anatomy & physiology. what is anatomy & physiology? anatomyanatomy –is the study of...

Anatomy & Anatomy & PhysiologyPhysiology

What is Anatomy & What is Anatomy & Physiology?Physiology?•AnatomyAnatomy

–Is the study of structure

What is Anatomy & What is Anatomy & Physiology?Physiology?•AnatomyAnatomy

–Subdivisions of anatomy

• Gross anatomy• Microanatomy

• CellularCellular• HistologyHistology

• Systemic anatomy• Regional anatomy

What is Anatomy & What is Anatomy & Physiology?Physiology?

•PhysiologyPhysiology–Is the study of function–Structure determines function

Anatomical PositionAnatomical Position

InferiorInferior: below

DistalDistal:: toward the fingers

or toes

Anatomical TerminologyAnatomical Terminology•Directional TermsDirectional TermsSuperiorSuperior: above

ProximalProximal: towards the attachment of a limb

Anatomical TerminologyAnatomical Terminology•Directional TermsDirectional TermsAnteriorAnterior: toward/from the frontPosterorPosteror: toward/from

the back

PeripheralPeripheral: toward the

surface

Anatomical TerminologyAnatomical Terminology•Directional TermsDirectional TermsSuperficialSuperficial: toward the surfaceDeepDeep: Away from the surface

Anatomical PlanesAnatomical Planes

•Sagittal PlaneSagittal Plane

divides the body into a right and a left half

• mid sagittal

• parasagittal

•Frontal or Frontal or CoronalCoronal

divides the body into a front and a back

•TransversTransverse or e or horizontalhorizontaldivides the body into upper and lower portions

Anatomical TerminologyAnatomical Terminology•PlanesPlanes

Median or Median or mid-mid-

sagittalsagittal

ParamedianParamedian

CHECK YOUR CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDINGUNDERSTANDINGClassify each plane illustrated below:Classify each plane illustrated below:

mid-mid-sagittalsagittal

frontalfrontal horizontahorizontall

Hierarchy of OrganizationHierarchy of Organization

• Cells

• Tissues

• Organs

• Organ Systems

Organ System Overview1. Integumentary System 2. Skeletal System 3. Muscular System 4. Nervous System 5. Endocrine System 6. Cardiovascular System 7. Lymphatic System 8. Respiratory System 9. Digestive System 10. Urinary System 11. Reproductive System

Life ProcessesLife Processes•metabolism•responsiveness•movement•growth•Differentiation•Reproduction

Function:Function: Protection

Organs/Organs/Components: Components: Epidermis and DermisFinger/toe nailsHairSweat glands

Organ Systems Integumentary Integumentary

SystemSystem

Function:Function: provide support for the body, to protect delicate internal organs and to provide attachment sites for the organs.Organs/Organs/Components: Components: Bones, cartilage, joints

Organ Systems Skeletal Skeletal SystemSystem

Function:Function: provide support and movement

Organs/Organs/Components: Components: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, tendons

Organ Systems Muscular Muscular SystemSystem

Function:Function: transport nutrients, gases (such as oxygen and CO2), hormones and wastes through the body.

Organ Systems Circulatory Circulatory SystemSystem

Organs: Organs: Heart, blood vessels and blood

Function:Function: directs behaviour and movement and, along with the endocrine system, controls physiological processes Organs: Organs: Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves.

Organ Systems Nervous Nervous SystemSystem

Function:Function: provide gas exchange between the blood and the environmentfor the organs.Organs: Organs: Nose, trachea and lungs. bronchi

RespiratorRespiratory Systemy System

Function:Function: breakdown and absorb nutrients that are necessary for growth and maintenance

Organs: Organs: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines

Digestive Digestive SystemSystem

Function:Function: filter out cellular wastes, toxins and excess water from the circulatory system

Organs: Organs: Kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra

Excretory Excretory SystemSystem

Function:Function: relay chemical messages through the body and in conjunction with the nervous system, these chemical messages help control physiological processes Organs: Organs: hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, ovaries/testies, and adrenal glands

Endocrine Endocrine SystemSystem

Function:Function: manufacture cells that allow reproduction

Organs: Organs: ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina and mammary glandstestes, seminal vesicles and penis

ReproductivReproductive Systeme System

Anatomical TerminologyAnatomical TerminologyDirectional TermsDirectional TermsCranialCranial: towards the

headCaudalCaudal: towards the feet/buttocksMedialMedial: towards the middleLateralLateral: towards or from the side

Anatomical TerminologyAnatomical TerminologyDirectional TermsDirectional Terms

PlantarPlantar: toward or on the soles of the feet

PalmarPalmar: toward or on the palm of the hand

Anatomical TerminologyAnatomical TerminologyRegional TermsRegional Terms

a. Abdominal b. Antecubital c. Axillary d. Brachial

e. Buccal f. Carpal g. Cervical

j. Inguinal

l. Oral k. Nasal

i. Femoral

n. Patellarm. Orbital

h. Digital

o. Pubic

q. Thoracic r. Umbilical

p. Tarsal

u. Gluteus

s. Cephalic t. Dorsum

v. Lumbar

w. Popiteal

y. Calcaneusx. Sural

ABDOMINOPELVICABDOMINOPELVIC

QUADRANTSQUADRANTS

Right Upper Right Upper QuadrantQuadrant(RUQ)(RUQ)

Right Lower Right Lower QuadrantQuadrant(RLQ)(RLQ)

Left Upper Left Upper QuadrantQuadrant(LUQ)(LUQ)

Left Lower Left Lower QuadrantQuadrant(LLQ)(LLQ)

Anatomical Anatomical TerminologyTerminology

Abdominopelvic RegionsAbdominopelvic Regions

CranialCranialCavityCavity

ThoracicThoracic

PericardiPericardialal

AbdominAbdominalal

PelviPelvicc

SpinalSpinal

BodyBodyCavitiesCavities

DorsaDorsall

VentralVentral

Abdomino-Abdomino-pelvicpelvic

HOMEOSTASISHOMEOSTASIS• Is maintaining the internal Is maintaining the internal

environment within environment within physiological limitsphysiological limits–Internal environment refers to the extracellular fluids (EFC)

–Includes lymph, plasma and interstitial fluid

•The maintenance of The maintenance of homeostasis results in healthhomeostasis results in health

HOMEOSTASISHOMEOSTASIS•And StressAnd Stress

–Homeostatic mechanisms attempt to counteract the effects of the stress and bring the condition back to normal

HOMEOSTASISHOMEOSTASIS• Homeostasis is regulated by Homeostasis is regulated by

the nervous system and the nervous system and endocrine systemsendocrine systems

HOMEOSTASISHOMEOSTASIS• And Feedback Systems (Loops)And Feedback Systems (Loops)

–a cycle of events in which information about the status of a condition is continually monitored and fed back (reported) to a central control region.

–Any stress that changes a controlled condition is called a stimulus.

HOMEOSTASISHOMEOSTASIS•And Feedback Systems And Feedback Systems

(Loops)(Loops)–three basic components

•The control center •The receptor •The effector

HOMEOSTASISHOMEOSTASIS• And Feedback Systems (Loops)And Feedback Systems (Loops)

– Negative Feedback SystemsNegative Feedback Systems a. Reverses the original stimulsb. Tend to maintain conditions

that require frequent fine tuning

– Positive Feedback SystemsPositive Feedback Systemsa. enhances the original stimulusb. tend to regulate conditions that do not occur often and do not require continual fine-tuning

•And DiseaseAnd Disease– Disease Disease a. any change from a state of health, characterized by

symptoms & signs

b. Local vs. systemic disease

HOMEOSTASISHOMEOSTASIS

• Homeostasis Homeostasis And DiseaseAnd Disease– Symptoms vs. Symptoms vs. SymptomsSymptoms a. Symptomsa. Symptoms

are subjective changes in body functions that are not

apparent to an observerb. Signsb. Signs

are objective changes that a

clinician can observe and measure

What is Anatomy & What is Anatomy & Physiology?Physiology?• AnatomyAnatomy

– Is the study of structure–Subdivisions of anatomy

•surface anatomy• gross anatomy•systemic anatomy•regional anatomy•radiographic anatomy•developmental anatomy•embryology•cytology•pathological anatomy

THE THE CHEMISTRY CHEMISTRY

OF LIFEOF LIFE

CH 2CH 2

I. Atoms and molecules A. Atoms are the smallest A. Atoms are the smallest

stable units of matter.stable units of matter. 1.1.NucleusNucleus

• Protons • Neutrons

2. Electron cloud2. Electron cloud• Electrons

3. Atoms are electrically 3. Atoms are electrically neutralneutral # protons = #

electrons

I. Atoms and molecules B. Elements

Element= A substance that is Element= A substance that is made of only one kind of atommade of only one kind of atom1.1.Contain atoms with the same Contain atoms with the same

number of protonsnumber of protons• Called “atomic number” • Differ in number of electrons

and neutrons 2. 92 naturally occurring 2. 92 naturally occurring

3. Principle elements of human 3. Principle elements of human bodybody

O, C, H, N, Ca, PO, C, H, N, Ca, P

II. Chemical bonding A. Ionic bonds A. Ionic bonds

1.1.Form when one atom Form when one atom gives up an e- and gives up an e- and another atom gains another atom gains that e-that e- • cations cations • anionsanions

2. Properties of Ionic Compounds2. Properties of Ionic Compounds• readily dissolve in water • dissociate in water into their cations and anions.

II. Chemical bonding B. Covalent bonds B. Covalent bonds

1.1.Form when two atoms Form when two atoms shareshare electrons, forming a moleculeelectrons, forming a molecule

3. Properties of Covalent Cmpds3. Properties of Covalent Cmpds strong bonds

•Form a molecule•Diatomic mc: H2, 02, N2

2. Kinds of covalent bonds2. Kinds of covalent bonds•Nonpolar Covalent bondsNonpolar Covalent bonds•Polar Covalent bondsPolar Covalent bonds

II. Chemical bonding C. Hydrogen bonds C. Hydrogen bonds

1.1.Form Form betweenbetween two adjacent polar mc two adjacent polar mc containing H and O, N, or Fcontaining H and O, N, or F• Ex: between water mc

2. Properties of Covalent Cmpds2. Properties of Covalent Cmpds• Very weak• Important in determining the shape of

large biological mc such as protein and DNA

• Important in determining characteristics of water

II. Chemical bonding D. States of Matter D. States of Matter

1.1.Are determined by the amount of Are determined by the amount of bonding that occurs between mcbonding that occurs between mc• Solid Liquid Gas

2. Properties of Covalent Cmpds2. Properties of Covalent Cmpds• Water is the only substance that can

occur in all three states within temperature ranges consistent with life

Liquid

III. Chemical reactions A. Fundamental Concepts A. Fundamental Concepts

1.1. Metabolism Metabolism 2.2. ReactantsReactants2. Products2. Products3. Chemical reaction3. Chemical reaction4.4. EnergyEnergy

• Potential EnergyPotential Energy• Kinetic EnergyKinetic Energy• Law of Conservation of Matter and EnergyLaw of Conservation of Matter and Energy

III. Chemical reactions B. Types of reactions B. Types of reactions

1.1. Decomposition Decomposition • AB AB A + B A + B• Catabolic processesCatabolic processes• ExergonicExergonic• HydrolysisHydrolysis

2. Synthesis2. Synthesis• A + B A + B AB AB• Anabolic processesAnabolic processes• EndergonicEndergonic• Dehydration SynthesisDehydration Synthesis

3.3. Exchange Exchange • AB + CD AB + CD AD + CB AD + CB• Decomposition and Decomposition and

synthesis may be paired.synthesis may be paired.

III. Chemical reactions C. Reversible reactionsC. Reversible reactions

1. Reactants become products 1. Reactants become products while products become while products become reactantsreactants

• A + B A + B AB AB• Continues until equilibrium is reachedContinues until equilibrium is reached

2. Very important to biological 2. Very important to biological systemssystems

ATP ATP ADP + PADP + P

III. Chemical reactions D. Enzymes and Chemical reactionsD. Enzymes and Chemical reactions

1. Enzymes are important 1. Enzymes are important reaction catalysts in metabolic reaction catalysts in metabolic systemssystems

• Speed up the reactionSpeed up the reaction• Allow the reaction to occur at lower Allow the reaction to occur at lower

than normal temperaturesthan normal temperatures• Lower the activation energyLower the activation energy

2. Are not altered or used up by 2. Are not altered or used up by the reaction the reaction

IV. Inorganic compounds A.A. Generally ConceptsGenerally Concepts

1.1.Don’t contain both C & HDon’t contain both C & H 2. Important organic cmpds in 2. Important organic cmpds in

the the human bodyhuman body• COCO22

• OO22

• HH22OO• inorganic acids, bases, and salts inorganic acids, bases, and salts

IV. Inorganic compounds B. Water B. Water

1.1. Excellent solvent because it is Excellent solvent because it is polarpolar. . Solute + solvent = solutionSolute + solvent = solution

2.2. Forms a reaction medium, Forms a reaction medium, particularly in hydrolysis particularly in hydrolysis reactions which break down reactions which break down larger molecules. larger molecules.

3. High heat capacity and thus 3. High heat capacity and thus water stays in a liquid form over water stays in a liquid form over a broad range of temps. a broad range of temps.

4. 4. Water is an important reactant Water is an important reactant in some types of chemical in some types of chemical reactions.reactions.

4.4.Water carries heat with it when Water carries heat with it when it evaporates - thus water helps it evaporates - thus water helps stabilize body temperature. stabilize body temperature.

5.5.Effective lubricant in joints and Effective lubricant in joints and within body cavities and thus within body cavities and thus serves a protective function. serves a protective function.

IV. Inorganic compounds C. Aqueous solutions and C. Aqueous solutions and

electrolytes electrolytes 1.1. ElectrolytesElectrolytes

• Water soluble inorganic cmpdsWater soluble inorganic cmpds• Are capable of conducting an electric Are capable of conducting an electric

current current 2. Electrolytes and the electrical 2. Electrolytes and the electrical

activity they can generate are the activity they can generate are the basis for basis for • nerve impulses nerve impulses • muscle actionmuscle action

IV. Inorganic compounds C. Aqueous solutions and C. Aqueous solutions and

electrolytes electrolytes 3. Homeostasis of electrolytes in 3. Homeostasis of electrolytes in

body fluids body fluids • kidneys (rid body of excess ions)kidneys (rid body of excess ions)• digestive (absorb ions from diet)digestive (absorb ions from diet)• skeletal (store and release ions)skeletal (store and release ions)

4. 4. HydrophilicHydrophilic and and HydrophobicHydrophobic Mc Mc

IV. Inorganic compounds D. Colloids and suspensionsD. Colloids and suspensions

1.1. ColloidsColloids – are solutions in which large and are solutions in which large and

complex organic mc are dispersed complex organic mc are dispersed – mc stay in solution indefinitelymc stay in solution indefinitely– Example: proteinsExample: proteins

2.2. SuspensionsSuspensions– Contain large particles that will Contain large particles that will

settle out if left undisturbed settle out if left undisturbed – Example: bloodExample: blood

IV. Inorganic compounds E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH

IV. Inorganic compounds E. Acids/Bases / Salts and E. Acids/Bases / Salts and

pHpH1.1.AcidsAcids–Are substances Are substances

which form Hwhich form H+ +

ions when in ions when in solution solution ((the stronger the the stronger the acid the more Hacid the more H++ ions it containsions it contains))

IV. Inorganic compounds E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pHE. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH

1.1.AcidsAcids

- can break - can break bonds, bonds,

denature denature proteins, proteins, and disrupt cell and disrupt cell and tissue and tissue functions functions

1.1.AcidsAcids• pH pH 7 7 • Examples: Examples:

– Carbonic acidCarbonic acid– HClHCl

The lower The lower the pH the the pH the stronger stronger the acidthe acid

2. Bases2. Bases• Are substances which Are substances which

form OHform OH-- ions when in ions when in solution solution ((the stronger the the stronger the base the more OHbase the more OH-- ions it containsions it contains))

• pH pH 7 7((the stronger the the stronger the base the higher the base the higher the pHpH))

Normal pH of blood is 7.35Normal pH of blood is 7.35

2. Bases2. Bases– Strong bases are very Strong bases are very

damaging to cell damaging to cell processesprocesses

– Example: NHExample: NH44OHOH

pHpH3. Salts3. Salts

• Contain a cation Contain a cation other than H and an other than H and an anion other than OH anion other than OH

• dissociate in water dissociate in water • Are strong Are strong

electrolyteselectrolytes• pH pH = 7= 7

pHpH3. Salts3. Salts

• Importance in the Importance in the body:body:– provide ions for provide ions for

transport of transport of substances into substances into and out of cellsand out of cells

– function in muscle function in muscle contractioncontraction

– function in nerve function in nerve impulse conductionimpulse conduction

4.4.Changes in the acid-base Changes in the acid-base balance are resisted bybalance are resisted by – extracellular and extracellular and

intracellular chemical intracellular chemical buffers buffers

– respiratory regulationrespiratory regulation– renal regulationrenal regulation

5. Buffers5. Buffers• compounds help stabilize the compounds help stabilize the

pH of a solution by turning a pH of a solution by turning a strong acid or base into a strong acid or base into a weaker oneweaker one

• usually consist of a weak acid usually consist of a weak acid and its related salt and its related salt

• Example: Example: – bicarbonate ion buffers the bloodbicarbonate ion buffers the blood

V. Organic compounds A. GeneralA. General

1.1.Long-chain moleculesLong-chain molecules• Always contain C and H Always contain C and H • Usually contain OUsually contain O

2.2. Linked by covalent bondsLinked by covalent bonds3.3. Many are soluble in waterMany are soluble in water4.4. Classes of Organic CmpdsClasses of Organic Cmpds

• CarbohydratesCarbohydrates• LipidsLipids• ProteinsProteins• Nucleic acidsNucleic acids

V. Organic compounds A.A.Carbohydrates Carbohydrates

1.1. Contain C H O Contain C H O in a near 1:2:1 ratioin a near 1:2:1 ratio

2.2. Most important function:Most important function:Primary Primary energy energy source source for the for the cellcell

V. Organic compounds A.A. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates

3.3.KindsKinds• MonosaccharidMonosaccharid

eses– Simple sugars Simple sugars – 3-7 carbons in 3-7 carbons in

length length – Example: Glucose Example: Glucose

(C(C66HH1212OO66))• DisaccharidesDisaccharides–Double sugars Double sugars –Example: Example: Lactose, Lactose, sucrosesucrose

• PolysaccharidesPolysaccharides

–Most complex Most complex sugars sugars

–Example: Example: Starch Starch GlycogenGlycogen

V. Organic compounds B.B. Lipids Lipids

1.1.Contain C H O in Contain C H O in very large very large numbersnumbers

2.2. IncludeInclude Fats, oils and Fats, oils and

waxeswaxes3.3.Common Common

examplesexamples– triglyceridestriglycerides– steroidssteroids– phospholipidsphospholipids

5. Insoluble in 5. Insoluble in waterwater

4. Importance4. Importance• long term energy long term energy

storagestorage• structural structural

component of cell component of cell membranes membranes ((phospholipidsphospholipids))

B. LipidsB. Lipids

5. Kinds5. Kinds– Fatty AcidsFatty Acids::

• saturatedsaturated C have only C have only

single single bonds bonds • unsaturatedunsaturated

C have 1 or C have 1 or more double more double bonds.bonds. polyunsaturatedpolyunsaturated

double double bondsbonds

occur at multiple sites occur at multiple sites

5. Kinds5. Kinds– Eicosanoids:Eicosanoids:

• Have short C chainsHave short C chains• ProstaglandinsProstaglandins – local – local

hormoneshormones• LeukotrienesLeukotrienes – coordinate – coordinate

response to injury or diseaseresponse to injury or disease

B. LipidsB. Lipids 5. Kinds5. Kinds

– GlyceridesGlycerides• composed of composed of

fatty acids fatty acids and glyceroland glycerol

• FunctionFunction Energy Energy

sourcesource InsulationInsulation ProtectionProtection

B. LipidsB. Lipids 5. Kinds5. Kinds

– SteroidsSteroidslg lipid mclg lipid mcexamples:examples: cholesterol, cholesterol, testoteronetestoterone, estrogen, estrogen

- FunctionFunctionStabilize cell membraneStabilize cell membraneSex hormonesSex hormonesRegulate metabolism and Regulate metabolism and mineral mineral balancebalanceFormation of bileFormation of bile

B. Lipids 5. Kinds5. Kinds

– PhospholipdPhospholipdstructural structural lipids that lipids that help form help form and maintain and maintain cell cell membranes membranes

polar head - polar head - hydrophilichydrophilicnonpolar tail- nonpolar tail- hydrophobichydrophobic

V. Organic compounds C.C. Proteins Proteins

Examples:Examples: Keratin, hemoglobinKeratin, hemoglobin

1. Basics1. Basics– the most abundant organic the most abundant organic

components in the bodycomponents in the body– contain carbon, hydrogen, contain carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen and nitrogen. oxygen and nitrogen.

– If made of more than 30 If made of more than 30 amino acids it is called a amino acids it is called a polypeptidepolypeptide

C. ProteinsC. Proteins

Made from amino acids (20 Made from amino acids (20 exist) held together by exist) held together by peptide bondspeptide bonds

V. Organic compounds C. Proteins C. Proteins

2. Functions2. FunctionsSupport, movement, transport, buffers, regulate reactions, coordination, control, defense

3. Structure3. StructurePrimary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quatranary

Primary Primary Structure:Structure:

Order of the Order of the amino acid amino acid sequencesequence

Secondary Secondary Structure:Structure:

the tendency of the polypeptide to coil or pleat due to H-bonding between R-groups

Peptide Peptide bondsbonds

Tertiary Structure:Tertiary Structure:

Describes the overall Describes the overall shape of a protein;shape of a protein;

Quaternary Quaternary Structure:Structure:

Proteins formed from Proteins formed from one or more one or more polypeptidespolypeptides

Shape determines Shape determines function function

4. Shape Determines 4. Shape Determines functionfunction

Small changes in pH, temperature, ionic composition can denature a protein (affects protein structure) & cause it not to function properly

5. 5. EnzymesEnzymes• Biological catalysts • Speed up a reaction without being used up in the reaction

Lock and Lock and Key Model Key Model of Enzyme of Enzyme

ActionAction

5. 5. EnzymesEnzymes• lower the needed activation energy

Induced Induced Fit Fit

Model of Model of Enzyme Enzyme ActionAction

5. 5. EnzymesEnzymes• Some poisons bond permanently to an enzyme

Model of Model of How How Some Some

Poisons Poisons WorkWork

6.6. GlycoproteinsGlycoproteins• Protein + carbohydrate • Important in cell recognition

V. Organic compounds C. Proteins C. Proteins 6.6. GlycoproteinsGlycoproteins

• Function Function As enzymesAs antibodiesAs hormonesAs cell membrane componentsTo secrete mucins which absorb water to form mucus

V. Organic compounds D. Nucleic Acids D. Nucleic Acids

1.1.lg organic mc that have lg organic mc that have C, H, O, N and P

2.2. Function Function store and process information

3.3. Structure Structure made ofmade of nucleotides nucleotides

Phosphate, sugar, base Phosphate, sugar, base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil)thymine, uracil)

linked bylinked by dehydration dehydration synthesissynthesis

3.3. Structure Structure • made ofmade of nucleotides nucleotides

4.4. KindsKinds• DNADNA

Important in inheritance

Codes for and directs the synthesis of proteins

Regulates cell metabolism

Found in nucleus Double stranded Sugar is Deoxyribose Bases are A G C T Able to self replicate

DNA STRUCTURE

4.4. KindsKinds• RNA RNA

comes in several forms (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA) that cooperate to manufacture proteins

Single stranded Found in nucleus and

cytoplasm Bases are U A G C Sugar is ribose

E. High Energy E. High Energy CompoundsCompounds

• ATP made of 3 phosphate groups attached to an adenosine (composed of adenine and ribose)

1.1. Energy currency cells is Energy currency cells is ATPATP

V. Organic compounds

E. High Energy Compounds E. High Energy Compounds

2. Energy is stored when P 2. Energy is stored when P is added to ADPis added to ADP (energonic)(energonic)

E. High Energy Compounds E. High Energy Compounds

2. 2. Energy is released Energy is released when P is when P is added to ADPadded to ADP (exergonic)(exergonic)

E. High Energy E. High Energy CompoundsCompounds3. Another form, called cyclic-

AMP is used as an intracellular signal.

anatomy & physiology. what is anatomy & physiology? anatomyanatomy –is the study of...

respiratory systemfunction

anatomy physiologywhat

physiological processes

delicate internal organs

skeletal muscle

smooth muscle

cardiac muscle

cellular wastes

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