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APPRAISAL OF THE IMPACT OF A COMMUNITY-DRIVEN
DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (FADAMA II) IN ADAMAWA
STATE, NIGERIA
Umar Adamu Madu
Doctor of Philosophy
Community and Youth Development
2013
i
APPROVAL PAGE
I certify that I have supervised and read this thesis and that in my own opinion it conforms to
acceptable standard of scholarly presentation and fully adequate in scope and quality as a thesis
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
__________________
Dr John Phoa C.L.
Supervisor
_____________________
Prof. Dr Hew Cheng Sim
2ND
Supervisor
This thesis was submitted to the Faculty of Social Sciences, UNIMAS and is accepted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
__________________________
Prof. Dr Spencer
Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences, UNIMAS
ii
DECLARATION AND COPY RIGHT
Name: Umar Adamu Madu
Matric. Number: 10011466
I hereby declare that this thesis is based on my original work and investigation, except where
otherwise stated. All sources of data or information used in this thesis are acknowledged and a
list of references is appended.
Signature: …………………………………
Date: ……………………………………...
Copyright by Umar Adamu Madu and
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
iii
ACKNOWLDGEMENT
I am most grateful and eternally indebted to the Almighty God for giving me the opportunity to
partake in this academic exercise, to Him be the honour for all the great things He has done for
me, my family and friends. May I also humbly and heartily appreciate the support and assistance
rendered to me by the following persons, groups and organizations in making this study a
success.
Dr John C.L Phoa supervised this study. I sincerely appreciate his disposition and prompt
attention, mentoring this work from scratch to finish, irrespective of his other tight assignments
within and outside UNIMAS. He has indeed acted not only as a mentor to me, but as a guardian,
parent and supporter. Professor Dr Hew Cheng Sim assisted and contributed immensely in
supervising this study. She made available some useful literature, useful suggestions and assisted
greatly in mentoring this study. Let me once more humbly appreciate her untiring support and
assistance to make my stay in Sarawak happy and lively.
I am highly grateful to Dr Poline Bala for her contribution, support and valued
encouragements. Dr Peter Nwanesi’s contribution to my initial work arrangement and assisting
with good number of literature as well as making some useful observations to this work was a
source of great inspiration to me. I will be highly indebted, if I did not acknowledge the untiring
support I received from the members of the Faculty of Social Sciences. My appreciation
especially goes to the Dean, Prof. Spencer Empading Sanggin and Deputy Dean Postgraduate,
Associate Prof. Dr Neilson Ilan Mersat for providing me with conducive environment capable of
facilitating my study.
iv
My special thanks go to Dr Ja’afar Furo, my head of department who encouraged me to
take up the study. His support and valued encouragement is highly appreciated. I also thank the
entire staff of the Adamawa state Fadama II office that made some useful literature and Fadama
II reports and bulletins available. Also of worthy to mention is the assistance rendered to me by
some Fadama II facilitators during the field work. I highly appreciate their relentless efforts.
I feel highly indebted without acknowledging the effort of the Education Trust Fund
(ETF) for making this study a reality. In fact, I owe ETF greatly if I did not divulge its effort for
giving me the opportunity to study oversea. I also thank the Adamawa State University (ADSU)
for making me, one of the beneficiaries of the ETF grant. I really feel honoured by the University
for giving me the opportunity to access the fund.
I respectfully appreciate my late parents whose peaceful philosophy had kept the family
united. Much thanks to my wife and my children for their patience, prayers and understanding.
Apart from my long absence from them, the family savings has really suffered a set back as a
result of this research work.
Finally, I am grateful to all my friends, brothers, sisters and well wishers who prayed and
looked forward for the successful completion of this study. No mention of names is important
here as they are too numerous to mention.
v
ABSTRACT
The community-driven development (CDD) approach has increasingly become fashionable due
to its impending capabilities to develop projects that are sustainable, receptive to local priorities,
empower local communities and targeting of the poor and vulnerable groups. The purpose of this
study is to assess the impact of Fadama II project, which is a CDD project and the first of its
kind in Nigeria. It is also the largest agricultural and rural development project in Nigeria. The
project focused on increasing the incomes of Fadama Users on sustainable basis via
empowerment in terms of capacity building, advisory services, acquisition of productive assets
and rural infrastructure development. This study used propensity score matching (PSM) to select
300 comparable project beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. The study also used double
difference methods to compare the impact indicators. T-test analysis was used to compare means
and determine impact of the project apart from descriptive statistics used. Net Present Value
(NPV) was also used to determine economic viability of the productive assets acquired. The
results show that Fadama II project succeeded in targeting the poor and women farmers in its
activities. Participation in the project also increased the income of beneficiaries by about 60.8
percent, which is well above the targeted increase of only 20 percent in the six years period of
the project. Fadama II has as well successfully implemented its CDD approach, as community
members were given voice to decide for the planning and implementation of projects meant to
touch their lives. The value of productive assets has increased significantly among the
beneficiaries. The value of group assets increased more than individual assets. Regarding rural
infrastructure investments, Fadama II project had positive impacts on beneficiaries’ access to
market and reduced transportation cost. The study also revealed surprising effects on
beneficiaries’ commercial behavior and statistically significant impacts on nonfarm activities.
The study observed that Fadama II increased the demand for postharvest handling and marketing
information technologies but did not have a significant impact on the demand for financial
management. Fadama II reduced the demand for soil fertility management technologies. The
decline likely reflects the project’s focus on providing post-production advisory services and
suggests the need for the project to increase its support for soil fertility management and thus
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limit the potential for land degradation resulting from increased agricultural production. Conflict
has been reduced among the community members as a result of participation. The findings have
also revealed that the project has enhanced the capacities of the beneficiaries to cope with their
activities. The project has also succeeded in targeting the poor and vulnerable groups and
increased short-term household incomes among the core poor group significantly. The unique
feature that could have contributed to the significant impact of the project in a short time is its
participatory and demand driven approach that gives voice to the communities. It is also
attributed to its broad-based strategy of using CDD model, which addresses the major constraints
limiting the success of projects that do not take into consideration the interest of the community
members. It is concluded therefore, that the strategy of participatory and demand-driven
development should take a centre stage in any rural development process. This has implications
on planning poverty reduction efforts in low-income countries. CDD project that simultaneously
considers communities’ demand and addresses many constraints will likely build synergies that
will lead to larger impacts than will a top-down project. This suggests the need for the
government and donors to pool resources and initiate multipronged CDD projects rather than
many isolated and service oriented projects.
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ABSTRAK
Komuniti penggerak pembangunan (CDD) merupakan pendekatan yang semakin mendapat
perhatian berikutan keupayaannya dalam membangunkan projek yang lestari dengan memberi
keutamaan kepada penduduk tempatan melalui pemerkasaan di samping mampu untuk mengenal
pasti golongan sasaran dengan lebih berkesan. Tujuan kajian adalah untuk menilai impak
projek Fadama II iaitu projek pembangunan pertanian dan desa yang terbesar di Nigeria yang
turut menjadikan komuniti sebagai penggerak kepada pembangunan. Fokus utama projek
Fadama II adalah untuk memastikan kelestarian pendapatan penduduk yang terlibat melalui
pemerkasaan dari segi pembinaan keupayaan, khidmat nasihat, perolehan aset yang produktif
dan pembangunan infrastruktur luar bandar. Kajian ini menggunakan “propensity score
matching (PSM)” untuk memilih 300 responden yang ferdiri jaripada peserta dan bukan peserta
yang setanding daripada proket Fadama II di samping menggunakan kaedah perbezaan
berganda (double difference method) untuk membuat perbandingan antara petunjuk-petunjuk
impak. Di samping penggunaan statistik deskriptif, analisis Ujian-T juga turut digunakan untuk
membandingkan nilai min dalam mengenal pasti impak projek tersebut. Penggunaan Nilai Kini
Bersih dalam kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti kebolehupayaan ekonomi dalam
memperoleh aset yang produktif. Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa projek Fadama II telah
berjaya mensasarkan aktiviti projek kepada golongan sasaran iaitu golongan petani miskin dan
golongan wanita. Penglibatan dalam projek ini juga telah meningkatkan pendapatan pihak
berkepentingan sebanyak 60.8 peratus yang jauh melebihi sasaran asal sebanyak 20 peratus
sepanjang tempoh enam tahun projek tersebut. Pendekatan CDD yang digunakan merupakan
faktor kejayaan kepada projek Fadama II ini berikutan peluang yang diberkan kepada komuniti
tempatan untuk menyuarakan pendapat dalam menentukan perancangan dan pelaksanaan
projek yang akan mempengaruhi kehidupan komuniti tempatan tersebut. Peningkatan nilai aset
produktif bukan sahaja berlaku dalam kalangan pihak berkepentingan secara individu tetapi
juga secara berkelompok. Dari segi pelaburan infrastruktur luar Bandar pula, projek Fadama II
telah memberi kesan positif kepada pihak yang berkepentingan iaitu akses terhadap pasaran dan
pengurangan pengangkutan. Hasil kajian juga mendapati bahawa wujudnya impak yang
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signifikan antara perlakuan komersial pihak berkepentingan dan aktiviti bukan pertanian. Hal
ini dapat dilihat apabila wujudnya peningkatan permintaan terhadap teknologi maklumat untuk
tujuan pemasaran dan pengendalian hasil pertanian selepas penuaian namun impak ke atas
permintaan terhadap pengurusan kewangan adalah tidak signifikan. Projek Fadama II turut
memperlihatkan pengurangan permintaan terhadap teknologi pengurusan kesuburan tanah.
Pengurangan ini memberi gambaran bahawa fokus utama projek adalah menyediakan khidmat
nasihat selepas pengeluaran. Adalah dicadangkan agar projek tersebut dapat meningkatkan
sokongan terhadap pengurusan kesuburan tanah di samping mengurangkan masalah hakisan
tanah yang berpunca daripada peningkatan pengduaran pertanian. Konflik antara komuniti juga
telah dapat dikurangkan akibat daripada penyertaan komuniti tersebut. Hasil kajian juga
mendapat bahawa projek ini telah meningkatkan keupayaan pihak yang berkepentingan dalam
mengendalikan aktiviti di samping berjaya meningkatkan pendapatan jangka pendek isi rumah
golongan sasaran yang berada dalam kumpulan miskin tegar. Pendekatan rangsangan
permintaan dan penyertaan yang memberi hak bersuara kepada komuniti merupakan ciri unik
yang menjadi penyumbang kepada kejayaan projek yang dikecapi dalam masa yang singkat.
Kejayaan projek ini juga adalah disebabkan oleh strategi menyeluruh dalam penggunaan model
CDD yang berupaya mengatasi kekangan projek yang sering kali tidak mengambil kira
pandangan daripada komuniti tempatan. Secara kesimpulannya, strategi pembangunan yang
melibatkan penyertaan dan rangsangan permintaan seharusnya dijadikan sebagai wadah dalam
proses pembangunan luar bandar. Ia turut dilihat memberi implikasi ke atas perancangan dalam
pembasmian kemiskinan khususnya di negara-negara yang berpendapatan rendah. Projek yang
menggunakan pendekatan komuniti penggerak pembangunan (CDD) turut mengambil kira
tuntutan komuniti di samping mengatasi kekangan yang sedia ada. Ia adalah seperti sistem
janakuasa yang memberi impak yang lebih besar berbanding dengan projek yang bersifat “top-
down”. Hal ini juga menunjukkan bahawa terdapat keperluan bagi kerajaan dan penderma
untuk mengumpul sumber yang diperlukan dan menjadikan CDD sebagai projek utama
berbanding dengan projek-projek sebelum ini yang lebih bersifat terpencil dan berorientasikan
perkhidmatan.
ix
CONTENTS
PRELIMINARY PAGES i
Title Page i
Approval Page ii
Declaration and Copyright iii
Acknowledgement v
Abstract vii
Abstrak ix
Table of Contents ix
List of Tables xv
List of Figures xvii
List of Abbreviations xix
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Background of the study area 5
1.3 Background and Approach of Fadama II Project 12
1.3.1 Community-Driven Nature 16
1.4 Overview of Fadama II 18
1.4.1 Federal Level Project Implementation 19
1.4.2 State Level Project Implementation 19
1.4.3 Local Level Project Implementation 20
1.4.4 Community Level (FCAs) 20
1.4.5 Community Level (FUGs) 22
1.4.6 Facilitators 23
1.5 Statement of Problem 24
x
1.6 Research Questions 27
1.7 Objectives of the study 27
1.8 Research Hypothesis 28
1.9 Significance of the study 30
1.10 Scope and Limitation of the study 31
1.11 Research Ethics 32
1.12 Organisation of the study 33
CHAPTER TWO – THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 35
2.0 Introduction 35
2.1 Conceptual Theory 35
2.2 Benefits of Community-driven development 43
2.3 Rural Community Participation 53
2.4 Conclusion 54
CHAPTER THREE – LITERATURE REVIEW 56
3.0 Introduction 56
3.1 State and Development 56
3.2 Policies for Rural Development in Nigeria 65
3.3 Concept of Rural Development 77
3.4 Rural Infrastructure and Community Development 82
3.5 Rural Community Development 87
3.6 Power Relations and Community-Driven Development 93
3.7 Rural Community Decision-making Process 98
3.8 Participatory Community Development in Nigeria 102
3.8 Conflict and Conflict Resolution 105
3.9 Conclusion 109
xi
CHAPTER FOUR – METHODOLOGY 110
4.0 Introduction 110
4.1 Population of the study 110
4.2 Sampling Procedure 112
4.3 Justification for Sampling 114
4.4 Survey Instrument 115
4.5 Major Variable 116
4.5.1 Characteristics and Strategy of Fadama II 116
4.5.2 Productive Assets 116
4.5.3 Rural Infrastructure 117
4.5.4 Advisory Services 117
4.5.5 Capacity Building 118
4.5.6 Conflict Resolution 118
4.6 Data Collection 120
4.6.1 Household Survey Data 120
4.6.2 Community Survey Data 122
4.6.3 Baseline Data Collection 123
4.7 Data Analysis 123
4.8 Conclusion 131
CHAPTER FIVE – HOUSEHOLD’S PROFILE, INCOME AND STRATEGY 132
5.0 Introduction 132
5.1 Socio-economic Characteristic and Participation 132
5.2 Major Sources of Income 136
5.3 Household Income 140
5.3.1 Increase in Production 148
xii
5.3.2 Consumption Expenditure 151
5.4 Community-driven and Power Relations 155
5.4.1 Planning and Implementation Decisions 155
5.4.2 Influence of Community Leader/Authorities 159
5.4.3 Role of Community Leader/Authorities 160
5.5 Conclusion 167
CHAPTER SIX – PRODUCTIVE ASSETS AND ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE 170
6.0 Introduction 170
6.1 Productive Assets Acquisition 170
6.1.1 Access to Credit 177
6.1.2 Agro-processing and Value Addition 180
6.1.3 Sustainability of Assets/Activities 184
6.2 Rural Infrastructure Development 188
6.2.1 Sources of Funding 188
6.2.2 Importance of Fadama Roads 190
6.2.3 Time Dimension of Roads 191
6.2.4 Access to Roads 194
6.2.5 Transportation Services 200
6.2.6 Uses, Benefits and Problems of Roads 203
6.2.7 Road Infrastructure and Marketing 207
6.2.8 Non-farm Economic Activities 208
6.3 Conclusion 212
CHAPTER SEVEN – ADVISORY SERVICES, CONFLICTS RESOLUTION AND
CAPACITY BUILDING 213
7.0 Introduction 213
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7.1 Advisory Services 213
7.1.1 Types of Technologies Adopted 214
7.1.2 Sources of Advisory Services 217
7.2 Conflict and Conflict Resolution Mechanism 224
7.3 Capacity Building 231
7.3.1 Trainings Received 231
7.3.2 Outcome of trainings received 234
7.4 Conclusion 237
CHAPTER EIGHT – SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLLICATIONS 239
8.0 Introduction 239
8.1 Summary 239
8.1.1 Household Income and Participatory Nature 241
8.1.2 Productive Assets and Rural Infrastructure 242
8.1.3 Advisory Services and Capacity Building 243
8.1.4 Conflict Resolution Mechanism 244
8.2 Conclusion 244
8.3 Policy Implication 254
8.3.1 Policy Makers 254
8.3.2 Programme/Projects Organisers 256
8.3.3 Future Research 256
REFERENCES 258
APPENDICES 275
Appendix I: Rural Development Programmes in Nigeria 275
Appendix II: Cost and Benefit Analysis 278
xv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Budgetary Allocation to Agric. and Rural Development 73
Table 4.1 Total Number of Respondents Selected for the Study 113
Table 5.1 Probit Regression of the Respondent’s Characteristics 133
Table 5.2 Sources of Income for Beneficiaries and Non-beneficiaries 137
Table 5.3 Household Income of the Beneficiaries 140
Table 5.4 Target Increase in Income among Fadama II Beneficiaries 143
Table 5.5 Household Income across Gender and Poverty Groups 144
Table 5.6 Average Farm Sizes and Outputs 149
Table 5.7 T-test Analysis of Productivity and Income 151
Table 5.8 T-test Analysis of Household Expenditure 153
Table 5.9 Decision Making, Influence and Role of Community Leaders 164
Table 6.1 Average Value of Productive Assets 171
Table 6.2 Access to Credit 179
Table 5.3 Agro-Processing and Value Addition
181
Table 5.4 Respondents Stating Importance of Fadama II Roads 191
Table 6.5 Reported Year in which Fadama II roads were Constructed 192
Table 6.6 Respondents Reporting Changes in Distance to All-weather Roads 194
Table 6.7 T-test analysis of access to road infrastructure 199
Table 6.8 Average Waiting Time for Motor Vehicle Transportation 200
Table 6.9 Transportation Cost 201
Table 6.10 T-test analysis of transportation services 201
Table 6.11 T-test analysis of nonfarm economic activities 211
xvi
Table 7.1 Adoption and Demand for Technologies 215
Table 7.2 Sources of Advisory Services by Type of Production Technologies 219
Table 7.3 Conflict Resolution Mechanism 230
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Map of Africa Showing the Location of Nigeria and its Border Nations 6
Figure 1.2. Map of Nigeria Showing the Location of Adamawa State 9
Figure 1.3 Map of Nigeria Showing Fadama II Participating States 14
Figure 2.1 Community-Driven Development Result Framework 43
Figure 3.1 Map of Adamawa State Showing Fadama II LGAs 72
Figure 5.1 Household Consumption Expenditure 152
Figure 5.2 Decision Making Process Among Beneficiaries and Non-beneficiaries 156
Figure 5.3 Influence of Community Leaders on Project Implementations 159
Figure 5.4 Roles of Community Leaders in Project Implementation 162
Figure 6.1 Team Spirit and Regular Meeting Among the Respondents 184
Figure 6.2 Proceed Set Aside for Investment and Maintenance 186
Figure 6.3 Sources of Funding for Roads Construction and Rehabilitation 189
Figure 6.4a Distance to All-weather Roads Before Project 196
Figure 6.4b Distance to All-weather Roads After Project 196
Figure 6.5a Distance to Nearest Town Before Project 297
Figure 6.5b Distance to Nearest Town After Project 298
Figure 6.6a Uses of All-weather Roads 203
Figure 6.6b Uses of Fadama II Roads 204
Figure 6.7 Reported Benefits of Roads 205
Figure 6.8 Reported Problems of Roads 206
Figure 6.9 Share of Total Production Marketed 207
Figure 7.1 Conflict Resolution Status As a Result of Fadama II Intervention 226
xviii
Figure 7.2 Trainings Received As a Result of Project Participation 232
Figure 7.3 Outcome of Trainings Received As a Result of Project Participation 235
xix
ABBREVIATION
ADAP – Accelerated Development Area Project
ADP – Agricultural Development Project
AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
ASA – Advisory Services Activity
ATE – Average Treatment Effect
BLP – Better Life Program
CB – Community Based
CBO – Community Based Organization
CDD – Community - Driven Development
DCA – Development Credit Agreement
DD – Double Difference
DFRRI – Directorate of Food, Road and Rural Infrastructure
FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization
FCA – Fadama Community Association
FCT – Federal Capital Territory
FII – Fadama II
FUG – Fadama User Group
HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus
IGAs – Income Generating Activities
IDA – International Development Assistance
LDPs – Local Development Plans
LFD – Local Fadama Desk
LFDC – Local Fadama Desk Committee
LGAs – Local Government Areas
MANR – Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources
M &E – Monitoring Evaluation
MSADP – Multi-State Agricultural Development Project
MTR – Mid – Term Review
NAFPP – National Accelerated Food Production Project
NAIS – Nigeria Agricultural Insurance Scheme
xx
NDE – National Directorate of Employment
NEEDS – National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy
NFDO – National Fadama Development Office
NFDP – National Fadama Development Project
NFTC – National Fadama Technical Committee
NGOs – Non – Governmental Organizations
NSPFS – National Special Program for Food Security
NWC – National Women Council
OFN – Operation Feed the Nation
PAP – Poverty Alleviation Program
PAA – Pilot Asset Acquisition
PCU – Project Coordinating Unit
PRA – Participatory Rural Appraisal
PSM – Propensity Score Matching
RI – Rural Infrastructure
REAP – Rural Economic Advancement Programme
SAP – Structural Adjustment Programme
SFDO – State Fadama Development Office
SMANR – State Ministry of Agric, and Natural Resources
SSA – Sub- Saharan Africa
TV – Television
UN – United Nation
UNCTAP – United Nation Council on Trade and Development
UNDP – United Nation Development Program
UNEP – United Nation Environmental Program
UNICEF – United Nation International Children Education Fund
WB – World Bank
WHO – World Health Organization
APPRAISAL OF THE IMPACT OF A COMMUNITY-DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
(FADAMA II) IN ADAMAWA STATE, NIGERIA
BY
.
UMAR ADAMU MADU
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Social Sciences
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
2013
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1 .0 Introduction
This chapter provides background information in relation to the conceptualization of the
statement of problem for this research. The major thrust of this study is to appraise the impact of
a World Bank supported community-driven development project, called Fadama II in Adamawa
State, Nigeria. This present study intends to evaluate or empirically assess the project outcome in
relation to income, participatory nature, access to infrastructure and productive assets, and
provision of demand-driven advisory services. The study also investigates how the project
affected the capacity to resolve conflicts among users of Fadama resource and the capacity of
beneficiaries to manage CDD project. It also examines whether the project has succeeded in
targeting the poor and the vulnerable groups through its poverty reduction efforts and productive
asset acquisitions.
1.1 Background of the Study
The quest for proper model of development emerged as a result of strong criticisms of neo-
classical development models and theories due to latter’s failure to address issues such as
poverty, human welfare, income distribution, unemployment, environmental health, security,
popular participation and equitable distribution of growth benefits (Eboh et al, 1999; Dennis,
2007). After several decades of emphasis on rapid economic growth, there is an increasing
realization that development is not just higher growth of national income, but a means of
Faculty of Social
2
achieving basic human needs and development particularly those related to individual and
collective wellbeing (Helleiner, 1992).
Several studies have described development as a means through which basic human needs
and individual wellbeing are achieved (Diana and Peter, 1984; Helleiner, 1992). This is debated
to be achieved through self-reliance and with the use of the community or society’s own
resources (Sweindell et al, 1981; Nwanesi, 2007). In this context, a community that discusses its
needs, plans to meet these needs, organizes its resources for action and carries out that action and
continues its efforts to meet these needs or solve new problems will, through its efforts improve
itself. This is what is regarded as community-driven development (CDD) or people oriented
development.
The People Oriented Development approach, otherwise known as CDD, emerged against
the conventional “top-down” syndrome which never had any sustainable impact on the living
conditions of community members especially in rural Nigeria. The model instead, develops a
more people centred and inclusive “bottom-up” development approach (Abdoul, 2010). This
development approach gives voice to community members or beneficiaries to have absolute
control over resources and decisions affecting them. This strategy allows community members
(beneficiaries, stakeholders etc.) to freely decide what action to take, and take responsibility for
initiatives that affect their lives (Narayan, 2000; Abdoul, 2010).
Community-driven development (CDD) has gained popularity at both international and
local levels. As shared by some scholars, the approach is currently the most widely used method
by both government and development assistance programmes (Gillespie, 2004; Mansuri and Rao,
top related