augmentative communication and literacy chapter 14
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Augmentative Communication and LiteracyChapter 14By Pat Mirenda and Karen A. Erickson
Autism and Augmentative Communication 1988 summary article stated no firm
conclusion on the efficacy of AAC interventions with ASD population
No current summary article completed between 1988- the 2000 printing of this book
This chapter examines the 1990’s as an up-to-date summary of AAC and Autism
Function vs. Form In typical development early forms of
communication are gradually improved upon by new forms and result in an integrated multimodal system
In intervention, promoting the use of early forms of communication in natural contexts is a good starting point for those who are “preintentional”
Function vs. Form The goal is the development of natural speech
and language, However, if this does not occur, a foundation
for later AAC intervention has been developed.
Comprehensive intervention supports concurrent development of both form and function of language
Function vs. FormInitial communication goals:1. Building intentionality, turn-taking, joint
attention, and initiation skills using unaided AAC techniques (gestures, vocalizations, and speech)
2. Expanding the individual’s repertoire of communicative functions beyond instrumental
Brief History of Symbol Use in Autism Symbol- something
that stands for something else
Two types:1. Unaided symbols2. Aided symbols
Referent- the “something else”
Symbols Unaided*gestures*vocalizations*facial expressions*body languageUsed by beginning
communicators often thought of as “preintentional”
Aided*requires some type of
external device for production (communication book, board, or computer)
Chimps, Chips, Signs, and Lexigrams Premack & Premack (1974 book chapter)
taught chimp to associate plastic shapes with words and she used them to communicate
Gardner & Gardner (1969, 1975) taught chimp to use sign language
Rumbaugh, Savage-Rumbaugh, & Boysen (1977, 1978) taught chimps to communicate using abstract lexigrams
Letters and Words Operant conditioning interventions
demonstrated that some individuals with autism could learn to associate words with their referents (1970’s)
Hyperlexia spurred interest in using orthographic symbols to help those with autism communicate (1980’s)
Visuospatial Symbols A natural match for the visuospatial strengths
demonstrated in autistic individuals-line drawings-photographs Widespread utilization of this approach by the
late 1980’s
Manual Signs and Visual-Graphic Symbol Research All people, regardless of the apparent extent of
their disability, can learn to communicate Both manual signs and visual-graphic symbols
hold particular promise for individuals with autism (Fay & Schuler, 1980)
Shift from use of manual signs to visual-graphic symbols occurred as a result of research in imitation, iconicity, and intelligibility
Imitation Research shows that the development of
expressive speech in children with autism is dependent on the mastery of imitation at the time of intervention (using manual signs)
Generalized imitation deficit in autism Motor coordination difficulties (apraxia)
correlated to the acquisition and use of signs by autistic individuals
Iconicity “Symbols having strong resemblance (visual
relationship)to referents are easier to learn” hypothesis (Fuller & Stratton, 1991)
Support in the literature Many of the most basic need and functional signs
fail the iconicity test Visual-graphic symbols capitalize on the
visuospatial strengths commonly seen in people with autism
Intelligibility Research supports the use of visual-graphic
symbols as opposed to manual signs Untrained communication partners are more
likely to be able to interpret meaning from pictures than from manual signs
Relationship between AAC and Speech Development Research shows communication transfers
from sign to spoken language when individual has mastered approximately 200 signs and begins chaining them together
Research also shows that some individuals remain mute and acquire only a few signs
There is potential for speech development in conjunction with manual signing ( it does not inhibit speech production)
Continued… Research on Picture Exchange
Communication System Research on VOCAs/System for Augmenting
Language Together results suggest that aided symbol
use does not inhibit development of speech in individuals with autism
The Role of Voice-Output Communication Aids and Computers Single level devices- deliver a limited number of
messages and are simple to operate Multi-level devices- deliver more than 20 messages
on two or more levels and are more difficult to program
Comprehensive devices-deliver multiple messages and have additional features including printers, calculators, large memory capacity, and the ability to interface with computers
Computer Software Used to support communication and literacy
development Research showed computer use also has a
positive effect on peer interactions and verbalizations (Panyan, 1984), problem-solving strategies (Jordan & Powell, 1990), motivation and behavior (Chen & Bernard-Opitz, 1993) and reading individual words (Hiemann, Neslon, Tjus, & Gillberg, 1995)
AAC interventions for Challenging Behavior Many empirical studies that show providing
receptive/expressive communication supports decreases occurrence of challenging behavior in individuals with autism
Augmentative Input StrategiesUsed to either communicate more effectively
with others or to understand communication from others.
1. Pictorial or written schedule*within-task*between-task*rules
Functional Communication Training Using AAC Functional Communication Training- teaching
individuals to use manual signs or other AAC techniques as “substitutes” for the “messages” underlying challenging behaviors
Research shows 3 basic messages:1. Attention (Pay attention to me)2. Tangibles ( I want _____)3. Escape (I don’t want to do this) FCT teaches use of more functional messages and
provides a positive alternative to challenging behaviors
Clinical and Educational Implications: AAC Interventions and Autism Complex task considering not only form but
function of language Careful assessment of types of symbols Instructional and facilitator supports May use electronic devices Communication opportunities must be
provided
Directions for Future Research: What strategies are most successful for developing natural
gestures and vocalizations for preintentional communicators? How much incidental modeling is needed for efficient
symbol learning? What are comparative outcomes of PECS and SAL
approaches with young children with autism How does use of augmented input strategies for behavioral
support affect communication and social development How much does availability of voice output technology
contribute to symbol learning, speech development, and receptive language development as compared with visual-graphic symbol use without
Autism and Literacy Facilitated communication created renewed
interest in the literacy learning potential of people with autism
Hyperlexia Appears most often in children with autism as
compared to other disability groups Specific characteristics:1. Word reading skills that exceed what is predicted or
expected2. Compulsive or indiscriminate reading of words3. Onset of ability between 2 and 5 years of age4. Onset of ability in the absence of direct instruction
Hyperlexia Evidence supports that hyperlexia stems
from a problem with general receptive language comprehension coupled with strong word recognition skills
Children with autism and hyperlexia do not differ dramatically from readers without disabilities: they both require background knowledge and language understanding to comprehend text
What is Literacy? Skill usually acquired through numerous
opportunities to interact with print in meaningful ways and receive appropriate instruction
Involves the interaction of several processes Defined as the combination of reading and writing Reading- silent reading comprehension Writing- translation of thoughts and words into
written text
Emergent Literacy and Readiness Perspectives Emergent Literacy Perspective-the ability to read
and write is acquired in much the same way as spoken language
Readiness Perspective-a within child characteristic; they are ready for reading and writing instruction when they have mastered the following set of skills:
1. shape, number, and color recognition2. Letter identification3. Pincer grasp
Children with Autism Research shows they can learn readiness skills They can learn to recognize and use isolated words No research regarding ability to comprehend
paragraph-length or longer text Research provides evidence that an intervention can
be used effectively to increase clause length, phrase length, and frequency of adjective and gerund use in both students without disabilities and those with autism
Center for Literacy and Disability Studies Preschool Project Comprehensive example of the potential for
Emergent Literacy Perspective Intervention in two phases: writing and
reading as focus Results suggest that children with autism
develop emergent reading and writing skills in much the same way as their typically developing peers
Sociocultural Model of Literacy Learning Multiple contexts influence literacy learning Individual’s abilities and disabilities are only one of
the contributing factors Attitudes and expectations of people in child’s
environment a factor Availability of accessible reading and writing
materials a factor Nature of the interactions between individual and
his/her literacy instructor a factor
Clinical and Educational Implications: Autism and Literacy What we do know is that we really don’t
know what type of intervention is best Should incorporate many aspects of
interventions that are known to work for literacy learning (Four Block Model)
Directions for Future Research How does Early literacy development according to
emergent literacy model apply to individuals with autism
Relationship between literacy learning and communication development?
To what extent can recommended practices in literacy instruction apply to autism?
Can people with autism be taught using a comprehensive approach?
How does the use of AAC graphic symbols impact literacy learning in people with autism?
Conclusion Social context is important both for communication
and learning Instruction must be embedded in relevant,
motivating social contexts AAC intervention should provide both receptive and
expressive supports Literacy supports should incorporate both decoding
and comprehension skills that are developmentally appropriate
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