar to beliefs, except that they also involve respondents’ evaluative judgments
• For instance, do respondents feel print advertisements for cigarettes should be banned?
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Attitudes –Conceptually and Operationally
• A conceptual definition of attitude may be “a predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to a stimulus object”
• An operational definition of attitude refers to a person’s attitude towards a particular retail store that may be measured as the total of the person’s expressed degree of agreement, on a 5-point, “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree” scale, with each of a set of 20 evaluative statements about various aspects of the retail store
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Attitude Scaling
• Attitudes – Widely believed to be a key determinant of behavior
– Can only be inferred and cannot be directly ascertained
• Measures in which inferences are drawn from – Observed overt behavior
– Individual's reaction
– Performance on objective tasks
– Physiological reactions
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Observing Overt Behavior
• Observation of overt behavior is useful when other attitude measurement methods are inconvenient or infeasible
• An observation study can be used to ascertain the attitudes of very young children toward a variety of toys
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Analyzing Reactions to Partially Structured Stimuli
• Projective Techniques– The approach of analyzing reactions to
partially structured stimuli involves asking respondents to react to or describe in some fashion, an incomplete, vague stimulus
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Evaluating Performance on Objective Tasks
• To evaluate performance on objective tasks, respondents are asked to complete an ostensibly objective, well-defined task
• The nature of their performance is then analyzed to infer their attitudes
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Monitoring Physiological Responses
• Monitoring physiological responses is based on the premise that a person's emotional reactions to a stimulus will be accompanied by corresponding involuntary physiological changes
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Self-report Measurements of Attitudes
• This method involves asking respondents relatively direct questions concerning attitudes toward whatever is of interest to the researcher
• The questions are typically in the form of rating scales on which respondents check off appropriate positions that best reflect their feelings
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VeryBad
VeryGood
Graphic Formats
• A graphic rating scale presents a continuum, in the form of a straight line, along which a theoretically infinite number of ratings are possible
• Example: Indicate your overall opinion about eBay by placing a mark at an appropriate position on the line below.
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Itemized Formats
• Itemized rating scales have a set of distinct response categories
• Any suggestion of an attitude continuum underlying the categories is implicit
• They essentially take the form of the multiple-category questions
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Comparative Assessments
• Comparative Rating Scale– Provides all respondents with a common
frame of reference
– Allows the researcher to be confident that all respondents are answering the same question
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Non-comparative Assessments
• Non-comparative Rating Scale– Implicitly permits respondents to use any
frame of reference or no frame of reference at all
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Forced Response Choices
• A forced-choice scale does not give respondents the option of expressing a neutral or middle-ground attitude
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Indicate your overall opinion about eBay by checking one of the following categories:
Very Neither Bad VeryBad Bad nor Good Good Good[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
What is your overall rating of eBay in comparison with other auction sites?
Much worse Worse About the same Better Much better ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Forced Response Choices (Cont’d)
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Non-forced Response Choices
• A non-forced-choice scale give respondents the option to express a neutral attitude
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Indicate your overall opinion about eBay by placing a
mark in the category that best summarizes your feelings.
Very VeryBad Good[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
What is your overall rating of eBay in comparison with other auction sites?
Much worse Worse Better Much better ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Non-forced Response Choices (Cont’d)
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Balanced Response Choices
• A balanced scale is one that has an equal number of positive/favorable and negative/unfavorable response choices
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Indicate your overall opinion about eBay by checking one of the following categories:
Very Neither Bad VeryBad Bad nor Good Good Good[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
What is your overall rating of eBay in comparison with other auction sites?
Much worse Worse About the same Better Much better ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Balanced Response Choices (Cont’d)
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Unbalanced Response Choices
• An unbalanced rating scale that can be used if respondents’ opinions about a subject are anticipated to be predominantly positive
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Labeled Response Choices
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Unlabeled Response Choices
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Exhibit 9.2 Rating Scales with Picture Labels
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Number of Scale Positions
• A scale with a large number of positions will not be meaningful if respondents are unable to make fine mental distinctions with respect to whatever is being measured
• More precise measurements should result as the number of scale positions increase
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Paired Comparison Scale
• In each of the following pairs, which store do you think is better?
(please check one online auction site within each pair)
_______ Amazon or _______ eBay
_______ eBay or _______ Yahoo! Auction
_______ PriceLine.com or _______ eBay
_______ eBay or _______ Ubid.com
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Commonly Used Multiple-item Scales
• Likert Scale• Semantic-Differential Scale• Stapel Scale
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6.
5.
4.
3.
2.
1.
________________________________________The auction site support system is confusing
________________________________________The auction site is notcareful with personal information
________________________________________The auction site responds to complaints quickly
________
________
________
Agree
________
________
________
StronglyAgree
________________________The auction site commission is reasonable
________________________User registrationis complex at this site
________________________The online auction site contains an abundance of exhibits
Neither Agree nor Disagree
Disagree Strongly Disagree
Table 9.2 Likert Scale Items
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Exhibit 9.3 Semantic-Differential Scale Items
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Exhibit 9.4 Pictorial Profiles Based on Semantic-Differential Ratings
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-5-5-5-5-5-5
-4-4-4-4-4-4
-3-3-3-3-3-3
-2-2-2-2-2-2
-1-1-1-1-1-1
+1+1+1+1+1+1
+2+2+2+2+2+2
+3+3+3+3+3+3
+4+4+4+4+4+4
+5+5+5+5+5+5
Confusing Support System
Poor Protection of Personal Information
Good Response
to Complaints
Low Commission
Complex User
Registration
Abundance of
Exhibits
Table 9.3 Stapel Scale
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Strengths Of Multiple-Item Scales
• Validity• Content validity• Construct validity• Predictive validity
• Reliability• Test-retest reliability• Split-half reliability
• Sensitivity
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Validity
• The validity of a scale is the extent to which it is a true reflection of the underlying variable it is attempting to measure
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Content Validity
• Face validity or content validity is the extent to which the content of a measurement scale seems to tap all relevant facets of an issue that can influence respondents’ attitudes
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Exhibit 9.5 Types of Equivalence
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Construct Validity
• Construct Validity is the nature of the underlying variable or construct measured by the scale
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Predictive Validity
• Predictive Validity refers to how well the attitude measure provided by the scale predicts some other variable or characteristic
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Reliability
• Reliability measures how consistent or stable the ratings generated by the scale are likely to be
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Test-Retest Reliability
• Test-Retest Reliability measures the stability of ratings over time and involves administering the scale to the same group of respondents at two different times
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Split-Half Reliability
• Split-Half Reliability measures the degree of consistency across items within a scale and can only be assessed for multiple-item scales
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Sensitivity
• Sensitivity focuses specifically on its ability to detect subtle differences in the attitudes being measured
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