app maps: evaluating children's ipad software for 21...

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AppMaps:EvaluatingChildren'siPadSoftwarefor21stCenturyLiteracyLearning

KarenE.Wohlwend,IndianaUniversity

JenniferRowsell,BrockUniversity

Thisisapreprint,thedefinitiveversionappearsin:Wohlwend,K.E.,&Rowsell,J.(2017).Appmaps:Evaluatingchildren’siPadsoftwarefor21stcenturyliteracylearning.InN.Kucirkova&G.Falloon(Eds.),Apps,technology,andyoungerlearners:Internationalevidenceforteaching.London:Routledge.

Abstract:

Inthischapter,weintroducearubricandamapthatwedevelopedforcomparingearlychildhoodappsonfivedimensionsofparticipatoryliteracies:multiplayer,productive,multimodal,multilinear,andconnected.UsingexemplardatafromourNorthAmericanclassroomstudiesonchildren’stechnologyplaywithiPads,weevaluateandcomparefourappstoillustratehowtherubricandmapcanbeusedtoassesseachapp’spotentialfordevelopingparticipatoryliteracies.Adescriptionofeachappandanethnographicdataexcerptillustrateshowchildrenusedeachapp’sfeaturestoprovideasamplingofthewaysthatyoungchildrenactuallyengagedwiththeappduringclassroomplay.

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AppMaps:EvaluatingChildren'siPadSoftwarefor21stCenturyLiteracyLearning

Three-fourthsofU.S.familieswithyoungchildrennowhavemobiledevicessuchassmartphonesortablets(Rideout,2013).Theseaccessibledigitaltoolsareequippedwithtouchscreensthatrespondinstantlytoafingertipswipeandarejusttherightsizeforyoungchildrentohandle,carry,andoperate.Forexample,atoddlerwithatabletbalancedonherlapislearningthatthetouchscreenisorganizedbyagridofcolorfulsquarishiconsthatrepresentsoftwareapplications,andimportantlywithlittleornoprint.Eachiconopensanappatthetouchofafingerandreadinginvolvesmoretaps…onarrows,“x”,checkmark,trashcan,pencil,plussignsandsoon.Theseiconsarenotarrangedintheorderlyrowsofprintonapagebutarescatteredalongthetop,bottom,orcornersofthescreen.Touchscreensoperatewithanexpandedsetofconventionsforinteractivemodesincludingfingerswipes,iconrecognition,andvoicecontrols;inotherwords“ConceptsBeyondPrint”(Wohlwend,inpress).Today’syoungchildrenarelearningprintlesswaysofreading—onefingerswipeatatime(Rowsell,2014).Witheachtap,ouremergentreadersarelearninginteractiveandflexibleorientationstodigitalreading:recognizingiconsasactivatorsorportals,expectingafingeractiontoproduceascreenchange,andpersistingwhennothinghappens,knowingthatanareaofthescreenmightcontainaninvisibleiconthatmayappearwhenpressed.Furthermore,childrenunderstandthatscreensrequirenewwaysofplaying,collaborating,andsharinginordertoparticipateinourglobaldigitalcultures.Accordinglyinordertobetrulyeducational,thetoolsweselectandprovidetochildren—includingappsandtablets—mustevolvetorecognizeallthatchildrenalreadyknow.

However,theeducationalappsfortheearlychildhoodmarkettendtorelyonanoutdatedandprint-centricmodelofliteracy,apparentintheabundanceofappsfeaturingrotememorytaskssuchasletter-soundmatchingorwordidentification(Shuler,2012).KnobelandWilber(2009)identifiedsuchanapproachas“Literacy1.0”,aprintliteracymodelthatgrosslyunderestimatesboththeyoungchild’sandthetechnologies’capabilitiesformeaningfulliteracylearning,while“Literacy2.0”reflectsparticipatoryliteracies,thenewwaysweread,write,play,andshareideasusingicons,photos,andvideosonsocialmedianetworks.Inthischapter,weintroduceawaytoevaluatethelearningpotentialofappsusingarubricthatcapturesthewaysthat21stcenturylearnersactuallyengageinparticipatoryanddigitalliteracies.

Background:NewLiteraciesandConnectedLearning

Participatoryliteraciesreflectnewwaysofthinkingaboutlearningtoreadandwritewithtechnologythatmovesawayfromthemodelofanindividualreadingortypingprintonacomputerscreen.Instead,participatoryliteraciesreflecttheprinciplesofsocialmedialikeTwitter,YouTube,orFacebookorvideogamesandvirtualworlds:globalparticipation,multiplayercollaboration,anddistributedknowledge.Theseprinciplesenableparticipationinvastdigitalnetworksthroughposting,blogging,recording,remixing,uploading,anddownloading.

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Table1.Comparing(Print)LiteracyandParticipatoryLiteraices

(Print)Literacy ParticipatoryLiteracies

Individualreader/writer Multipleplayers/designers

Interpretingandcrafting Negotiatingandproducing

Anoriginalandpersonally-meaningfulnarrativetext

Multimodalandmutually-engaginginteractivecontexts

Mediatedbypeersandteachersinapredictableprocess

Maintainedbygroupsinfluidmultilinearnavigation

Locatedwithinsupportivereading/writingworkshops

Connectedtoparticipatorycultures,onlinenetworks,andmakerplayshops

Evenveryyoungchildrenplayanduseparticipatoryliteracypracticesastheyengagetheworldaroundthem,thatis,theliteracypracticesthathavethemostrelevanceforyoungchildrentodayareparticipatory(Wohlwend,2010).Inthischapter,weexaminepopularappsdesignedforyoungchildrentocomparetheirusefulnessfordevelopingfivedimensionsofparticipatoryliteracies:

1. MULTIPLAYERORDESIGNTEAMSratherthanindividual2. PRODUCTIVE,enablingchildrentoproducetheirownmultimediaratherthansimply

readingorplayingagamesomeoneelsehasmade3. MULTIMODALratherthanprint-centric,usingmultiplemodes(sound,touch,image,

music)tomanageimages,video,oranimation4. MULTILINEAR,usinghypertextthatallowsmultipleanddynamicstorylines5. CONNECTED,sharedondigitalnetworks

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TheThreeStudies

Thefirststudy,LiteracyPlayshop:DesigningCriticalMediaLiteracyCurriculumthroughTeacherStudyGroups(Wohlwend,Buchholz,WesselPowell,Coggin,&Husbye,2013)isinthefifthyearofanongoingstudyofteacher-designedearlychildhoodmedialiteracycurriculumfundedbytheProffittfoundationandIndianaUniversity.Thestudiesareconductedatfoursites:threemulti-agepreschoolclassroomsfor3-to5-year-oldchildreninuniversitychildcarecenters(160children,6teachers)andonekindergarten-firstgrademultiageclassroomfor5-to7-year-oldchildreninapubliccharterschool(approximately150children,3teachers).EachLiteracyPlayshopprojectbeganwithayearofpractitionerinquirysessionstoreadresearchonglobalchildren’smediaandcriticalliteracies,tolearnfilmmakingtechniques,andtodevelopage-appropriatemedialiteracycurriculum.Wohlwendmettwiceamonthwiththeteachingteams,video-recordingthediscussionsandtheiremergenceforyoungchildrenthatcombinescollaboration,play,storying,andmediaproduction.Researchersvisitedeachclassroomtwotofourtimesperweekduringthesecondhalfoftheyear,asteachersimplementedtheircurriculumtovideo-recordclassroomplayandfilmmakingactivitiesandcopychildren’sfilmsandpuppetshows.IntheseLiteracyPlayshops,childrenplayedelaboratestoriesastheymadeanimation,puppetry,orlive-actiondigitalvideoswithhand-heldcamerasortablets.Inthefollowingyears,Wohlwendandcolleaguesconductedfollow-upresearchatthesites,visitingatteachers’invitationsinsubsequentyearstodocumenthowtheteachersrevisedtheLiteracyPlayshopcurriculumovertimetobetterfittheirchildren’sinterestsandschoolgoals.Thesestudiesshowedthatthecombinationofyoungchildren’sfilmmakingwithpopularmediaanddigitaltechnologiesproducesaparticularlypowerfulformofstorytellingthatsparksinventionandcollaborationamongplayers.Inliteracyplayshops,evenveryyoungchildrenachievedandexceededacademicgoalsconsistentwithgovernmentaccountabilitystandardsforliteracy,bytappingintoindividualliteracyproficienciesthatweregroundedintheirpopularmediainterests(Wohlwendetal.,2013).

Forthesecondstudy,aresearchteam(Harwood,Rowsell,Winters,Voloshyn,&Bajovic,2013)conductedafederallyfundedresearchstudyentitled,CrayonsandiPads:BreakingBoundariesinYoungChildren’sLiteracyMeaningMaking,whichfocusedonobservationsofthenaturalisticexperienceswithinfiveearlyyearsclassrooms:twocommunity-basedearlychildhoodeducationnot-for-profitprograms(forchildren3-5yearsolds),andthreefull-daykindergartenschool-basedclassrooms.Theresearchteamobserved,documentedandassessedthewaysinwhichyoungchildrenconstructedmeaningwithinthesevariedsocial/culturalsettings.Researchersvisitedeachclassroombi-monthlyfora7-monthperiod,observingbeforeandafteriPadswereintroducedintoeachlearningcontext.Theteamthenrecorded120hoursofclassroominteractions,2000photographs,200videorecordings,and500sampleartifactsfromchildren.Seventeacherparticipantsandco-researcherswereinvolvedintheobservationphaseoftheproject.DrivenbyadesiretocapturetheimpactandsocialpracticesthatensuedwheniPadsenteredtheearlyyearsspace,theresearchteamfocusedonchildren’severydaypracticeswithtraditionalearlyyearsobjectsandartifactssuchasasandtable,coupledwithparticipatoryliteracypracticessuchasplayingasandtableapp.TheresearchersanalyzedhowtheintroductionofiPadsacrossthesedifferentearlyyearscontextsshiftedtheclassroomcultures.Researchersobservediftherewasashiftinchildren’sinteractions,positioning,andpracticeswheniPadsenteredtheclassroomspaceandifso,howdidtheculture,socialpractices,andspaceshiftwhentheyarrived?Whatwascentraltotheresearchwascapturingatacitmovementbetweenvirtualandphysicalspaces(Burnett,2015;Burnettetal.,2014)andwhatthesemovementsimpliedintermsofredefiningorrethinkingmeaningmakingintheearlyyears.Todoso,theCrayonsandiPadsTeam

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documentedsuchaspectsofdailyclassroomlifeas:classroomcultures;teachertalk;children’smeaning-makingpractices;dailyroutines;spatialarrangementsandtheirrelationshipstopedagogicalapproaches.

Forthethirdresearchstudy,TutoringbyDesign,Rowsell,Colquhoun,Maues(inprogress)supervisedatutoringprogrameveryeveningduringtheschoolyearwhereteachereducationstudentstutorchildren,adolescentsandteenagersinthecommunityinliteracyskills.Oneeveningaweekoverninemonths,theresearchteamofferediPadtutoringsessionswithafocusonparticipatoryliteraciespedagogyfeaturingmultimodalactivities;multiplayerpractices;productiveworkthatismultilinearandconnected.Focusingondifferentapps,games,andiBooks(Rowsell,2014),tuteesworkedcloselywithtutorsondigitaltextsthattheyusesignificantlyoutsideofschoolanddocumentedpractices,problem-solving,thinkingprocessesenactedoverthecourseoftutoringsessions.Throughfieldnotes,Rowsell’sresearcherteamnotedtheparticularnatureofthinkingthroughiPads,butalsovisualizedtheprocessasseeninFigure1.DatacollectioncomprisedobservationalfieldnotestakenduringtutoringsessionswherebyRowsell,ColquhounandMauesseparatelysatbesidetutorsastheyworkedwithtuteesoverthecourseofanhour;interviewswithtuteesafterthestudy;visualfootageintheformofphotographsandfilmedfootage;and,aresearchblogtowhichallofthetutorsandresearcherscontributed.

Figure1.VisualizingthinkingwithiPads

InFigure1,wehaveusedcolor-codedsquarestomarkanhouroftutoringworkinwhatwethinkofasmultimodallogicormodallearning(Rowsell,2013)whichconnectsstronglywithparticipatoryliteracies.Startinginthegreensquare,PeterandCalvinreadabouthowswordsaremadeonawebsite,thenCalvinplayedwithagameappcalledMinecraftwhilePeterresearchedanappcalledMythology(yellowsquare);thenintheblueandpurplesquares,CalvinandPeterreadtheMythologyappandconcludedthehourintheblueboxwithCalvinandPeterworkingonawritingpieceaboutMinecraftandmythology.ThisfigureillustrateshowTutoringbyDesignworks.Researchersinvolvedinthestudyfocusedonvisualizingpracticesandinterpretinghapticplaytodevelopalanguagetodescribe

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competenciesandthinkingprocessesinparticipatoryliteracies.Aswell,tutorsandresearcherscontributedtoablogtoshareandreflectontheproject.

LiteracyAppsandAppMaps

Ourintentinthechapterhasbeentobuildonstudiesofappusebyyoungchildren(Chiong&Shuler,2010;Shuler,2012)torecalibrateappevaluationtoolsforparticipatoryliteracies.Inthissection,weintroducearubricandamapforcomparingearlychildhoodappsaccordingtothesefiveelementsofparticipatoryliteracies(Table2).Inthefollowingsections,wefeaturefourappsusedinthreeclassroomstudiesofearlychildhoodtechnologytoillustratehowtherubricandmapcanbeusedtoassessthesoftware’spotentialforparticipatoryliteracies.Foreachapp,anappdescriptionandanexcerptofclassroomplayprovideasampleofthewaysthatyoungchildrenactuallyengagedwiththefoureducationalapps.Weanalyzetheseanecdotesaccordingtotherubricandthencomparetheextentthateachappsupportedkeyelementsofparticipatoryliteracies:multimodal,multiplayer,productive,multilinear,orconnected.(Wenoteherethatappschangefrequentlywithincreasedcapabilitiesandfeaturesaddedordroppedwithoutnotice,sothattheappmapsandrubricscoresreflectthedatawegatheredayearormorepriortopublication,atthetimeeachstudywasconducted).

Table2.ParticipatoryLiteraciesRubricandBenchmarks

High Medium LowMultiplayer Accommodates3ormore

playersAccommodates2players

Accommodates1player

Productive Enablescreativeoriginalcontentadditionsratherthanpre-setcomponents(e.g.,makeorimportowncontent)

Enablessomeoriginalcontent;choicesamongpre-setimagesortexts(e.g.,rangeofavatarclothingandfeatures,originalstoryaction)

Limitedoriginalcontent,pre-setpersonalizationelement(e.g.,insert1elementtopersonalize;minimalchoicesforavatardesign)

Multimodal Enhancesmeaningthroughcombinationsof4ormoremodes:music,image,soundeffects,animation;inspiresplaywithrealworldmaterials

Enablesmanipulationandcombinationsofseveralmodes:image,paint,movement(animation),speech,music

Primarilyprintwordprocessingtools,supplementedwithstampingorbasicpainttools

Multilinear Open-endedstorytellingwithmanytangents(e.g.,hypertext,portalsasinvideogames)

Enablesanalternateending;supportsrevisionstoinsertadditionalevents

Enablesasinglestorylineinanunvaryingsequencethatproceedsfrombeginningtoend

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Connected Savingandfacilitatedsharingonvideosharingsites(e.g.,youtube)

Opportunitiestoexportfilmsforsavingandexternalemailingorposting

Internalnetworksharingonlyorproprietaryformatsthatrequirewebsiteregistrationtoview

AppExamplesandLiteracyAnecdotes

Toontastic

ToofferanexampleofhowparticipatoryliteraciescanbeenactedintheappToontastic,RowsellprovidesexcerptsofdatafromtheTutoringbyDesignstudy.Asdiscussedearlier,tuteesworkedwithtutorsoverthecourseofanhourandfocusedonappsasthemainstayofthetutoringmaterial.ManyoftheparticipantslikedToontasticbecausetheycouldplaywithmovietropesandtheconceptofmemes(Knobel&Lankshear,2007).Forinstance,Alice,seeninFigure2,createdalovestoryaboutapirateandayoungmaidenwhofallinlove,andthenthemaideniskidnappedbyanevilgreencowwhoputsherinadungeoninacastleuntilherpirateloverescuesher.

Figure2.Alicecreatingalovestory

TheformatofToontasticisfairlyconstrainedbythestoryarcthatfollowsconsecutively:anintroduction,conflict,resolution,andconclusion.Playershavetostaywithinthisstorystructureandthereareaseriesofdifferenttemplatestochoosefromtoconstructagivenstory,or,thereistheoptiontocreateyourownstorytemplate.Aswell,playerscanaddmusicandanimationsifdesired.Whatwasinterestingaboutdifferentreaderswashowtheystrayedfromtypicalstorylinesandinfusedtheirownintertextualelements.Forinstance,inAlice’sshortlovestory,shechangedthecolouroftheevilcow.Inthefirstscene,thecowwasbrowninlinewiththetemplate,butinthenextthreescenes,Alicechangedthecolourpaletteandmadethecowgreenandthemaiden’sdresspink.Aswell,ratherthanthepiratebeingapowerfulherowhosavestheday,insteadhedeferredtothemaidenonwhattodooncehefreedherfromthecastle.Finally,Aliceinjectedbitsofpopularculturesuchasthelinethatshegavethepiratewhenheconfrontedthecow:“Heycow,sayhellotomylittlefriend”whichreferencestheiconiclinefromScarfacewhenAlPacinofacesagroupofdrugrunnerswithamachinegunandusesthissameline.Inthisway,theproductiveelementsofappplaywithToontasticemergedfromincludingmimesisormemesintostorylinestomakingthecontentmoreedgy,interesting,andconnectedtoothertexts.

InWohlwend’sLiteracyPlayshopstudy,easilyrecognizablecharactersetsandscenes(e.g.,pirates,sharks,andships,astronautsandspaceships;witchesandcaldrons)alsoinspiredmemesandfacilitatedcollaborationamongplayers,asplayerscouldquicklyagreeonsimplestoryactions.Childrenalsofrequentlyselectedtheblankcanvasandpaintpalettetocreatetheirowncharactersandbackdrops,althoughsomechildrenbecamesoengrossedinpaintingtheyspentfarlesstimeonusingthecharacterintheanimationsequence.

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IntheToontasticAppMap(Figure3)below,thehighestscoresareformultimodalpotentialandproductivecapacityastheappenablesmanywaysforplayerstocreateoriginalcontent.Multiplayerplayissomewhatenabledastwochildrencancollaborateonastorybuttoomanyfingerscausedfreeze-ups.Mostconstrainingistheconnectivitywhichlimitsvideo-sharingtothein-appToontubenetwork,andthemultilinearityofasingle,sequentialstandardizedstoryarc.

Figure3.ToontasticAppMap

Grandma’sKitchen

Figures4and5:ParallelPlayinVirtualandPhysicalWorlds

DuringRowsell’sCrayonsandiPadsproject,researchersdocumentedappsthatchildrenplayedalongsideanyparallelswithsimilarphysical/materialworlds,withineachcontext.ApopularappwasGrandma’sKitchen,whichisanappwherechildrencancookandbakewithananimatedgrandmacharacter.Therewereseveralinstanceswhenresearchersobservedhowchildrenmovedacrossadigitizedversionofcookingandbakingpracticesandemulatedthesesamepracticesintheirkitchenspaceintheclassroomsite:

Inthehousedramaticplaycenter,4kindergartenagechildrenwereplayingatypeofcookinggame.TheyfoundtheGrandma’sKitchenapp(onthetablet)andstartedplayingittoo.Theywerewatchingthevideosintheappandthenmakingthefoodin

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theirpretendplay(thatwaspicturedintheapp).Forexample,thevideoshowedcrackingeggsandthechildrenwerepretendingtobreakeggsforbaking.Whentheappsaid,“giveGrandmaakiss”,oneofthechildrenactuallykissedthetablet!Asthechildrenplayedthis‘bakinggame’theydriftedbackandforthbetweentheappandconcretetoys(seeFigures4and5).Childrenwouldtakeinformationfromtheappandtrialthatknowledgewithconcretetoys.Similarly,playthemesthathadstartedwithintheconcreteworld(e.g.,bakingacake)wouldbeenhancedandextendedusingtheapp’scontent(e.g.,usingmeasuringspoonsforingredients).Thechildrenthenblendedthisconvergedexperienceandknowledgetowriteamenuwithastyluspenonthetablet.Couldthechildrenhaveachievedtheirplayaimswitheithertheconcretetoysorthetablet?

Inrelationtoourrubricandbenchmark,children’snaturalizedmovementsfromGrandma’sKitchenhadthehighestscoresforbeingmultilinearandmultimodal.Childrendisplayedtremendousflexibilitymovingacrossphysicalandvirtualspacesand,equally,theymademeaningfluidlyandwithafluencyofthoughtandcreativityacrossavarietyofmodes(virtualandnon-virtualmodes).Wherechildrenshowedlesspotentialandproductivityintermsoftheappwasintheareaofconnectedness–therewasverylittlefilmingandsharingofevents.Rather,childrenwerefocusedontasksat-handandfulfillingasetofpractices(fig.6).

Figure6.Grandma’sKitchenAppMap

PuppetPals

In theLiteracyPlayshopproject, researchersdocumentedclassroomactivityandchild-madevideosaschildren used several iPad apps to create animated stories. In the app PuppetPals (Polished Play),childrencouldchoosecharacters,asetting,andthenanimateastory inreal-timebymanuallymovingcharacters onscreen with their fingertips while simultaneously narrating the story (or speakingdialogue),capturedbytheiPad’sinternalmicrophone.Instantplaybackwascrucialinhelpingpreschoolchildren seewhatwas actually onscreen after filming, including the visual,movement, and the audiomodes.Afewoftheonscreenactionsarelabeledandrequirewordidentification(e.g.,the“back”and“next”iconsfornavigatingbetweenscreens);otherelementsuseicons(arrows,redbuttonforsignalingthe beginning and ending of the recording process). Other navigation tools are not labeled andcontrolledbytouchandtaps(e.g.,tracingaroundphotostocreatecharactercutouts;swipingtoscrollthroughbackdropsandcharacters,dragginganddroppingtoselectcharacters;pinchingandspreading

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fingerstoresizecharactersandobjects;andmovingcharacterstoenter,enact,andexittheanimationsequencebydraganddrop).

Inthecombinedkindergarten/gradeoneclassroom,agroupofsix-andseven-year-oldchildrenhuddledaroundtheiPadatoneendofalowtable.ThegirlsweredraggingcharactersonandoffstageinthePuppetPalsapp,usingthefreebasicsetoffairytalecharactersandcastlebackdrop.Sixhandsjockeyedforroomonthesmallrectangularscreen,squeezingintodrag,drop,resize,orrotatethecutoutsofaprincess,knight,dragon,chipmunk,andcrow.Suddenly,Alliedraggedtheprincess character rapidlybackand forthacross the castle, “Getyourbootyoutofhere!”Sierraquicklydecidedthisdemandwasdirectedtowardherchipmunkcharacterandresizeditsbody,creatingagiantchipmunktochallengetheattackingprincess.Giggling, thegirlsbeginafightscenebymovingandrotatingtheircharactersonandoffstage,theirmovespunctuatedbygrowlsandshrieks.

While limitingchildren’sability tocreatenewplotsandoriginalcontent, thepresetcartooncharactersets did afford easy recognition of familiar roles and storylines (e.g., princess, dragon, castle) whichenhancedmultiplayercollaborationaschildrencouldquicklyjoinaplayscenarioinprogress.AsinAllieand Sierra’s play, the app’s inclusion of seemingly unrelated characters like the chipmunk and crowopenednewpossibilitiesforstorylinesthatthechildrenfoundhumorousandengaging.Additionalsetswereavailableforpurchaseanda“director’spass”upgradeintheprogramenabledchildrentousetheiPad camera to import photos and trace a cutout feature that allowed children to create their ownpuppetsortocreatecustombackdrops.Childrenspenttimegatheringtoysandclassroommaterialstotakepictures toadd to their films.Theyalso tookphotosofoneanother toputa friend in the story.Unlike Toontastic, there was no paint program to enable modifying the photo or to draw originalcharacters.

ThePuppetPals AppMap (Figure 7) below reflects the high potential formultiplayer collaboration asseveral children could manipulate characters, which was limited only by the size of the tablettouchscreen, as well as high production capacity for original content that inspired children tophotographclassroomtoysandimportthemintotheirfilms.Mediumlevelsofconnectivityreflectthefact that films could be saved for sharing on external sites.Multimodalmanipulation was limited toanimationandaudiorecordingastherearenoin-appdrawing,paint,ormusictools.Thelowestscoreismultilinearity:theapp’ssimpledesignimmediatelyoverwritesanyunsavedrecording;althoughitdoesnotimposeatemplateforalinearstoryarc,italsodoesnotenablemultiplerecordingsorrevisions.

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Figure7.PuppetPalsAppMap

JibJabJr.Books

Incontrasttothepuppetryanimationapps,anebookapphadlittlestayingpowerwithchildrenintheLiteracyPlayshopproject.TheylostinterestrelativelyquicklyintheJibJabJr.Books(2011)personalizedebookprograminwhichachildcantakeaself-portraitwiththeiPadcamera,tracearoundone’shead,and import thecut-outtopaste itonacartoonbodytocreateacartoonchef. Inthehighly-animatedmusicalstorybook,thechildcanviewthepagesasthepersonalizedchefcharacterhumorouslymakesapizza across the course of the book. Amy, one childwhoworkedwith the app on several days, wascontent to tapon thescreentopage throughthebook, repeatedlyshowing it to friendsat the table.However,herinterestfadedaftertwodaysastheappdidnotallowhertovarythetextcontentorthesequenceofeventsortoaddspeechormusic.ThebookcouldnotbesharedonlineandcouldonlybeviewedonaniPadwiththeapp.

TheJibJabAppMap(Figure8)belowshowsanoveralllowscorefordigitalliteracies.Theendproductofapersonalizedebookwasquitepolishedbutwithlittlepossibilityformultiplayercollaboration,originalcontent,multimodalmanipulation,storylineflexibility,orsharingamongplayers.

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Figure8.JibJabJr.BooksAppMap

ComparisonofApps

Acomparisonofallfourappsrevealsthattheprogramsvariedwidelyintheircapacityforsupportingparticipatoryliteracies,butingeneral,therewerelowerlevelsforconnectivityandmultilinearity,andhigherlevelsforproductivity,multiplayercollaboration,andmultimodalcreativity.Someofthelimitationsappeartechnologicalandrelatedtodesignfeatureswhileothersappeardiscursiveandrelatedtoideologicalbeliefsaboutchildren’sabilitiesorthenatureofliteracy.Forexample,lowconnectivityseemsrelatedtosafetyconcernsforlimitingchildren’scontactwithonlineothersandproprietaryinterestsforgeneratingmoreusersthroughinternalsharingnetworks.Multi-linearityisenabledbymoreopen-endedappsanduserinterfacesthatprovidehtmlnavigationbutlimitedbystructuredstorytemplatesorvideoproductionthatresultsinalinearfilm.Productivityappearstobeoneofthemosteasilyenableddimensionsthrougharecordingoptionthatmakesuseofthetablet’sinternalcameraandmicrophone.Higherlevelsofmultimodalityrequiremoredesignfeatures,suchaspaintorphotographyprogramsorpre-loadedlibrariesofmusicandsoundeffectoptions.Multiplayercollaborationissometimeslimitedbythesizeofthetablettouchscreensorbyuserinterfacesthateitherlimitorbecomeoverwhelmedbymultiplesimultaneoususertouches.

Table3.ComparingAppsacrossFiveDimensionsofParticipatoryLiteracies

DigitalStorytellingApps Multi-player

Product-ive

Multi-modal

Multi-linear

Connected

JibJabPersonalizede-book LOW LOW LOW LOW LOW

PuppetPals*CartoonorPhotoAnimation HIGH HIGH MEDIUM LOW MEDIUM

Toontastic*CartoonorPhotoAnimation MEDIUM HIGH HIGH LOW LOW

Grandma’sKitchenProducingormakingthingsandinteractionwithavatars

MEDIUM MEDIUM MEDIUM/HIGH HIGH LOW

*basiclevelsofthefreeversionoftheapplimitsoriginalcontenttolowestlevel;purchaseofupgraderequiredtoenableoriginalcontent

Discussion:AppsandParticipatoryLiteracies

Comparingfourpopularappsmakesclearthedisparateadoptionsofparticipatoryliteraciesandcompetencies.Thereisanopen,participatory,anddesignfeeltoappsthatalignwithnewdigitallogics.Regardingthelogicofparticipatoryliteracies,notallappsofferedthecapacitytomakemeaningacrossa

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varietyofmodeswithpeersinanunpredictable,multilinearway,andthentodocumentthesepracticesinsomewaysuchasfilmingastoryorremixingfamiliarandnovelcharacterstocreateanoriginalfilmthatcanbesharedwithdistantothers.Instead,appsfeaturedinthechapterexhibitedoneortwoofeachbenchmarks.Thereisaskillsdeliveryfocusinsomeapps,oran‘oldwineinnewbottles’(Lankshear&Knobel,2003)feelthat,inourexperience,childrenseethroughrightaway.Giventhepopularityofthefourappsfeaturedinthechapter,ithasbeentellingtointerprethowmuchappsactuallyalignwithnewwaysofthinkingandcommunicatingandthesecomparisonspointtolargerissuesandimplicationsintermsofwherewearepresentlyinunderstandingandrealizingparticipatoryliteracieswithineverydaytechnologies.Insomeways,wearestillconstrainedbywhatwethinkofasautonomousviewsofliteracylearning.

Thereisagroundedmobilityfromthephysicaltothevirtualacrossalloftheappsthatweanalyzed.Burnett’sresearchhasexaminedhowchildrenmoveacrossphysicalandvirtualspacesandmanifestimmaterialliteracies(Burnett,2015)whentheydoso.Importanttotheconceptofparticipatoryliteracies,thisproductivityandconnectednessbetweenmaterialandvirtualworldsinvitesmultimodalsense-makingaschildrenuseanensembleofresourcesthroughtheirimaginativeengagements.Previousnotionsofliteracypracticesintext-orientedparadigmsmaintaina“boundedness”tomeaning-making.Forexample,withintheCrayonsandiPadsresearchnotonlydidchildrenplayacrossvirtualandphysicalworlds,theyalsowouldproducetextsasaresultofthisim/materialmovementandmobility.TheresearchteamobservedthatwhenchildrenplayedtheGrandma’sKitchenapp,theywouldexperimentwithactionsthattheycompletedintheappsuchascrackinganegg,thentheywouldapplythatknowledgetothephysicaltoyegginthepretendkitchen.Extendingthisphysicalplay,theywouldmovetoastoryanddrawingcentreandsketchoutstoriesfrompropertieswithinthevirtualandphysicalplay–beingwithGrandmaorafamilymemberandbakingsomething.Tocompletethisproductivework,theywoulduseastyluspenontheiPadorcrayonsandpaper.The“converged”worldofthechildren’splayacrossthesecontextsofferedgreaterandmoredynamicopportunitiestocombineanddevelopparticipatoryliteracies.

BuildingontheworkofBrianStreetandhiscontentionthatpolicyhasatendencytoframeliteracyasanautonomousskillthatweacquirefromformalized,school-basedapproachestoliteracylearningandthatwecognitivelydevelopandcarrywithus(Street,1984),wesimilarlypositthatmanycommercialappsstillworkwithinaprint-centric,autonomousmodelofliteracythatexistswithinoldermodelsofliteracylearning.Thatis,suchappsneedtoteachaskill,beusedinasolitaryway,andfollowalinearpath.Forinstance,Toontasticdoesnotallowplayerstostrayfromconventionalstorylinesandtrajectoriesfromanintroduction,denouement,conflict,resolution,andconclusionanditisnotaformatthatisconducivetobefilmed,converged,andsharedwithapeergroup.Withinthesetstructuresoftheseapps,thereisnottheopennessthatallowsforproblem-solvingandexperimentation.Forexample,JibJabdoesnotincludeamultiplayerplatform,doesnotinviteproductivityandsharing,andthereisnotmuchevidenceofmultimodality.Inotherwords,print-boundapps,althoughattimesengaging,donotinviteandfosterthekindsofpracticesandthinkingprocessesparticipatoryliteraciesmakepossible.

Ourearlythinkingaboutalackofalignmentbetweenappsandparticipatoryliteraciesisthatthereisagreaterneedforanideologicalapproachtoappliteracies.ThinkingaboutStreet’swritingaboutideologicalmodelsofliteracy(Street,1995),itstartsfromabeliefthatknowledgeissociallyconstructedandepistemologicalframingsoftextsaresocially-constructedandmediated.RelatingStreet’sdifferentiationbetweenautonomousandideologicalapproachestoliteracy,appsthatencouragemoreofanautonomousmodelcomefromonedominantassumption,acquiringpredominantlylanguageskills

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throughafunplatformthatencouragesomeplay,butultimatelywithapedagogicendandoftenplayedinasolitaryway.Incontrast,appsthatencouragemoreofanideologicalmodelprovideopennesstoitsdesign,withpotentialformultipleplayers’participationandproductiveplaywhereyoucanmakeyourowncontentanduseavarietyofmodestodoso.

References

Burnett,C.(2015).(Im)materialisingliteracies.InRowsell,J.,&Pahl,K.(Eds.),TheRoutledgeHandbookofLiteracyStudies(pp.520-531).London:Routledge.

Burnett,C.,Davies,J.,Merchant,G.,&Rowsell,J.(2014).Newliteraciesaroundtheglobe.London:Routledge.

Chiong,C.,&Shuler,C.(2010).Learning:Isthereanappforthat?Investigationsofyoungchildren’susageandlearningwithmobiledevicesandapps.NewYork:TheJoanGanzCooneyCenteratSesameWorkshop.

Knobel,M.,&Lankshear,C.(2007).Onlinememes,affinities,andculturalproduction.InM.Knobel&C.Lankshear(Eds.),ANewLiteraciesSampler(pp.199-228).NewYork:PeterLang.

Knobel,M.,&Wilber,D.J.(2009).Let'stalk2.0:Whetherit'sweb2.0orliteracy2.0,it'sawholenewwayofthinking.EducationalLeadership,66(6),20-24.

Harwood,D.,Rowsell,J.,Winters,K.L.,Woloshyn,V.,&Bajovic,M.(2013).(GrantAmount:$74,968.00).SocialSciencesandHumanitiesResearchCouncil(SSHRC)InsightDevelopmentGrantAward.CrayonsandiPads:Understandingyoungchildren’smeaning-makingprocessesinlearningtobeliterate.

Lankshear,C.&Knobel,M.(2003).Newliteracies:changingknowledgeandclassroomlearning.London:OpenUniversity.

Rideout,V.J.(2013).Zerotoeight:Children’smediauseinAmerica2013.SanFrancisco,CA:CommonSenseMedia.

Rowsell,J.(2014).Towardaphenomenologyofcontemporaryreading.TheAustralianJournalofLiteracyandLanguage,37(2),117-127.

Rowsell,J.(2013).Workingwithmultimodality:Rethinkingliteracyinadigitalage.London:Routledge.

Rowsell,J.Colquhoun,C,Maues,F.(InProgress).Thecaseofcalvin:ReimagingreadingthroughMinecraft.

Shuler,C.(2012).iLearnII:AnanalysisoftheeducationcategoryonApple’sappstore.NewYork:JoanGanzCooneyCenter.

Street,B.(1984).Literacyintheoryandpractice.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Street,B.V.(1995).Socialliteracies:Criticalapproachestoliteracyindevelopment,ethnography,andeducation.Harlow:PearsonEducation.

Wohlwend,K.E.(InPress).Toddlersandtouchscreens:Learning“ConceptsBeyondPrint”withtablettechnologies.InR.J.Meyer&K.F.Whitmore(Eds.),Reclaimingearlyliteracy.Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaum.

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Wohlwend,K.E.(2015).Onescreen,manyfingers:Youngchildren'scollaborativeliteracyplaywithdigitalpuppetryappsandtouchscreentechnologies.Digitalmediaandliteraciesspecialissue.TheoryIntoPractice,54,154–162.

Wohlwend,K.E.(2010).Aisforavatar:Youngchildreninliteracy2.0worldsandliteracy1.0schools.

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Wohlwend,K.E.,Buchholz,B.A.,Wessel-Powell,C.,Coggin,L.S.,&Husbye,N.E.(2013).Literacyplayshop:Playingwithnewliteraciesandpopularmediaintheearlychildhoodclassroom.NewYork:TeachersCollege.