aqa physical education phed 3. evaluating contemporary influences the olympic ideal
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AQA Physical Education
PHED 3
Evaluating Contemporary Influences
The Olympic Ideal
History of Sport
Sport reflects society• When society was so was sport• When position in society became
accepted, so did their position in sport• As society becomes more so
does sport
cruelwomen’s
technological
A Time LinePre 1800 –
popular recreation - class dominated
Post 1870 – Olympism –
modern sports and ethics
1830-1850 - industrialisation -
rise of middle classes
1850-1870 – rational recreation – development of
sports
Popular recreation – pre-1800
Two classes• Rich landowners – • Poor farmers – • Lack of time and • Recreation – , and
• Idea of
power
working the land
leisure income
festivals fetes
seasonal holidays
popular recreation
Characteristics of popular recreation
• Working classes• Local, and • Occasional / - • Few (unwritten) • Physical force rather than • • rather than • equipment and facilities
rural traditional
spontaneous festivals
rules
skill
Violent
spectating
Simple
Participation
Industrialisation
Changes to society• classes moved to towns - • • replacing • Poor working conditions – hours a day, 6
days a week – Sundays - • Limits to leisure
Working work
UrbanisationFactories ‘crafts’
12church
time
Effects on sport
• No time, space, energy for
• Popular recreations seen as • Conditions improved – increased
• Bank holidays for excursions – to – more
traditional sports
uncivilised
participation spectating facilities
seasidedisposable income
Rise of a middle class
• People below but above
classes• Made money during industrialisation –
• Wanted society based on • Led the way in reforming ,
aristocracy
working
factory owners businessmen
merit
education
local government welfare of poor
Effects on sport
• Sports invented – • Transport improved – fixtures,
competitions, interest • Time-keeping improved - • Growth of spectating – • Printing produced • – more informed
public
rugby, tennis‘away’
mediastop-watches
professionalismpopular press
Compulsory education
Rational recreation
• Popular recreations • for sport in towns – only• Upper and middle classes wanted
• Need to unruly rabble• Problems with • Middle classes playing sports at
died out
No space
disciplined workforcecontrol
health
school / university
pubs
Codification
• Systematic definition of of activity and of behaviour
• agreed rules at
• Led to and allows for on equal level
rulesrules
Ex-public schoolboys
university
fixtures competition
Characteristics of rational recreation
• Regular • Complex rules – • and participating• not force-based• Developed by classes• and based• Use of complex and
participation
written highly structuredSpectating
Skill-based
middle
Regionally nationally
equipment facilities
Typical question
Many National Governing Bodies of sport were set up in England during the period
between the late 1800s and early 1900s. Why was it necessary to form these
governing bodies and why did some of them prevent professionals from competing in their sport?
(5 marks)
Answer
• Ex-public schoolboys/middle classes;• Universities;• Codification;• Rules agreed; • Ethics/fair play;• Organisers/administrators;• Competitions/fixtures;• Maintain amateur status;• Exclude working classes/maintain exclusivity;• Social status maintained;• Working classes too good;
Social reform• Middle classes – ‘ ’ of
working class’ - organised activities – , clubs ( ),
• Social conscience – and conditions• Increased care of poor – and
provided• – social reformers
civilising/moralising
sport working men’s clubs
societiesimproved working
living
baths parks
Philanthropists
Amateurism
• Based on 19th century upper classes –
• Play for rather than financial gain
• Taking part more important • Play fair • Abide • Exclusion
gentleman amateurslove of sport
than winning
– sportsmanshipby the rules
of lower classes
Amateurism
• Difficult to maintain in • pressures and
• Professionals• But no
21st century
monetary rewardsnow allowed at Olympics
Commercial
appearance or prize money
Athleticism• Physical endeavour
• To produce gentleman with
• Strong moral code – • Physical qualities – • Spiritual links – godliness and manliness –
with moral integrity• Public schools
honour
teamwork
healthy lifestyle
Muscular Christianity
courage leadership
conformity
Olympism
• Not • Striving to win -• Taking part
• Sport for
• Individuals performing
teams/Nations
fairly
more important than winning• Amateur – for the love of sport
education• Cultural exchange
Still relevant in modern sport
Respect for rules and others
PE in schools stresses moral
values
Olympics biggest sporting stage
Fair play awards
Athletes as role models Sport dysfunctional
without rules
Doping illegal
Lets everyone take part – do your best
Less relevant in modern sport
Traditional values hinder hunger for
success
Other countries – Lombardian ethic
Commercialism - need to be best
Based on a non-existent
class
More elite professionals
than amateurs
Professional sports in OlympicsValues less
important – sport and the law
Professional Sport• Early concept – • Allows • Early 19th century forms –
• Performers• Excluded
• Amateur and professional -
Romanssocial mobility
pedestrianism, prize-fighting
from lower classes
by gentleman amateurs
divided by class
Professional Sport Structure
• Lower classes –
• Middle classes –
• Upper classes –
agents, promoters, managers
performer
patrons (sponsors)
Professional Sport
• Increasing numbers of • High status –• Paid by results – - pressure• Develops attitude• Leads to deviant behaviour –
• Money from
- pressure
professionals
media coverage
need success‘win at all costs’
aggression
sponsorship
gamesmanship cheating drugs
endorsements
Why does society regard elite sports performers so highly?
• Media –
• Winning and earnings
• Part of
high profile
• Role modelsgiven high status
• Lombardian ethic
entertainment industry
• Social mobility
Why higher status for amateurs than professionals in 19th century?
• Based on • Professionals from –
patronage
• Attempts to exclude• Amateurs –• Power -
class superiority
moral code applied
lower classes
lower classes
looked up to
ran sports
Professional performer - a commercial object?
• Signs contract –• Can be • Brings in money through
• Exploit image for company goals –
• Financial rewards
like a business
‘hired and fired’
advertising
marketability
based on results
endorsements
Pressures of being a role model?
• Media - invasion of privacy – private lives as important as
• Behaviour influences young people – need for
• Need to ‘perform’ all the time – leads to
and playing when • Highly competitive environment –
ability
‘clean’ image
injured
stress
overtraining
Olympism
• Competing with spirit of • more important than • performersSymbols:• Olympic • Olympic • Tending to disappear due to needed to compete
sportsmanship
Taking part winning
Amateur
rings
oath
financial support
Typical question
(a) How does the modern-day amateur differ from the amateur of the early 20th century (1900-1920)? (5 marks)
(b) What factors were responsible for the change in the status of professional performers from the early 20th century to modern day? (3 marks)
Answers(a) Early 20th C (Sub max 3 per section):Amateur had high status in sport/society/ were best players;Although professionals could out perform in some sports;Controllers of sport/selected teams/formed NGB’sMember of middle/upper classes/gentleman amateur – accept reverseHad sufficient income/leisure time for support playing of sport;Avoided playing against working classes/ working classes excluded from amateur; Today (Sub max 3 per section):Some amateurs receive money/sponsorship/appearance money/scholarships;Where professional sports exist, amateurs often unable to compete at same level;Amateurs tend not to have high sport/social status/ professionals now have high status;Blurring of amateur/professional distinction/professional in the Olympics;Sports changed from amateur to professional code 5 marks
(c) Social prejudice against professional has now disappeared/all classes can competeThough may still exist in some management echelons/levels in some sports;People now respected for their talents/abilities;Or their efforts in reaching an elite level;Rewards for professionals now very large/media interest/sponsorship;Encourages more to take up professional sport; Professionals have money/resources/time to put into training; Laws exist to prevent discrimination. 3 marks
Contract to compete
• Mutual agreement to • Striving to win – • Allow opponents to • Sportsmanship -
abide by the rules
make 100% effort
demonstrate skills
etiquette of sport
Striving for personal excellence
Rule structureKeep to rules otherwise no competition
Sport is lost if try to win by unfair means
Play to best ability
Allow others to demonstrate
skills
Commitment to sport
Contract to Compete
Ethics
Sportsmanship v Gamesmanship
SportsmanshipGamesmanship• Fair play • Bending the rules to
gain advantage• Rules – written and unwritten observed
• Losing gracefully• Fairness, generosity• E.g. kicking the ball
out of play when player injured
• E.g. tying laces before important serve/time-wasting
• Rules not broken• Unethical, tactics to
put opponent off
Sportsmanship v Gamesmanship
Sportsmanship Gamesmanship
Allows game to run
Admired by Spectators
Makes experience positive
Promotes good will
Ethical basis of play
Provides sport with a set of morals
Disrupts game
Destroys spirit of game
Causes trouble
Officials, spectators fellow players suffer
Detract from personal achievement.
Making sport work
Dysfunctional actionsFunctional actions• Arguing with referee • Give ball back to
opposition after injury• Appealing for everything
• Deliberately fouling
• Diving to gain foul
• Deliberately wasting time
• Taking drugs
• Clapping opposition after losing
• Lending opposition player if short
• Admitting fouls - snooker
Decline in SportsmanshipEvidence Solutions
More sports-related prosecutions
Emphasis on winning
Bigger rewards
Spectator behaviour encourages aggression
Media hype promotes rivalry
Fair play schemes
Positive role models – especially for children
Better officiating - use of technology
Punish negative behaviour
Encourage codes of conduct
Typical question
Many elite sports have a high public profile and offer the performers extrinsic rewards.
(a)Explain what is meant by the term gamesmanship and give examples of its use in different sporting situations. (3 marks)
(b)Discuss to what extent the Lombardian ethic may have a detrimental effect upon the ‘contract to compete’. (4 marks)
Answers(a) Gamesmanship – art of winning games by cunning means without actually cheating/breaking the rules;Not follow the etiquette of the game;Not declare a foul/admit to a foul/contradict/deceive official/claim for a decision knowing it’s not theirs;Verbal sledging/abuse/distraction of opponent;Time wasting/delay play;Pre-match psyching out tactics. 3 marks
(b) Lombardian ethic – winning is everything/second is nowhere;Encourages performers to win/try as hard as possible within rules;May break rules/ethics/etiquette/aggression;But this is OK – within ethics/characteristics of activity/accepted as part of game;Allow others to do same – need to try ones best;But temptation to take drugs/equiv; max 4
Evaluating Contemporary Influences
Deviance
Deviancy in Sport
• Deviant behaviour – against societies
• Criminal deviant – • Morally deviant – against what is normally
accepted as ‘ ’ behaviour – varies within society subgroups
norms and values
against the law
good
Deviancy
• Intentional breaking of rules or of sport – has detrimental effect
• Cheating – • Accepting / illegal /
• / • Breaks
ethics
dives fouls drugs
bribes betting
transfer bungsHooliganism player violence
contract to compete
Causes of deviancy
• Individuals lacking • Individuals valuing winning above possible
or • Rewards to resist temptation• Some deviant behaviour is becoming
• Punishment due to pressures or possible
moral restraint
punishment loss of respect
too great
acceptable
insufficient commerciallegal action
Player violence
• Spontaneous or planned
Causes:
• Instinct theory
• Frustration-aggression hypothesis
• Social learning theory
• Crowd incitement
Controlling players
• Support • players• Use of / • Use with good discipline• awards• Training for players – • Training for officials –
official’s decisions
Punish
video evidence citing officers
role models
Fair play
anger management
dealing with angry players
Leader’s responsibilities
• Set • • offenders• Keep offenders away from
• Avoid over- of certain individuals• Get players to control own • Avoid attitude
good example
Code of conduct
Punish
stressful situations
arousalarousal
win at all costs
Hooliganism - • Racist / obscene chanting• Fighting – other fans / police• Vandalism• Pitch invasions• Often large-scale – organised• Within stadia or outside
Spectator violence
Explanations - 1. Ritualised behaviour2. Outlet for aggression against society3. Tribal - group mentality4. Resistance of working class to change5. Tension on pitch6. Sub groups - BNP/ NF7. Team rivalry
Hooliganism
But - 1. Not always2. Not just working class3. Not all fans local; not other sports4. Not just working class5. Not in other sports6. Limited infiltration7. Not in other sports
Hooliganism
Antecedents - • Violence on Pitch• Importance of game• Alcohol• Unemployment• Boredom• Resistance to change• Sub groups - BNP/ NF
Hooliganism
Controlling Hooliganism
• Segregation • Extra
• Ban• All• Family
of fans/banning of away fans
policing/stewards/ID cards• CCTV/police intelligence
on alcohol consumption
-seater stadia
enclosures
• Segregation of fans – poor treatment of away fans
• Threat to teams / players of bans – loss of income / recognition
• Huge costs of policing / stewards / CCTV
• Poor reputation of country
Consequences of Hooliganism
Typical question
Hooliganism at football matches, both inside and outside stadia, is a recurring problem.
(i) Describe three steps that have been taken to prevent such acts. (3 marks)
(ii) Discuss three reasons that have been put forward as too why football should suffer from Hooliganism. Comment on the validity of these reasons. (6 marks)
Answers(i) CCTV in grounds;Prevention of troublemakers travelling to matches/ban/equiv;Banning of alcohol within grounds/ drunks/ moving kick off times;Close local establishments/pubs/bars/ equiv;Segregation of rival fans;Restriction /control of ticket sales/ family areas/ Identity cards;All seater stadia;Increased stewarding/ policing/ policing the streets around the stadia;Better police intelligence;Better player behaviour;Fine team/country/close stadia;
3 marks
Answers(ii) Working class males releasing aggressive tendencies/ masculinity/macho - No
evidence that working class males are any more or less aggressive than other males/ female hooligans.
Tribalism – protection of local area from ‘invading’ opposition fans/religious differences/ old rivalries/ some hooligans travel to their ‘home’ ground; - will go to an away ground to commit violent acts.
Nationalism – seeing other country’s/ teams fans as the enemy. - not all international spectators behave like this/eg Scotland; other sports/ don’t follow the crowd
Reaction by working class fans to the take-over of football by middle class spectators. - hooligans come from wide social backgrounds.
Replacement factor/football grounds becoming community focus after rebuilding of working class areas/football, the new religion. - If this were the case, why should it lead to acts of violence?
Political notions linked to racism etc by neo-nazi groups /media exposure. likely that hooliganism is multi-causal.
De-skilling of working class males, loss of traditional industries leading to lack of self value and self worth within society/ unemployment. suggestion that hooliganism is a symptom of society, not football
Status of the game/ media hype/ on pitch action/ alcohol /on pitch behaviour is controlled;Lack of action in the past by authorities; Thrill seeking/adrenaline rush/habitual;
Drugs in Sport
Ergogenic Aid:
WADA:
PED -
any substance that helps performance
World Anti-Doping Agency
Performance-Enhancing Drug
Why performers may use drugs
• Lack morality – • Assume everybody else is – • with drugs• Unaware of drugs • Unaware of • to achieve• Temptation to
cheat
why not me
Success only achievable
- given by coaches
health risks
Outside pressure
speed up recovery
Battle against drugs• Provide • those proved to have used drugs • Educate young against • Ensure performers aware of
if they take PEDs• Ensure performers aware of what is/what is
not and what their are
testing regimes
Punish
use of drugs
consequences
allowed responsibilities
Role of WADA
• 2003 - • Anti-doping • Signatories include , all Olympic
sports and Governments• Promotes research into • Produces list of • Helps national bodies produce • Helps poorer nations
World Anti-doping Code
polices, rules and regulations
IOC80
drug detection
banned substances
policiestest performers
UK anti-drug Policy
• Responsibility – – organises tests
• 2009 – new agency in charge -
• provides list of athletes involved• Testing • Miss a test or give insufficient information
= ‘ ’ – 3 strikes in = ban
UK Sport
National Anti-Doping Organisation - NADO
NGB
in and out of competition
strike 18 months
Stamp out drugs
• Educate performers about • Ensure performers clear about their
responsibilities and • Increase number of • Increase punishment for • Use to encourage
young performers to not use PEDs.• Continue to develop • Use the law -
health hazards
result of positive testno warning tests
proven drug usepositive role models
better testsmake taking of PEDs illegal
Drug testing
• Not same for all in UK• Performer notifies NADO of • Tester arrives • Urine • Strict - • Not all drugs• If first sample • Blood testing
sample
procedure 2 samples
leave traces in urine
positive – 2nd sample tested more valid, but more invasive
sportswhereabouts
unannounced at any time
Legalise Drugs in Sport
For Against
Save time/money
Aids spectacular performances
Some undetectable
Competitors should make own opinion
Everyone at same level
Health risk
Dysfunctional role models
Pressure to take drugs
Unfair - cheating
Destroy competition ethos
The Strategy Today
Punishment
Testing –
Education Role models
random; at international level; more efficient; out of season
Severe
Punish suppliers
Schools - inform about risks of drugs
Public education
Use positive role model
Negative role model - name and shame
Typical question
‘Elite sport performers should be allowed to use performance enhancing drugs just like any other training aid.’
Discuss this statement (5 marks)
AnswerYesBattle against drugs is expensive/time consuming;Detection not effective/always behind chemists;Difficult to define drug as compared to aid/supplement;Sacrifices performer makes to achieve success is personal;High performance leads to more spectators/sponsors/money;Level playing field for all;NoSide effects are dangerous/health risks;Young tempted to use them/role model effect;Coaches/peer pressure may force performers to use drugs;Sport about using natural talent;Drug use outside this concept;Cheating/unethical;Costly; max 5
Sport and the Law
• Bosman ruling –
• No restriction within EU of where to work –
• Right of drug bans• Illegal for players to bet on matches –
• Civil actions for
freedom to change clubs at end of contract
cannot limit number of foreigners
appeal against
match fixing
injuries sustained in games
Sport and the law
• Match officials – open to ;
• Managers/agents – ‘ ’;
• Spectators – open to
bribesduty of care
bungs
stadium disasters
prosecution
corruption
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