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Antennas and Propagation

Chapter 5

IntroductionAn antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors

Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into spaceReception - collects electromagnetic energy from space

In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission and reception

Radiation PatternsRadiation pattern

Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antennaDepicted as two-dimensional cross section

Beam width (or half-power beam width)Measure of directivity of antenna

Reception patternReceiving antenna’s equivalent to radiation pattern

Types of AntennasIsotropic antenna (idealized)

Radiates power equally in all directionsDipole antennas

Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna)

Parabolic Reflective Antenna

Antenna GainAntenna gain

Power output, in a particular direction, compared to that produced in any direction by a perfect omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna)

Effective areaRelated to physical size and shape of antenna

Antenna GainRelationship between antenna gain and effective area

G = antenna gainAe = effective areaf = carrier frequencyc = speed of light (» 3 ´ 108 m/s)λ = carrier wavelength

2

2

2

44c

AfAG ee πλπ

==

Propagation ModesGround-wave propagationSky-wave propagationLine-of-sight propagation

Ground Wave Propagation

Ground Wave PropagationFollows contour of the earthCan Propagate considerable distancesFrequencies up to 2 MHzExample

AM radio

Sky Wave Propagation

Sky Wave PropagationSignal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earthSignal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between ionosphere and earth’s surfaceReflection effect caused by refractionExamples

Amateur radioCB radio

Line-of-Sight Propagation

Line-of-Sight PropagationTransmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight

Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz not reflected by ionosphereGround communication – antennas within effective line of site due to refraction

Refraction – bending of microwaves by the atmosphere

Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the mediumWhen wave changes medium, speed changesWave bends at the boundary between mediums

Line-of-Sight EquationsOptical line of sight

Effective, or radio, line of sight

d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)h = antenna height (m)K = adjustment factor to account for refraction, rule of thumb K = 4/3

hd 57.3=

hd Κ= 57.3

Line-of-Sight EquationsMaximum distance between two antennas for LOS propagation:

h1 = height of antenna oneh2 = height of antenna two

( )2157.3 hh Κ+Κ

LOS Wireless Transmission Impairments

Attenuation and attenuation distortionFree space lossNoiseAtmospheric absorptionMultipathRefractionThermal noise

AttenuationStrength of signal falls off with distance over transmission mediumAttenuation factors for unguided media:

Received signal must have sufficient strength so that circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signalSignal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received without errorAttenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing distortion

Free Space LossFree space loss, ideal isotropic antenna

Pt = signal power at transmitting antennaPr = signal power at receiving antennaλ = carrier wavelengthd = propagation distance between antennasc = speed of light (» 3 ´ 10 8 m/s)

where d and λ are in the same units (e.g., meters)

( ) ( )2

2

2

2 44cfdd

PP

r

t πλπ

==

Free Space LossFree space loss equation can be recast:

⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛==λπd

PPL

r

tdB

4log20log10

( ) ( ) dB 98.21log20log20 ++−= dλ

( ) ( ) dB 56.147log20log204log20 −+=⎟⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛= df

cfdπ

Free Space LossFree space loss accounting for gain of other antennas

Gt = gain of transmitting antennaGr = gain of receiving antennaAt = effective area of transmitting antennaAr = effective area of receiving antenna

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )trtrtrr

t

AAfcd

AAd

GGd

PP

2

22

2

224===

λλ

π

Free Space LossFree space loss accounting for gain of other antennas can be recast as

( ) ( ) ( )rtdB AAdL log10log20log20 −+= λ

( ) ( ) ( ) dB54.169log10log20log20 +−+−= rt AAdf

Categories of NoiseThermal NoiseIntermodulation noiseCrosstalkImpulse Noise

Thermal NoiseThermal noise due to agitation of electronsPresent in all electronic devices and transmission mediaCannot be eliminatedFunction of temperatureParticularly significant for satellite communication

Thermal NoiseAmount of thermal noise to be found in a bandwidth of 1Hz in any device or conductor is:

N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidthk = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 ´ 10-23 J/KT = temperature, in kelvins (absolute temperature)

( )W/Hz k0 TN =

Thermal NoiseNoise is assumed to be independent of frequencyThermal noise present in a bandwidth of B Hertz (in watts):

or, in decibel-watts

TBN k=

BTN log10 log 10k log10 ++=BT log10 log 10dBW 6.228 ++−=

Noise TerminologyIntermodulation noise – occurs if signals with different frequencies share the same medium

Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency that is the sum or difference of original frequencies

Crosstalk – unwanted coupling between signal pathsImpulse noise – irregular pulses or noise spikes

Short duration and of relatively high amplitudeCaused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or faults and flaws in the communications system

Expression Eb/N0

Ratio of signal energy per bit to noise power density per Hertz

The bit error rate for digital data is a function of Eb/N0

Given a value for Eb/N0 to achieve a desired error rate, parameters of this formula can be selectedAs bit rate R increases, transmitted signal power must increase to maintain required Eb/N0

TRS

NRS

NEb

k/

00

==

Other ImpairmentsAtmospheric absorption – water vapor and oxygen contribute to attenuationMultipath – obstacles reflect signals so that multiple copies with varying delays are receivedRefraction – bending of radio waves as they propagate through the atmosphere

Multipath Propagation

Multipath PropagationReflection - occurs when signal encounters a surface that is large relative to the wavelength of the signalDiffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to wavelength of radio waveScattering – occurs when incoming signal hits an object whose size in the order of the wavelength of the signal or less

The Effects of Multipath Propagation

Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases

If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise declines, making detection more difficult

Intersymbol interference (ISI)One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for a subsequent bit

Types of FadingFast fadingSlow fadingFlat fadingSelective fadingRayleigh fadingRician fading

Error Compensation MechanismsForward error correctionAdaptive equalizationDiversity techniques

Forward Error CorrectionTransmitter adds error-correcting code to data block

Code is a function of the data bits

Receiver calculates error-correcting code from incoming data bits

If calculated code matches incoming code, no error occurredIf error-correcting codes don’t match, receiver attempts to determine bits in error and correct

Adaptive EqualizationCan be applied to transmissions that carry analog or digital information

Analog voice or videoDigital data, digitized voice or video

Used to combat intersymbol interferenceInvolves gathering dispersed symbol energy back into its original time intervalTechniques

Lumped analog circuitsSophisticated digital signal processing algorithms

Diversity TechniquesDiversity is based on the fact that individual channels experience independent fading eventsSpace diversity – techniques involving physical transmission pathFrequency diversity – techniques where the signal is spread out over a larger frequency bandwidth or carried on multiple frequency carriersTime diversity – techniques aimed at spreading the data out over time