assessing & promoting critical thinking

Promoting and Assessing

Critical Thinking

Topic Outline•Introduction•Defining Critical Thinking•Critical Thinking vs. Other Concepts•Ways that Inhibit Critical Thinking•Strategies that Enhance Critical Thinking•Assessing Critical Thinking•Conclusion

Define critical thinking.

Know whether it is discipline specific or a “generic” skill.

Know how to develop critical thinking.

Learn how to enhance it via learning experiences.

Know different approaches in measuring critical thinking.

Introductiona)Draw upon one’s knowledge base

in nursing & related sciencesb)Perform a myriad of psychomotor

skillsc)Interact effectively with individuals

and groups

PROMOTING AND ASSESSING Critical Thinking

Additional Abilities that Nurses Need•Work collaboratively with an interdisciplinary team•Provide evidence to support one’s actions•Draw reasoned conclusions•Document clearly and comprehensively

Additional Abilities that Nurses Need•Provide leadership that leads to positive change•Be unwilling to merely accept the status quo or tradition•Be creative•Connect ideas in unique ways

Additional Abilities that Nurses Need•Engage in dialogue with individuals and groups•Communicate effectively•Manage conflicting information•Have a questioning mind

Additional Abilities that Nurses Need•Make decisions despite gaps in information and knowledge•Have a “spirit of inquiry”•Contribute to nursing science development•Be reflective and contemplative

Additional Abilities that Nurses Need•Be open to new perspectives, interpretations, and alternatives•Think critically

One of the bodies that accredit nursing education programs which requires critical thinking be an outcome of nursing education programs and that faculty document the student’s ability in this area.

definitionA. Dressel and Mayhew (1954)

“Ability to define a problem, select pertinent information needed to solve the problem, recognize stated and unstated assumptions, formulate or select relevant and promising hypotheses, draw valid conclusions, and judge the validity of inferences.”

definitionA. Dressel and Mayhew (1954)B. Watson and Glacer (1964)

“A composite of attitudes of inquiry; knowledge of the nature of valid inferences, abstractions, and generalizations; and skills in employing and applying these attitudes and knowledge.”

a) Involves one’s frame of mind or attitude

b) It is a perspective through which one views all situations; not merely a “collection” of skills

definitionA. Dressel and Mayhew (1954)B. Watson and Glacer (1964)C. Sandra DeYoung (1995)

“Critical thinking is using the powers of the mind to view the world and to act in a discerning way. It includes having a questioning attitude, examining underlying assumptions, and considering the validity of alternative solutions in order to make reasoned judgments that are sensitive to context.”

definitionA. Dressel and Mayhew (1954)B. Watson and Glacer (1964)C. Sandra DeYoung (1995)D. Fairfield University

Critical thinking is a way of interacting with the world that is reflective, open and generative.

“Interacting with the world”

•Engaging with ideas and people•Being curious•Appreciating contextual influences•Being broad, not narrow

“Interacting with the world”

•Being aware of one’s own values•Being involved•Tolerates ambiguity & uncertainty•No tunnel vision

“Reflective”

•Sound knowledge base•Examining the whole•Being thoughtful•Examining assumptions

“Reflective”

•Being insightful•Drawing well-founded conclusions•Continuously looking at and investigating ideas & perspectives

“Open”

•Flexible and open to new ideas•Considers alternatives•Creative•Having intellectual curiosity

“Open”

•Continually rethinking issues, perspectives, points of view

“Generative”

•Creating new ideas•Proposing alternatives•Willing to grow and to take risks•Initiates change

Analysis ofOther definitions

a) A critical thinking is nonbiased, reasoned and truth oriented

b)Critical thinking involves making judgments

c)Thinking is critical if it holds up to certain evaluative criteria

Analysis ofOther definitions

d) Critical thinking is tied to a belief of action

e) Critical thinking is a “spirit”, an attitude, or an inclination to think about one’s thinking

Richard Paul (1993)

“Aspects of Critical Thinking”

Summarized the concept of critical thinking by identifying a number of aspects of it.

Richard Paul

“Intellectual Standards for Disciplining the Mind”

Criteria to judge whether a person’s thinking is critical.

Richard Paul

“Intellectual Standards for Disciplining the Mind”

“Critical” thinking is precise, deep, logical, relevant, accurate & significant.

Critical thinking• Identify and evaluate our

assumptions• Consider multiple perspectives• Articulate a point of view• Make decisions and

commitments

Critical thinking• Consider the consequences of

our decisions• Justify our beliefs and actions• Willing to modify our beliefs

and actions

definitionA. Dressel and Mayhew (1954)B. Watson and Glacer (1964)C. Sandra DeYoung (1995)D. Fairfield UniversityE. Ennis, Facione, Hager, Norris, etc.

“Critical thinking skills are generic, there is nothing different between critical thinking in one situation and critical thinking in another situation.”

definitionA. Dressel and Mayhew (1954)B. Watson and Glacer (1964)C. Sandra DeYoung (1995)D. Fairfield UniversityE. Ennis, Facione, Hager, Norris, etc.F. Barrow, McPeck

“Knowledge of a subject is a necessary condition for critical thinking in an area. There are different skills for different circumstances. Knowledge is a necessary condition for critical thinking and critical thinking is subject specific.”

definitionA. Dressel and Mayhew (1954)B. Watson and Glacer (1964)C. Sandra DeYoung (1995)D. Fairfield UniversityE. Ennis, Facione, Hager, Norris, etc.F. Barrow, McPeckG. National League of Nursing

“Critical thinking in nursing practice is a discipline specific, reflective reasoning process that guides a nurse in generating, implementing, and evaluating approaches for dealing with client care and professional concerns.”

“We don’t have to make human beings smart. They are born smart. All we have to do is to stop doing things

that make them stupid.”

What Inhibits it?1. Students only learn if they hear it from us.

SITUATION•Lectures are structured in a way where students have no questions to ask

RESULT•Students do not have to “struggle” to comprehend the material

SITUATION•Complicated materials are structured in an organized manner

RESULT•Students think clinical situations are not as complex as they may seem

What Inhibits it?1. Students only learn if they hear it from us.2. Expectation of perfection & reinforcement

of status quo

SITUATION•Faculty assumes students do not know how to problem solve or think critically

RESULT•Students end up being spoon-fed and not thinking independently how to solve a problem

SITUATION•“Mistakes are bad, costly and avoided”

RESULT•Students are discouraged from taking their first steps from which they could learn a lot in case they get it wrong the first time

SITUATION•“There is single best way to solve a problem”

RESULT•Learning becomes too objective for the students and they are discouraged to explore some options

SITUATION•“Certainty is good, faculty know best”

RESULT•Diminishes student’s confidence in the way they think and decreases the value of the options they think of when they problem solve

of status quo3. Desire to finish the coverage

SITUATION•Lecture format is used more often than it should

RESULT•Reduces the students to “little more than background”

SITUATION•Not overcoming the “addiction to coverage”

RESULT•The professor who dictates, the students who reiterate, the talking teacher and the quiet student

SITUATION•Teachers cram facts and information to learners

RESULT•Students do not have enough time to truly understand what they are learning

of status quo3. Desire to finish the coverage4. Structure of nursing curricula

SITUATION•Course is preselected; sequencing is scripted

RESULT•Students fail to think why they enrol the courses and to make choices from among alternatives

of status quo3. Desire to finish the coverage4. Structure of nursing curricula5. Assignments given to students

SITUATION•Question with low level of complexity and assignments with precise guidelines

RESULT•Learners do not have to think

of status quo3. Desire to finish the coverage4. Structure of nursing curricula5. Assignments given to students6. Manner of clinical teaching

SITUATION•Preceptors always take responsibility of making the students’ assignments

RESULT•Learners are not challenged to think

Inhibiting Critical Thinking

Advantages

• Takes the messiness out of it

• No questions for students to ask

• Saves time

Disadvantages

• Critical thinking is not promoted

• False impression that clinical situations are not as complex or difficult as they are

of status quo3. Desire to finish the coverage4. Structure of nursing curricula5. Assignments given to students6. Manner of clinical teaching

Vs. other concepts1. Problem solving

Problem Solving

Critical Thinking

•Uses knowledge and experience to address an immediate problem

Problem Solving

Critical Thinking

•A correct answer exists; only limited approaches will work

Problem Solving

Critical Thinking

•Long term perspective is not necessarily taken

•Reasoning about “open-ended” and ill-structured problems

Problem Solving

Critical Thinking

•Long term perspective is not necessarily taken

•On contrary, it operates all the time

Vs. other concepts1. Problem solving2. Scientific method

Scientific Method

Critical Thinking

•Linear, objective approach in problem solving

Scientific Method

Critical Thinking

•One is expected to minimize bias and involvement in the situation

•Reflective, involves “personal investment”, nonlinear

Scientific Method

Critical Thinking

•One is expected to minimize bias and involvement in the situation

•It does not focus on solving a problem or answering a question

Vs. other concepts1. Problem solving2. Scientific method3. Nursing process

Nursing Process

Critical Thinking

•A systematic linear approach

Nursing Process

Critical Thinking

•Includes assessing situations, outlining plans, taking action, & evaluating results

•No “steps” to follow, not linear, not specific to clinical situation, does not need an action

Vs. other concepts1. Problem solving2. Scientific method3. Nursing process4. Cognitive development

Cognitive Development

Critical Thinking

•How individuals reason and view knowledge

Critical Thinking

•How they manage diversity of opinion and conflicting points of view

Critical Thinking

•How individuals relate to the authorities as they come to know and understand

•Not focused on the nature of knowledge and relationships with the authority

Critical Thinking

•How individuals relate to the authorities as they come to know and understand

•A narrower concept

Vs. other concepts1. Problem solving2. Scientific method3. Nursing process4. Cognitive development5. Creativity

Creativity

Critical Thinking

•Imagination & spontaneity; artistic & free; original; intuitive; results to a novel product

•Logical, analytical & judgmental; no finished product (at first); evaluates the product’s worth

Vs. other concepts1. Problem solving2. Scientific method3. Nursing process4. Cognitive development5. Creativity

•Teachers and learners alike view learning as a shared responsibility. It is the educator’s responsibility to create an environment that supports this concept.•Teachers become mentors and facilitators.•They “push” and challenge learners while supporting them.•Egalitarian and democratic environment – learners feel empowered and share in the control of their learning process.•Doing less lecturing.

Enhancing itPROMOTING AND ASSESSING Critical Thinking

1. Discussion

Discussion

•Lecture should be limited to a small percentage of the class time•That means: depth of understanding > breadth of content•Only the most significant concepts are addressed•From straight lecture to lecture w/ comments and questions

Discussion

•The teacher role models critical thinking•Answers the question only when the students are unable to do so•A more effective strategy is when students think through the question they ask

Discussion

•Using this as a learning strategy is unpredictable•It may turn the classroom in to “a relatively chaotic affair” but it is a “controlled chaos”•Some answers of the students need to be corrected•Teachers give up control so students discover flaws in their thinking

Discussion

•Discussion actively holds the student’s thoughts more than lecture does•Irrelevant and passive thoughts occur more frequently with lecture•Discussion can be most effective in promoting student’s critical thinking

1. Discussion2. Text Interaction

Text Interaction

•Think critically about what they are reading & comparing it with other things they have read or experienced•Interact with the readings prior to class

Text Interaction

•Raise questions about what is presented•Note assumptions that are being made•Point out conflicting information•Recognizing unsupported conclusions•Note questions unanswered by the text

Text Interaction

•Text interaction helps students think about what they are reading•Students eventually develop a questioning attitude or a spirit of inquiry

1. Discussion2. Text Interaction3. Asking Effective Questions

Effective Questioning •Asking factual questions•Asking questions with many answers•Neither of these two methods of questioning stimulates the student’s use of critical thinking•Questions should be one notch higher

Effective Questioning •Questions with reasoned

responses•Questions that help student to explore and understand various points of view

Effective Questioning •Probe thinking or clarity•Hold individuals accountable of their thinking•Questions that move learners from mere enactment of the nursing role to the internalization of questions they need to ask themselves

Socratic Questioning

1. Socratic Questioning•All thoughts are treated as if

they are in need of further development no matter how reflective they may be.•Comments and questions are questioned back•Seek to understand the ultimate foundation of what is said

1. Socratic Questioning•Conceptual Clarification Questions

•Get them to think more about what exactly they are asking or thinking about. •Prove the concepts behind their argument. •Basic 'tell me more' questions that get them to go deeper.

•Why are you saying that? •What exactly does this mean? •What is the nature of ...? •Can you give me an example?•Are you saying ... or ... ?•Can you rephrase that, please? •How does this relate to what we have been talking about? •What do we already know about this?

Sample Questions

1. Socratic Questioning•Probing Assumptions

•Makes them think about the presuppositions and unquestioned beliefs on which they are founding their argument. •This shakes the bed rock!

•What else could we assume? •You seem to be assuming ... ?•Please explain why/how ... ?•What would happen if ... ?•Do you agree or disagree with ... ?• How did you choose those assumptions?•How can you verify or disprove that assumption?

Sample Questions

1. Socratic Questioning•Probing Rationale, Reasons &

Evidences•When they give a rationale for their arguments, dig into that reasoning rather than assuming it is a given. •People often use un-thought-through or weakly understood supports for their arguments.

•Why is that happening? •How do you know this?•Can you give me an example of that? •What do you think causes it?•Are these reasons good enough?•How might it be refuted?•How can I be sure of what you are saying? •On what authority are you basing your argument?•Why? (keep asking it -- you'll never get past a few times)

Sample Questions

1. Socratic Questioning•Questioning Viewpoints &

Perspectives•Most arguments are given from a particular position. So attack the position. Show that there are other, equally valid, viewpoints.

•Another way of looking at this is ..., does this seem reasonable? •How could you look another way at this?•Why it is ... necessary? •Who benefits from this? •What is the difference between... and...? •Why is it better than ...? •What are the strengths and weaknesses of...? •What if you compared ... and ... ? What would ... say about it?

Sample Questions

1. Socratic Questioning•Probe Implications &

Consequences•The argument that they give may have logical implications that can be forecast. Do these make sense? Are they desirable?

•Then what would happen?•What are the consequences of that assumption? •What are the implications of ... ? •How does ... affect ... ? •How does ... fit with what we learned before? •Why is ... important? •What is the best ... ? Why?

Sample Questions

1. Socratic Questioning•Questions about the Question

•And you can also get reflexive about the whole thing, turning the question in on itself. •Use their attack against themselves. •Bounce the ball back into their court.

•What was the point of asking that question? •Why do you think I asked this question?•What does that mean?

Sample Questions

Six Types of Socratic Questions

1. Conceptual Clarification Questions2. Probing Assumptions3. Probing Rationale, Reason, Evidence4. Questioning Viewpoints &

Perspectives5. Probe Implications & Consequences6. Questions about the Question

Structured Controversy

•Controversy is purposely produced•Learners argue for and against and issue•Much like debate, but there is a second round

II. Structured Controversy

•They use reasoned judgment, not just factual knowledge•Explore various issues facing the nursing profession•Examination of patient care situation

II. Structured Controversy

1. Discussion2. Text Interaction3. Asking Effective Questions4. Problem-Based Learning

Problem-Based Learning

•Students attempt to manage problems much like those that are found in clinical setting•Students are compelled to learn medications or pathophysiology

Problem-Based Learning

•Can be used as a teaching/learning strategy for a course or the entire curriculum•Students will learn in different speeds, sequences, learning circumstances

1. Discussion2. Text Interaction3. Asking Effective Questions4. Problem-Based Learning5. Concept Mapping

Concept Mapping

•Assist learners to “see” their own thinking and reasoning•They develop relationships among factors, note causes and effects, identify predisposing factors, & formulate expected outcomes

Concept Mapping

•Require students to draw on an extensive knowledge•Examine assumptions made about the concepts or the relationships among them•Think carefully about how “all the concepts fit together”

1. Discussion2. Text Interaction3. Asking Effective Questions4. Problem-Based Learning5. Concept Mapping6. Other Strategies

Other Strategies

•Case Studies

Case Studies

•Provide an open-ended problem that has more than one desirable outcome•Learners judge the advantages and disadvantages of various options, compare alternative solutions, justify choice of actions•Based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event

Case Studies

•Longitudinal examination including a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results•Help learners see more than one perspective and often points out assumptions in the face on incomplete information

Other Strategies

•Case Studies•Collaborative Learning

Collaborative Learning

•Knowledge can be created where members actively interact by sharing experiences •Rooted in the social nature of learning•Provides opportunities to complete assignments•Can be structured in an unlimited way

•Learners solve problems, critique each other’s work, learn from each other•Each individual depends on and is accountable to each other

Dyad Testing (Vinten & Ellet, 2001)•Pair of learns work together and respond to test questions•Both think about the worth of each answer option, argue why they may be right or wrong, and help each other in decision-making

Examples•Collaborative writing•Group projects•Joint problem solving•Debates•Study teams

Other Strategies

•Case Studies•Collaborative Learning•One-Minute Papers

One-Minute Papers

•One of the easiest and most enjoyable ways to think critically on a continuous basis•At the start of each session, a single sheet of paper with statements are given

The most important thing I learned in class today was…Summarize two conflicting points of view about…How clear was today’s lecture for you?

One-Minute Papers

•The participants are asked to respond to each statement before the sessions ends and to submit them before leaving•Feedback by the teacher should clarify areas of confusion, answer questions, and comment on the quality of responses

One-Minute Papers

•For the teacher, this helps ascertain students’ understanding of a particular class or getting a sense of how students would rate the course•This will help learners think about their thinking, ability to listen and understand, ability to process what they are hearing

Other Strategies

•Case Studies•Collaborative Learning•One-Minute Papers•Microthemes

Microthemes

•An example of writing-to-learn strategies•One- to two-page written analyses or thought papers about controversial topics•Involve rigorous writing in restricted space•Related to the course, repeated regularly, even on a weekly basis

Microthemes

•Initially, teacher critiques the thinking and arguments, but as time goes, learners follow the example set made by the teacher and critique their own or each other’s papers using preestablished standards of critical thinking

Microthemes

•Learners not only formulate positions on issues, but are challenged to evaluate the quality and soundness of thinking•Can effectively enhance critical thinking

Other Strategies

•Case Studies•Collaborative Learning•One-Minute Papers•Microthemes•Journals

Journals

•Excellent way to help learners reflect on their experiences, values, actions, and interactions with others•Narrative form encourages to fuse concepts learned with personal experiences•Offers a safe way to express oneself

Journals

•To be effective, feedback from the teacher is critical•Feedback must be thoughtful, reflective, nonjudgmental, focused, and extensive, as a way to role model critical thinking

Other Strategies

•Case Studies•Collaborative Learning•One-Minute Papers•Microthemes•Journals•Self-Assessment/Evaluation

Self Evaluation

•More than mere completion of forms•Help students to critique their own work, and form judgments about its strengths and weaknesses

Self Evaluation

•May mean harm to a person’s self-concept through realizing that they have not achieved as highly as they may like, but in the long run, they would want to work harder in order to achieve greater things in the future

Self Evaluation

•Prompt people to seek information to confirm their uncertain self-concept and use that to enhance their certainty of their own self-knowledge•Usually associated with self-enhancement

Self Evaluation

•Learners are given guidance how to complete the form•Helpful feedback and thoughtfulness of the assessment is given•Completed periodically throughout an experience (e.g. clinical rotation)

Examples

•Asking learners to identify 5 strengths & weaknesses impacting their learning•Asking them to discuss their growth from one point to the next•Asking them to reflect on the quality of thinking displayed in their practice

Other Strategies

•Case Studies•Collaborative Learning•One-Minute Papers•Microthemes•Journals•Self-Assessment/Evaluation•Others

Portfolios

•Used to plan, organize and document education, work samples and skills•Tracks personal development•More in-depth than a resume

Imagery

•In literature, refers to descriptive language that evokes sensory experience•May be visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile imagery•Example: The crimson liquid spilled from the neck of the white dove.

May also refer to art photography, and mental imagery

Concept Analysis/Clarification

•Explaining the definition and boundaries formed for the concept•Give examples and analogies

Other Strategies

•Case Studies•Collaborative Learning•One Minute Papers•Microthemes•Journals•Self-Assessment/Evaluation•Others

1. Discussion2. Text Interaction3. Asking Effective Questions4. Problem-Based Learning5. Concept Mapping6. Other Strategies7. Positive Learning Environment

Positive Learning EnvironmentEducators need to create a

positive learning environment for students to feel safe, respected, and supported to engage in experiences that may make them uncomfortable.

A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT•Affirms learners’ self-worth•Shows support for their efforts•Reflects and mirrors their ideas•Encourages interactions between and among learners

AN ENVIRONMENT WHERE•People listen attentively to one another•Opportunities are created for interaction•Learners feel safe to share ideas and take risks

Students need a place where they can “follow their own

wrong path” with confidence.

WHAT A TEACHER DOES TO IMPOSE A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

•Uses silence to encourage reflection•Introduces controversy and then helps learners how to manage it•Does not suggest his way of thinking is the only way or one right way; it is an only one approach

•Must be able to say “I don’t know”•Must be able to not need to be on “center stage”•Gradually minimizes support and maximizes strategies that are challenging

•Provides with support in the form of structure, guidance, concrete examples, opportunities for direct experiences, a high degree of personalism, congruence, and the use of many senses

Teachers must model how to take risks, convey organization and

competence, minimize the pain of making a mistake, and

provide risk-taking opportunities.

They must balance challenge and support to encourage

critical thinking.

Learners are challenged by freedom to choose, flexibility,

self-direction, abstract thinking, reflective thinking, independent functioning, peer collaboration, diverse perspectives and values,

conflicting information, vagueness, and uncertainty.

1. Discussion2. Text Interaction3. Asking Effective Questions4. Problem-Based Learning5. Concept Mapping6. Other Strategies7. Positive Learning Environment

assessmentPROMOTING AND ASSESSING Critical Thinking

1. Watson-Glacer Critical Thinking Appraisal2. California Critical Thinking Skills Test3. California Critical Thinking Dispositions

Inventory4. Learning Environment Preference5. Critical Thinking in Clinical Nursing

Practice/RN Test6. Non-Standardized Tests

Critical thinking is composite of attitude, knowledge and skills.

Watson-Glacer Thinking Appraisal (WGCTA)

An 80-item test available in Forms A & BReliability between .69 & .85.

Scores are reported in five specific skill areas.Inference, recognition of assumptions, deduction, interpretation, & evaluation of arguments

The test is discipline neutral.

1. Watson-Glacer Critical Thinking Appraisal2. California Critical Thinking Skills Test

Measures critical thinking skills in relation to short problem statements and scenarios.

California Critical Thinking Skills Test

A 34-item multiple-choice format test, in Forms A & B.Reliability of .70 to .71

Skill areas measured are analysis, evaluation, inference, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, self-regulation.

It is also discipline neutral.

Inventory

It measures critical thinking tendencies in relation to Likert-type attitudinal prompts.A 75-item instrument with a reliability of .90

California Critical Thinking Dispositions Inventory

In addition to an overall score, individuals receive a score in each of the elements used to define critical thinking dispositions.

These are: Truth-seeking, open-mindedness, analyticity, systematicity, critical thinking self-confidence, inquisitiveness, cognitive maturity.

Inventory4. Learning Environment Preference

Less commonly used testBased on Perry’s scheme of cognitive/intellectual development and is intended to measure that broader concept.

Learning Environment Preference

Measures the five domains related to epistemology and approaches to learning: view of learning, role of the instructor, role of the student & his peers, the classroom atmosphere and activities, the role of evaluation in learning.

Learning Environment Preference

Practice/RN Test

Specifically designed for nursing, published by NLN.A 120-item test with a reported liability of .88

Critical Thinking in Clinical Nursing Practice/RN Test

Reflects the 21 critical thinking behaviours that relate to the broad critical thinking skills of interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inferences, & explanation.

Also reflects the nursing process and nine areas of nursing content.

Concept Maps

•Hierarchical organization of concepts within the map•Appropriateness and validity of relationships among concepts•Number and significance of connections made•Completeness of information included in the map

Criteria for Evaluation

Identified Indicators

•Admits bias and inclination•Shows tolerance for different viewpoints•Identifies relationships•Suspends or revises judgment as indicated by new or complete data

Observed Behaviours

What one actually does – not merely what one says or what score one

receives on a cognitive test – is the true measure of one’s abilities, values,

and so on, including one’s critical thinking skills.

•Papers•Journals•Teaching Plans•Other items that document growth in thinking

The Portfolio Includes

conclusionPROMOTING AND ASSESSING Critical Thinking

Promoting critical thinking skills is not a goal that can be accomplished in one course or in one learning experience, or through the efforts of a single teacher.

Efforts in helping learners grow in their critical thinking abilities must be integrated throughout an entire program or experience; focus should be on continual growth, not on perfection.

Educators should become facilitators of learning.

“It is difficult perhaps impossible for learners to develop critical thinking when the educator is doing all the thinking.” (Kurfiss, 1989)

Learners whose educational experience focuses on helping them develop critical thinking will:

1. participate more in class; 2. be more willing to discuss mistakes; 3. take responsibility for themselves and their

continued learning; 4. collaborate more effectively with peers & faculty; 5. have fewer prejudices.

assessing & promoting critical thinking

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