cell biology unit two. covalent bonds bonds formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms

Cell BiologyCell BiologyUnit TwoUnit Two

CovalenCovalent Bondst Bonds

Bonds formed by Bonds formed by the sharing of the sharing of electrons electrons between atomsbetween atoms

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- a covalently - a covalently bonded, polar bonded, polar

moleculemolecule

Molecules are Molecules are said to be polar if said to be polar if they have slight they have slight opposite charges opposite charges

on either endon either end

The slight attraction between the negative end of one molecule and the positive end of another results in a…

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- polarity leads to adhesion and cohesion- polarity leads to adhesion and cohesion

- adhesion and cohesion- adhesion and cohesion lead to capillary lead to capillary action and surface tensionaction and surface tension

- high specific heat leads to temperature - high specific heat leads to temperature stabilitystability

- high heat of vaporization leads to - high heat of vaporization leads to evaporative coolingevaporative cooling

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- This characteristic means water has a - This characteristic means water has a high degree of solvency and chemical high degree of solvency and chemical reactivityreactivity

- spheres of hydration form electrostatic - spheres of hydration form electrostatic interactions, keeping ions from interacting interactions, keeping ions from interacting with each otherwith each other

The The Importance Importance

of of MacromolecuMacromolecu

lesles

DefinitionsDefinitions

Dehydration synthesis – the Dehydration synthesis – the assembling of organic assembling of organic molecules by extracting molecules by extracting waterwaterHydrolysis – the breaking Hydrolysis – the breaking up of organic molecules up of organic molecules using waterusing waterSelf assembly – having the Self assembly – having the capability to form capability to form complicated from complicated from information inherent to the information inherent to the polymerpolymer

The The Metabolism Metabolism

of of MacromolecuMacromolecu

lesles

The four types of organic compoundsThe four types of organic compounds

CarbohydratCarbohydrateses

LipidsLipids

ProteinsProteins

Nucleic Nucleic acidsacids

The general formula is The general formula is CHCH22OOThe monomers are The monomers are monosaccharidesmonosaccharidesFunctionsFunctions:: Provide energyProvide energyStructural Structural usesusesExamples:Examples:Plants - starch, Plants - starch, cellulose, Animals - cellulose, Animals - glycogen, chitinglycogen, chitin

Two functional groups – COOHTwo functional groups – COOH- -

(carboxyl) and NH(carboxyl) and NH22-- (amine) (amine)

The monomers are amino acidsThe monomers are amino acids

FunctionsFunctions::

Provide energyProvide energy

Structural Structural usesusesRegulationRegulationProtectionProtection

Examples:Examples:

•CollagenCollagen•HormoneHormoness•EnzymesEnzymes•AntibodiesAntibodies

The monomers are The monomers are nucleotidesnucleotides

FunctionsFunctions::HeredityHeredityProtein Protein synthesissynthesis

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Nitrogen baseNitrogen base

Pentose sugarPentose sugar

Phosphate Phosphate groupgroup

ExampleExamples:s:•DNADNA•RNARNA

Single Single stranded stranded with three with three forms – forms – tRNA, tRNA, rRNA, and rRNA, and mRNAmRNA

Double Double stranded, stranded, double double helix helix moleculemolecule

Functional group – COOHFunctional group – COOH- -

(carboxyl)(carboxyl)The monomers are fatty acids and The monomers are fatty acids and alcoholsalcoholsFunctionsFunctions:: Storage energyStorage energyStructural Structural usesusesRegulationRegulationProtectionProtection

Examples:Examples:

•Fats (triglycerides)Fats (triglycerides)•PhospholipidPhospholipidss•SteroidsSteroids•WaxesWaxes

The two types of fatty The two types of fatty acidsacids

•SaturatSaturateded

•UnsaturatUnsaturateded

Adenosine Adenosine triphosphatetriphosphate

The fuel of The fuel of living cellsliving cells

Nicotinamide Nicotinamide adenine adenine

dinucleotide dinucleotide (NAD(NAD++))

Small Small molecules molecules that act as that act as electron electron carrierscarriers

Nine Protein Nine Protein TypesTypes

Hydrophobic Amino AcidsHydrophobic Amino Acids

Hydrophilic Amino AcidsHydrophilic Amino Acids

Protein OrganizationProtein Organization

Protein OrganizationProtein Organization

Protein OrganizationProtein Organization

Covalent Covalent bondsbonds

Hydrogen Hydrogen bondsbondsIonic bondsIonic bonds

Protein OrganizationProtein Organization

van der van der Waals Waals interactioninteraction

Hydrophobic Hydrophobic interactionsinteractions

Protein OrganizationProtein Organization

Secondary Secondary StructureStructure

Tertiary Tertiary StructureStructure

Protein OrganizationProtein Organization

Quaternary StructureQuaternary Structure

EnzymeEnzymessProteins that function as biological Proteins that function as biological catalysts by lowering the energy of catalysts by lowering the energy of activation and speeding up chemical activation and speeding up chemical processesprocesses

Enzymes are substrate specific, much Enzymes are substrate specific, much like a lock and keylike a lock and key

Enzymes catalyze reactions without Enzymes catalyze reactions without being changed being changed

EnzymeEnzymessHow they work!How they work!

EnzymeEnzymessHow they work!How they work!

EnzymeEnzymessHow they work!How they work!

CofactorsCofactorsinorganic metal ionsinorganic metal ions

CaCa2+2+, Mg, Mg2+2+, Cu, Cu2+ 2+ and othersand others

change the shape of the enzymechange the shape of the enzyme

CoenzymesCoenzymesorganic molecules derived from organic molecules derived from vitaminsvitamins

NADNAD++ and FAD and FAD++ and others and others

carry Hcarry H++ and small molecules and small molecules

EnzymeEnzymess

Allosteric Allosteric sitesite

pH effects on pH effects on enzymesenzymes

Temperature Temperature effects on effects on enzymesenzymes

Regulation of activityRegulation of activityConcentration of enzymesConcentration of enzymes

Concentration of substratesConcentration of substrates

Concentration of cofactorsConcentration of cofactors

EnzymeEnzymess

Concentration of coenzymesConcentration of coenzymes

Various types of inhibitionVarious types of inhibition

EnzymeEnzymess

Allosteric Allosteric inhibitioninhibition

EnzymeEnzymess

CompetitivCompetitive e

inhibitioninhibition

EnzymeEnzymess Noncompetitive inhibitionNoncompetitive inhibition

EnzymeEnzymess

Feedback Feedback (end product) (end product)

inhibitioninhibition

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

Nucleic Nucleic AcidsAcids

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates

Pentose sugarPentose sugar

Hexose sugarHexose sugar

CarbohydraCarbohydratestes

DisaccharidesDisaccharides

CarbohydraCarbohydratestes

PolysaccharidesPolysaccharides

LipidsLipids

Lipid Lipid ClassesClasses

LipidsLipids

Phosphatidic AcidPhosphatidic Acid

LipidsLipids

Steroid Steroid ExamplesExamples