an analysis of psychological wellbeing indicators of gnh
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An Analysis of Psychological Wellbeing Indicators of GNH
Through a Buddhist Perspective
by Tashi Wangmo
Bachelors of Commerce University of North Bengal 2003
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
MPhil Policy Study (PPE)
in the Graduate Academic Unit of School of Graduate Studies
Supervisor John Valk PhD Renaissance College UNB
Emery Hyslop-Margison PhD Faculty of Education UNB
Ellen Rose PhD Faculty of Education UNB
Examining Board Linda Eyre PhD Faculty of Education UNB Chair
Ian Methven PhD Director of the Property Studies UNB
Jennifer Pazienza PhD Faculty of Education UNB
This thesis is accepted by the
Dean of Graduate Studies
THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK
September 2010
copyTashi Wangmo 2010
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ABSTRACT
Measuring wellbeing is an important task in determining whether peoples lives
are improving or becoming worse over time Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the
central development philosophy of Bhutan This philosophy aims at maximizing human
wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with spiritual
and emotional needs of the people The Centre for Bhutan Studies in 2008 developed the
Gross National Happiness Index as a tool to measure the overall wellbeing of the
Bhutanese people and to track the performances of government policies The index
comprises of 72 indicators grouped under nine domains psychological wellbeing
cultural resilience education health time use and balance good governance community
vitality ecological diversity and living standard
The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist principles of
happiness on the indicators of psychological wellbeing domain and the coherence of
indicators with the concept of GNH Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of
the indicators under the nine domains would be most beneficial due to the vastness of the
indicators this study focuses only on the indicators of psychological wellbeing Since
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social lives of
Bhutanese the Buddhist principles of happiness provides the framework to analyze the
indicators Each indicator is determined to what extent they reflect Buddhist principles
Findings from this study reveal that the core teachings of Buddhism find a place in each
of the indicators The study thus concludes that the indicators of psychological wellbeing
are influenced by Buddhism and consistent with the concept of GNH
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many people to thank for the successful completion of this study I
would first like to thank my supervisor Dr John Valk for his continuous support
guidance and encouragement I would also like to thank my co-supervisors Dr Emery
Hyslop-Margison and Dr Ellen Rose for their guidance and time which helped me
complete my study on time I would also like to thank the University of New Brunswick
especially the Graduate School Unit for partially funding my study My sincere thanks
also go to the Royal Government of Bhutan for granting me study leave
I would also like to thank Ms Tshokey Zangmo Researcher at the Centre for
Bhutan Studies for providing me with information on GNH Index and for clearing my
doubts I am also thankful to Ven Lama Mepham a Buddhist meditation teacher at the
University of Arkansas for guiding me and sharing his knowledge on Buddhist principles
Lastly I am very thankful to my family and friends for their continued love and support
iii
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
List of Abbreviations viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture 3
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy 5
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan 7
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index 8
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study 13
16 Methodology 14
17 Limitations and Significance of the study 17
18 Summary 18
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 20 21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness 21
22 Evolution of the Concept 29
23 GNH Discourses and Debates 33
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness 37
25 Summary 39
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS 41 31 Buddhist View of Happiness 42
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles 45
321 The four noble truths 45
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion 47 iv
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50
331 Generosity 55
332 Ethics 55
333 Patience and Tolerance 57
334 Perseverance 58
335 Meditative Concentration 59
336 Wisdom 60
34 Summary 61
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64
42 Emotional Balance 66
43 Spiritual Practices 80
43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87
44 Summary 89
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92
References 99
Appendix 1 110
Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae
v
List of Tables
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54
vii
List of Abbreviations
CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa
FYP Five Year Plan
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GHQ General Health Questionnaire
GNH Gross National Happiness
GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission
GPI Genuine Progress Index
HDI Human Development Index
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoHE Ministry of Health and Education
NEC National Environment Commission
NSB National Statistic Bureau
RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan
TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples
lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the
people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it
measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture
fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)
Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing
alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human
Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important
factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary
values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross
National Happiness
Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of
Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing
human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the
spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck
coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross
National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura
2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an
enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is
the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult
1
for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four
major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable
economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning
Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through
which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH
Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently
sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked
however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core
principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation
of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of
Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH
values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008
pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been
identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now
ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government
performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this
study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist
principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief
background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents
Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National
Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains
of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth
2
section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section
presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance
and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are
presented in the eighth section
11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture
Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central
Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square
kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two
leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most
isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are
smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)
farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population
945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the
population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was
estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost
entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea
level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau
2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry
of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity
Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)
The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by
Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique
3
philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and
traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme
Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than
Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of
every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed
that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)
This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority
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S Gasa Ozong
Toogsa THIMPHU Paro
Tashigang
Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing
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BANGLADESH
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)
4
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy
Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung
Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to
unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan
(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was
the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education
[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system
where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head
abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement
of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for
this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -
1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious
retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung
himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal
stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was
unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then
visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country
Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional
democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization
was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation
A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country
5
of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady
decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples
participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen
the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the
establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye
Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees
(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these
committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers
previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)
On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned
nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate
the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal
Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite
occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king
was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning
monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed
that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign
He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness
today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual
pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected
government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH
6
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan
The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be
included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The
importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A
Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states
that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve
their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the
concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an
important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government
of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)
GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to
complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and
non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing
ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH
supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater
good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual
The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for
it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it
cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme
YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH
stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which
happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments
policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a
7
collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the
happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve
happiness
The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese
worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The
policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from
outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to
diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning
Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross
National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision
emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and
environmental conservation
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index
Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese
government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and
equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural
preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have
constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to
as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism
and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the
government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt
the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot
8
guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators
were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural
resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality
ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness
are explained below
1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life
life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable
indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and
generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional
balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the
indicators under this domain
2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two
indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent
delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account
3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain
intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities
that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust
belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community
and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality
Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density
4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and
strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of
changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that
9
encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music
dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural
diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan
skill Value transmission and Basic precept
5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The
GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of
health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated
health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month
Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding
practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to
health
6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and
collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and
skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic
ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally
The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and
Folk and historical literacy
7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception
of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation
Ecological knowledge and Afforestation
8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the
individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and
10
house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food
security and Hardship
9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people
perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality
The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government
performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and
corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good
governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator
A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in
nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of
GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result
of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of
950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS
in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and
principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)
states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally
weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal
intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each
domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high
response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For
example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often
they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion
forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the
11
option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only
eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72
indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)
The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is
currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki
Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the
conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured
semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of
the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual
having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS
2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based
on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or
objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective
survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those
elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime
accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and
volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of
monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report
survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of
subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index
is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and
determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains
12
The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average
squared distance from cutoff
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study
Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with
the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by
the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and
emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified
are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the
resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do
the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept
of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what
extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators
with the concept of GNH
Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be
most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the
indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I
choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health
living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional
economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development
Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been
included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of
13
psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it
would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators
16 Methodology
The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist
principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This
policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze
the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes
and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social
problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses
determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for
determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a
given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the
governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the
concept of GNH
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social
lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most
important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not
to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH
indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First
the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will
determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is
14
a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As
such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced
the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and
Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study
attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist
influence which then might support the notion put forth by them
Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on
GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on
GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such
as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are
used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by
the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist
principles of happiness
The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to
overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a
conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an
inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key
principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be
discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma
principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical
basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas
An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope
15
and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will
serve as a basis for assessing the indicators
Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana
Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse
Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven
bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-
1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from
hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings
The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used
for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every
sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the
teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected
in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such
as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used
The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the
Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the
indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-
processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-
one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical
standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as
how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing
indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the
indicators are referred to for this study
16
17 Limitations and Significance of the study
There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study
focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH
indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives
Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the
indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles
and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous
Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of
Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche
Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the
indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country
As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the
GNH index are available
The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the
psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of
the GNH index are not discussed
Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons
First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study
that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism
This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in
studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of
GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be
an area of future research
17
Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the
government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH
index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the
design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of
the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is
important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be
distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine
whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept
18 Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at
Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy
The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the
methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter
Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how
the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been
influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to
each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the
development of the GNH index are also discussed
Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological
wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined
Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and
compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices
18
of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the
teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles
Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological
wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each
indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent
to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency
of the indicators with the concept of GNH
Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future
studies
19
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)
is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather
implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic
construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in
the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more
depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999
2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have
argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter
reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship
between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored
Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist
principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to
understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH
The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the
core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points
out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold
path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how
the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century
when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section
examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development
giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the
noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20
GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the
review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by
questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples
wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH
21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness
Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This
is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of
the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans
value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left
exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH
context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both
economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to
pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as
the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against
the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values
In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH
thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social
and cultural values
Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH
are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted
in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is
essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces
21
harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana
Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan
Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material
rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the
importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and
pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as
peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo
2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly
influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of
Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the
Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of
Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion
and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice
According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is
happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche
as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to
remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the
cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure
and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the
means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is
often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the
process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in
the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in
22
Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam
Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to
change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the
importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as
altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength
Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and
economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be
a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley
states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan
Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates
living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places
equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of
GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it
the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its
social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was
overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field
(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their
forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the
governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to
environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)
argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse
theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that
GNH is therefore a response to this realization
23
Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless
Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan
Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from
the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a
society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that
this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri
(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-
specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist
values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist
Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be
clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief
ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy
and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among
these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment
(Rinzin 2006)
1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation
Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of
happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our
happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical
environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the
uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in
the world
24
Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning
Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong
arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The
relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally
different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an
independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all
dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that
nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of
conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)
Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and
rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-
human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these
spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)
These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese
consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system
The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the
constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage
2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion
The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an
integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned
development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their
policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist
Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the
25
doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary
rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich
religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam
namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to
promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-
damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty
community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and
superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and
teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)
In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people
consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese
culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a
way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through
tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and
cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening
the Bhutanese culture and tradition
3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development
The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development
While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external
factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the
concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs
(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an
end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety
26
insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic
development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is
easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness
Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have
opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the
government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable
goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and
exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for
economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998
Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are
sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the
requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher
1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or
cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on
trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and
follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on
economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By
following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage
in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society
4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance
This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a
GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys
political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent
27
accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission
[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts
that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of
GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most
important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic
government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy
would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the
freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a
Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise
Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the
path to good governance that leads to GNH
Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006
states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig
and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional
Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people
Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which
encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right
Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right
Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese
judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws
(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2
Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right
Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip
28
(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10
Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as
cited by Powers 1995)
Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech
and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy
makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any
individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the
three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like
the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)
Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working
with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to
understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that
refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the
relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence
Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and
wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work
with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to
nurture and manifest these qualities
22 Evolution of the Concept
The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very
old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of
Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal
29
set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on
the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]
1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the
land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an
animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon
rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to
the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life
culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism
in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them
could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)
It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally
instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)
Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese
development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during
Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the
religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the
lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the
government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on
Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of
Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)
Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values
giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates
30
that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme
Y Thinley (2004) writes
Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)
Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the
country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)
Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or
postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were
no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life
expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was
considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged
mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the
land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were
self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based
on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of
the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)
Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable
social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first
explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The
National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty
of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15
31
1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early
1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE
1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not
voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister
expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link
Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid
increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless
Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the
Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several
thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions
began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between
the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade
route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the
following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of
discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources
and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards
development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural
preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of
modernization (Priesner 1999)
Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King
always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel
1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the
third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971
32
Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied
principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for
GNH
The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy
economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the
translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner
1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique
development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve
national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply
embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the
term Gross National Happiness was coined
23 GNH Discourses and Debates
The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by
the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His
keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many
scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore
the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister
Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for
GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main
ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there
were any at all
33
Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that
it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and
would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their
suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH
Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical
approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH
On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and
there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to
define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought
argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first
workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this
workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set
of Discussion Papers
After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH
Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from
February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept
of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be
operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused
largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien
(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI
which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health
livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference
discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a
34
potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic
security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any
definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference
was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on
happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop
the indicators of GNH in a later period
The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local
Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24
2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual
experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and
second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that
in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third
international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH
Index
The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused
on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the
importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in
developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference
Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index
The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)
was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase
which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current
situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators
35
psychology environment community relations education health living standard
governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the
indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the
missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be
used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the
methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human
progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners
The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation
for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the
international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government
realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH
(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are
framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH
values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-
day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level
Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business
establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is
believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company
functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the
dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a
revelation for Bhutan
On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed
his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the
36
education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH
infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a
road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles
into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in
the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state
that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum
Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many
schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)
Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and
concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very
practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot
through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of
measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness
Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that
takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations
Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index
(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross
National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the
overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI
health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing
to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the
37
philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)
president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators
of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of
Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will
provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)
In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley
(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people
perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well
into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)
argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing
economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known
about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived
experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae
that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people
Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in
revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of
policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will
enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking
GNH processes
Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble
philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not
do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)
There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human
38
happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness
of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its
policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National
Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently
quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely
wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing
Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always
remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if
they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness
(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese
government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National
Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase
25 Summary
This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of
Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding
of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged
in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is
influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life
the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional
Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way
39
of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality
and compassion are inherent in GNH
History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and
17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism
therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state
because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with
problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus
challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives
in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH
Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not
opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to
health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies
in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are
promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly
adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers
know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however
as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are
influenced by Buddhist principles
40
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS
We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the
importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize
that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general
assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings
defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by
increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)
The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of
possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed
in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the
ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key
problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often
criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in
our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine
happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts
that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an
ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of
this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some
key Buddhist principles related to happiness
Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist
worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the
psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter
The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because
41
Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the
framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six
paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise
out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path
This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief
introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the
Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana
Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble
truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and
compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the
Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to
crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the
six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and
others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme
Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings
by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will
serve as sources for constructing this framework
31 Buddhist View of Happiness
Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers
worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the
concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the
notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is
42
commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of
practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly
influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no
creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)
The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread
ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha
was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The
lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism
chief among which is the pursuit of happiness
In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai
Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for
happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche
a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on
material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)
The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or
the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment
if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if
we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This
indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai
Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism
happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often
agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn
cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer
43
the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and
suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)
Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)
And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)
There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles
ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism
Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues
through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards
sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been
(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas
teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and
righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities
that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined
with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of
possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999
p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they
are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the
Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all
materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but
a cause of suffering
44
His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary
happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means
that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the
cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma
can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp
Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which
happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the
Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us
happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing
towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are
also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and
Bhutanese
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles
321 The four noble truths
In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths
which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths
explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes
that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness
and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth
explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for
individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth
states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth
45
prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft
1997)
A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no
person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth
states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end
to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First
is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the
suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all
phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is
endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive
emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)
The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance
which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers
to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning
distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the
afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that
the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the
Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right
Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist
teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight
steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means
ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai
Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right
46
Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right
Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and
Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind
Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which
are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to
the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections
as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion
The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our
own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing
comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons
Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The
same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction
will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth
certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined
These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance
character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens
to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will
happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist
previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior
The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and
Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the
47
entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action
because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)
The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the
Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones
Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience
happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant
effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of
Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for
other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good
merit
Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma
Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions
motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-
- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right
actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either
oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy
our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of
not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)
Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content
The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of
interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually
an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and
48
everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007
Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is
composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states
that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or
five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is
made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental
formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)
(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates
and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent
self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume
that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all
interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we
do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of
themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create
happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but
also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships
The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a
compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits
all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai
Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all
Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is
normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is
49
through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all
humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world
Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can
develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is
through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and
wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense
also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist
worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness
which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework
This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana
Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century
text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six
practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are
1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti
Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita
(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way
for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life
through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are
methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The
first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and
concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities
50
However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay
people
The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following
statement
The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)
The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The
Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme
Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether
worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the
practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers
to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which
directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are
three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to
reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-
liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life
by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in
the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to
lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms
Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as
possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness
Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other
beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a
51
blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it
is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to
Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own
afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering
The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of
life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner
psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in
Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These
three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and
hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai
Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends
on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one
will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this
understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness
and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and
engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering
Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon
but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent
self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as
explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos
fourth verse states the following
Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside
52
the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)
The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the
body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to
live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus
comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai
Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing
emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses
that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how
Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are
ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and
mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to
oneself and to others
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes
53
Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will
receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in
the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and
the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states
that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six
practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training
and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six
paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is
represented by Figure 3 below
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering
54
331 Generosity
Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic
mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In
the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states
If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be
practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and
giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means
overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily
giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure
for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya
(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are
five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and
admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and
will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in
return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue
bringing happiness to oneself and others
332 Ethics
The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue
Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble
Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality
55
of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never
having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for
Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body
speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by
our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions
killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed
malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond
to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh
language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will
wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous
actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and
cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy
greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous
behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically
become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th
verse Thogme Zangpo writes
If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve
happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For
example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will
56
be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of
avoiding harsh words
Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)
By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of
negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and
our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics
we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse
for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all
goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for
progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the
path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and
mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in
training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our
actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness
333 Patience and Tolerance
The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of
patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of
patience
For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)
57
Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are
challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative
thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive
emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our
heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance
and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was
deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him
Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally
attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the
strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and
this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain
inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness
334 Perseverance
The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance
It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working
hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states
Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on
ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from
58
suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability
Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal
The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard
failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and
affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve
happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at
all times
335 Meditative Concentration
The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana
Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and
overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices
of Bodhisattva is on meditation
At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six
realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in
comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a
human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating
day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings
2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma
59
can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind
because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi
(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering
and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving
happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative
concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We
stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in
everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and
misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility
Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us
directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states
Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
336 Wisdom
The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit
Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness
Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be
disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other
practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out
If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
60
Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron
Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our
habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the
ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of
ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble
paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three
poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and
unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost
clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence
Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the
attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness
(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of
reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with
joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism
34 Summary
Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and
hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to
various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material
wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is
only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be
happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The
mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as
61
cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three
poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience
inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of
attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear
and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus
accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third
(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting
rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and
achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart
Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses
more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being
compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness
generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can
reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others
62
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING
INDICATORS
People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of
effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must
be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the
GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators
Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness
Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental
Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially
destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of
practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to
what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of
happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This
chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect
Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter
Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the
meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights
similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on
the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections
analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad
categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The
chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings
63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures
Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons
mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The
measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country
pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall
wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions
that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a
persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life
(p40)
From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist
teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly
holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or
happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective
experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness
(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes
all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi
1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences
As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind
this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to
wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that
Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman
Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike
64
believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that
they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions
The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the
self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that
self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying
emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists
who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety
are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp
Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of
negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata
2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes
both positive and negative emotions
Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A
sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the
sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off
point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full
score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient
achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any
respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National
Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from
sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is
sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the
GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method
65
is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who
are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much
information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From
the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut
off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises
questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency
cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it
based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results
42 Emotional Balance
The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of
emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative
emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or
feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the
seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and
suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and
compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary
influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information
about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors
contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)
Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own
there are causal factors associated with them
66
Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition
therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the
Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary
consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates
merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of
mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and
secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists
fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under
the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses
a Negative Emotion
Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of
ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions
These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around
us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others
succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action
All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical
action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning
distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness
frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The
four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive
regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly
considered negative under the GNH index
67
1 Jealousy
Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris
(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival
poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important
relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text
classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is
defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as
their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their
accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we
receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment
Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what
jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments
envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the
element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that
envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy
is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work
fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead
to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has
strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)
In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy
Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and
envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and
68
happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a
GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our
peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous
of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values
Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of
emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety
sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and
betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to
achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since
jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate
that it be an indicator of GNH
In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the
respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that
respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or
expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as
non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency
cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles
How often do you experience jealousy
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
69
2 Selfishness
The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of
craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and
greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi
1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and
appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)
states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)
Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe
zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively
Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As
explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential
principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one
of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a
rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your
wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that
Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In
particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-
centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the
ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to
Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness
Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms
70
Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is
opposed to the GNH values
Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following
question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a
person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that
selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH
index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait
How often do you experience selfishness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a
condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an
internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to
the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a
mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms
part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national
language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means
pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our
self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and
ourselves
71
Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of
mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out
of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire
and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to
maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and
opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since
frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such
emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing
The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of
respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience
frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes
experience frustration are given a negative score
How often do you experience frustration
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
4 Suicidal Thoughts
Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in
life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a
mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten
non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is
72
therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by
suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma
Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its
complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the
awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the
effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being
Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who
commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action
Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing
leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that
even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the
basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get
rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates
that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your
problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of
afflictive emotion
According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist
painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and
suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive
living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and
the future for the better
Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with
elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le
73
Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The
most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese
psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure
to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts
occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive
emotions
Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has
never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while
respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall
the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings
Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide
1 Yes 2 No
Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that
affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the
distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become
known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative
emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and
divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction
The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states
and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees
74
ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out
in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and
selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the
immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates
that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon
those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides
evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to
know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as
policy must attend to it them
Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and
therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate
the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are
rooted in Buddhism
b Positive Emotions
The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the
negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity
calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to
oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages
replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative
concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive
indicators of psychological wellbeing
75
5 Generosity
Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In
Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter
Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains
that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it
brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive
virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental
development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves
and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence
which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms
generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as
an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for
oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the
collection of data
How often do you experience generosity
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should
frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH
3 See Chapter Three
76
society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does
not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part
of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary
service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not
get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in
the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological
wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH
6 Calmness
Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance
Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The
Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses
the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism
as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma
text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the
tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)
Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi
(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually
at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding
and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a
happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health
and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can
77
experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue
consistent with GNH ideals
The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of
data
How often do you experience calmness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH
society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be
linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well
7 Compassion
Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist
practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important
trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only
through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues
For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of
generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the
suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the
law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent
meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to
78
overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are
considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators
Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a
GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise
and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS
(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of
others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the
suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further
scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in
bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz
Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much
coherent with the GNH values
The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how
compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity
and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently
experience compassion to get the full GNH score
How often do you experience compassion
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity
have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the
79
potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to
the Buddhist practice of paramitas
43 Spiritual Practices
From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of
practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity
can hold negative emotions at bay
8 Frequency of Meditation
The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind
The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the
importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire
hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative
practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see
directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and
masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe
meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out
that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with
little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be
able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts
(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of
California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain
involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of
80
meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated
with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not
link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist
teachings
Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm
our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has
beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression
poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced
inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three
universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of
Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of
meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of
meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more
frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind
relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to
meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is
only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature
and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)
The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported
by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a
positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of
GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is
putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of
respondents regarding the practice of meditation
Do you practice meditation
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means
one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation
is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay
population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)
904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan
still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why
the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently
meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced
among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH
values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the
indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism
9 Prayer Recitation
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power
Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to
awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which
82
literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy
like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken
once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is
thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra
literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002
p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the
truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the
blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter
ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being
Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good
vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength
compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In
Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship
between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the
great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding
effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and
right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell
peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate
while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one
close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and
concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The
83
Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of
meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)
explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the
mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile
reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming
its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of
breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the
energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The
practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist
In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to
local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil
forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone
Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned
earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism
emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with
polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which
worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans
national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent
in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices
but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform
rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under
Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other
84
deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs
invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk
2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper
valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old
tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now
considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture
The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays
daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score
Do you sayrecite prayers
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both
are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a
full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different
sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation
indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in
Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are
highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to
be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The
CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values
Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because
85
both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too
is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist
principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of
prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs
10 Taking account of Karma
As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides
the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of
ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has
influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being
morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily
life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result
depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing
non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma
conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to
avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions
bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of
causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life
The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as
daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH
score
86
Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily
basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state
According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes
and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a
clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real
reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)
serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping
each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a
GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy
society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist
principles and is consistent with GNH values
43 General Mental Health (GMH)
11 General Mental Health
The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of
depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators
under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists
87
of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to
concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the
respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with
lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-
15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some
mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)
The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should
not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score
The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health
status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect
wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase
susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)
From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of
confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)
points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own
physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have
the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health
problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own
ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress
thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist
teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus
4 A meditation technique
88
mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and
hatred
Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why
selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from
selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a
ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of
small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second
reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is
guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous
Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In
Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes
suffering
The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind
The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that
influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it
opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the
population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy
(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people
pursue happiness
44 Summary
The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
89
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following
The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration
suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an
afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through
which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism
frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result
of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views
leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus
arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what
Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others
thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a
result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to
the idea of self leads to mental stress
The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion
and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking
account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas
Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness
Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of
the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita
which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator
of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative
concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation
however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the
90
local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by
Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses
avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the
positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core
teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be
appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism
Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH
society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but
also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also
important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions
at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or
negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of
psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values
91
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS
From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the
preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the
philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal
importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without
spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops
and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to
measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises
72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate
all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in
guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The
purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are
To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect
Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does
reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and
survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo
study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist
principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by
this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of
happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most
92
The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for
people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index
measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people
Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators
reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles
related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to
happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a
basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only
worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which
can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative
concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to
the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace
must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the
happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the
outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind
that creates the cause for happiness or success
Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven
indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and
wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of
psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in
affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and
regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-
93
transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing
problems and solutions to the root causes
The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples
emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion
Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing
correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below
Indicators Buddhist Principles
1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity
6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices
7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance
8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration
9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration
10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics
11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and
suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the
three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and
94
deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly
selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness
is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-
self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I
through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term
gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary
immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism
are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the
problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these
negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress
The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion
calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the
replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous
action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself
and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect
psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly
related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the
psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with
the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and
calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by
Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political
ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in
Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-
95
term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term
happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived
from spiritual cultural and social values
This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and
cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and
happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the
mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as
Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that
Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH
Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and
conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically
strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not
contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the
inner conditions of ones own mind
Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make
better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be
considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan
Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy
community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than
those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)
By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as
necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for
developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing
96
thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-
material development is equally important as external material development
Recommendations for Future Studies
The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of
the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared
towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further
Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation
aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal
happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH
Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a
therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their
lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-
Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism
can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)
Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons
insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values
As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the
sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the
CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level
that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because
there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually
been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some
assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis
97
for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy
makers
This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected
Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing
were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of
emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only
recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire
notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but
does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective
solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity
compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the
term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity
One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from
an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have
not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid
misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced
This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar
study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further
investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the
GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the
emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the
real essence of human happiness
98
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109
Appendix 1
Gross National Happiness Index
Cultural Diversity
Psychological Wellbeing
Good Governance
Time Use
Health Education Ecology Living Standards
Commu nity Vitality
Jealousy
Selfishness s- Negative Emotions
Frustration
Suicidal Thoughts
Compassion
Positive Emotions Calmness
Generosity
Meditation
gt- Spiritual Practices Prayer Recitation
Taking account of Karma
General Health General Mental Health
110
Appendix 2
General Mental Health Questionnaire Ql During the last year would you describe your life as-
1 Very Stressful 2 Somewhat Stressful 3 Not At All Stressful 4 Dont Know
Q2 What are your main sources of stress
Q3 Been able to concentrate on what youre doing 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q4 Lost much sleep over worry 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q5 Felt you were playing a useful part in things
1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q6 Felt capable of making decisions about things 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q7 Felt constantly under strain 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual
111
4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q8 Felt you couldnt overcome your difficulties 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q9 Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Qll Been able to face up to your problems 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q12 Been feeling unhappy and depressed 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q13 Been losing confidence in yourself 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
014 Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q15 Been feeling reasonably happy all things considered 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual
112
4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Curriculum Vitae
Candidates full name Tashi Wangmo
Universities attended Maastricht School of Management The Netherlands 2007 Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management
Royal University of Bhutan Royal Institute of Management Thimphu Bhutan 2004 Post Graduate Certificate in Financial Management (PGCFM)
University of North Bengal Government College Daijeeling India 2000-2003 Bachelors of Commerce
University of New Brunswick Fredericton NB Canada 2008-2010 MPhil Policy Studies (Philosophy Politics and Economics)
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Canada
ABSTRACT
Measuring wellbeing is an important task in determining whether peoples lives
are improving or becoming worse over time Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the
central development philosophy of Bhutan This philosophy aims at maximizing human
wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with spiritual
and emotional needs of the people The Centre for Bhutan Studies in 2008 developed the
Gross National Happiness Index as a tool to measure the overall wellbeing of the
Bhutanese people and to track the performances of government policies The index
comprises of 72 indicators grouped under nine domains psychological wellbeing
cultural resilience education health time use and balance good governance community
vitality ecological diversity and living standard
The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist principles of
happiness on the indicators of psychological wellbeing domain and the coherence of
indicators with the concept of GNH Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of
the indicators under the nine domains would be most beneficial due to the vastness of the
indicators this study focuses only on the indicators of psychological wellbeing Since
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social lives of
Bhutanese the Buddhist principles of happiness provides the framework to analyze the
indicators Each indicator is determined to what extent they reflect Buddhist principles
Findings from this study reveal that the core teachings of Buddhism find a place in each
of the indicators The study thus concludes that the indicators of psychological wellbeing
are influenced by Buddhism and consistent with the concept of GNH
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many people to thank for the successful completion of this study I
would first like to thank my supervisor Dr John Valk for his continuous support
guidance and encouragement I would also like to thank my co-supervisors Dr Emery
Hyslop-Margison and Dr Ellen Rose for their guidance and time which helped me
complete my study on time I would also like to thank the University of New Brunswick
especially the Graduate School Unit for partially funding my study My sincere thanks
also go to the Royal Government of Bhutan for granting me study leave
I would also like to thank Ms Tshokey Zangmo Researcher at the Centre for
Bhutan Studies for providing me with information on GNH Index and for clearing my
doubts I am also thankful to Ven Lama Mepham a Buddhist meditation teacher at the
University of Arkansas for guiding me and sharing his knowledge on Buddhist principles
Lastly I am very thankful to my family and friends for their continued love and support
iii
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
List of Abbreviations viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture 3
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy 5
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan 7
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index 8
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study 13
16 Methodology 14
17 Limitations and Significance of the study 17
18 Summary 18
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 20 21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness 21
22 Evolution of the Concept 29
23 GNH Discourses and Debates 33
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness 37
25 Summary 39
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS 41 31 Buddhist View of Happiness 42
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles 45
321 The four noble truths 45
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion 47 iv
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50
331 Generosity 55
332 Ethics 55
333 Patience and Tolerance 57
334 Perseverance 58
335 Meditative Concentration 59
336 Wisdom 60
34 Summary 61
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64
42 Emotional Balance 66
43 Spiritual Practices 80
43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87
44 Summary 89
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92
References 99
Appendix 1 110
Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae
v
List of Tables
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54
vii
List of Abbreviations
CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa
FYP Five Year Plan
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GHQ General Health Questionnaire
GNH Gross National Happiness
GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission
GPI Genuine Progress Index
HDI Human Development Index
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoHE Ministry of Health and Education
NEC National Environment Commission
NSB National Statistic Bureau
RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan
TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples
lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the
people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it
measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture
fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)
Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing
alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human
Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important
factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary
values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross
National Happiness
Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of
Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing
human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the
spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck
coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross
National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura
2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an
enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is
the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult
1
for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four
major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable
economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning
Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through
which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH
Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently
sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked
however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core
principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation
of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of
Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH
values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008
pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been
identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now
ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government
performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this
study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist
principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief
background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents
Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National
Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains
of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth
2
section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section
presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance
and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are
presented in the eighth section
11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture
Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central
Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square
kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two
leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most
isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are
smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)
farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population
945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the
population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was
estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost
entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea
level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau
2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry
of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity
Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)
The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by
Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique
3
philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and
traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme
Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than
Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of
every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed
that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)
This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority
25 SO Km
50 25
G r e a
S Gasa Ozong
Toogsa THIMPHU Paro
Tashigang
Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing
r~
BANGLADESH
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)
4
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy
Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung
Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to
unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan
(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was
the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education
[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system
where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head
abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement
of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for
this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -
1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious
retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung
himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal
stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was
unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then
visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country
Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional
democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization
was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation
A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country
5
of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady
decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples
participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen
the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the
establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye
Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees
(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these
committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers
previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)
On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned
nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate
the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal
Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite
occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king
was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning
monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed
that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign
He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness
today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual
pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected
government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH
6
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan
The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be
included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The
importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A
Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states
that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve
their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the
concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an
important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government
of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)
GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to
complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and
non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing
ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH
supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater
good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual
The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for
it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it
cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme
YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH
stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which
happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments
policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a
7
collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the
happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve
happiness
The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese
worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The
policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from
outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to
diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning
Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross
National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision
emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and
environmental conservation
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index
Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese
government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and
equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural
preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have
constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to
as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism
and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the
government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt
the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot
8
guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators
were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural
resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality
ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness
are explained below
1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life
life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable
indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and
generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional
balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the
indicators under this domain
2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two
indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent
delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account
3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain
intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities
that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust
belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community
and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality
Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density
4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and
strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of
changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that
9
encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music
dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural
diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan
skill Value transmission and Basic precept
5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The
GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of
health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated
health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month
Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding
practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to
health
6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and
collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and
skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic
ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally
The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and
Folk and historical literacy
7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception
of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation
Ecological knowledge and Afforestation
8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the
individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and
10
house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food
security and Hardship
9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people
perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality
The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government
performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and
corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good
governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator
A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in
nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of
GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result
of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of
950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS
in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and
principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)
states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally
weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal
intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each
domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high
response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For
example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often
they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion
forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the
11
option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only
eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72
indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)
The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is
currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki
Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the
conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured
semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of
the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual
having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS
2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based
on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or
objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective
survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those
elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime
accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and
volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of
monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report
survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of
subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index
is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and
determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains
12
The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average
squared distance from cutoff
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study
Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with
the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by
the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and
emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified
are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the
resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do
the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept
of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what
extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators
with the concept of GNH
Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be
most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the
indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I
choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health
living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional
economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development
Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been
included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of
13
psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it
would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators
16 Methodology
The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist
principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This
policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze
the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes
and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social
problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses
determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for
determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a
given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the
governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the
concept of GNH
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social
lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most
important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not
to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH
indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First
the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will
determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is
14
a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As
such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced
the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and
Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study
attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist
influence which then might support the notion put forth by them
Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on
GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on
GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such
as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are
used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by
the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist
principles of happiness
The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to
overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a
conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an
inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key
principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be
discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma
principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical
basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas
An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope
15
and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will
serve as a basis for assessing the indicators
Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana
Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse
Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven
bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-
1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from
hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings
The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used
for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every
sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the
teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected
in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such
as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used
The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the
Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the
indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-
processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-
one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical
standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as
how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing
indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the
indicators are referred to for this study
16
17 Limitations and Significance of the study
There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study
focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH
indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives
Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the
indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles
and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous
Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of
Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche
Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the
indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country
As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the
GNH index are available
The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the
psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of
the GNH index are not discussed
Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons
First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study
that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism
This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in
studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of
GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be
an area of future research
17
Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the
government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH
index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the
design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of
the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is
important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be
distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine
whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept
18 Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at
Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy
The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the
methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter
Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how
the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been
influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to
each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the
development of the GNH index are also discussed
Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological
wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined
Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and
compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices
18
of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the
teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles
Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological
wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each
indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent
to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency
of the indicators with the concept of GNH
Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future
studies
19
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)
is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather
implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic
construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in
the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more
depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999
2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have
argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter
reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship
between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored
Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist
principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to
understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH
The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the
core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points
out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold
path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how
the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century
when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section
examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development
giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the
noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20
GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the
review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by
questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples
wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH
21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness
Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This
is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of
the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans
value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left
exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH
context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both
economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to
pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as
the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against
the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values
In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH
thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social
and cultural values
Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH
are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted
in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is
essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces
21
harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana
Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan
Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material
rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the
importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and
pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as
peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo
2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly
influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of
Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the
Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of
Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion
and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice
According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is
happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche
as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to
remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the
cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure
and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the
means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is
often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the
process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in
the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in
22
Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam
Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to
change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the
importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as
altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength
Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and
economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be
a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley
states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan
Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates
living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places
equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of
GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it
the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its
social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was
overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field
(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their
forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the
governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to
environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)
argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse
theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that
GNH is therefore a response to this realization
23
Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless
Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan
Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from
the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a
society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that
this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri
(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-
specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist
values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist
Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be
clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief
ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy
and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among
these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment
(Rinzin 2006)
1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation
Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of
happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our
happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical
environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the
uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in
the world
24
Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning
Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong
arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The
relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally
different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an
independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all
dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that
nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of
conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)
Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and
rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-
human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these
spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)
These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese
consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system
The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the
constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage
2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion
The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an
integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned
development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their
policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist
Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the
25
doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary
rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich
religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam
namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to
promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-
damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty
community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and
superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and
teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)
In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people
consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese
culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a
way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through
tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and
cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening
the Bhutanese culture and tradition
3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development
The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development
While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external
factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the
concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs
(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an
end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety
26
insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic
development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is
easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness
Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have
opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the
government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable
goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and
exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for
economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998
Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are
sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the
requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher
1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or
cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on
trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and
follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on
economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By
following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage
in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society
4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance
This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a
GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys
political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent
27
accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission
[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts
that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of
GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most
important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic
government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy
would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the
freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a
Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise
Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the
path to good governance that leads to GNH
Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006
states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig
and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional
Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people
Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which
encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right
Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right
Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese
judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws
(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2
Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right
Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip
28
(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10
Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as
cited by Powers 1995)
Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech
and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy
makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any
individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the
three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like
the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)
Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working
with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to
understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that
refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the
relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence
Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and
wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work
with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to
nurture and manifest these qualities
22 Evolution of the Concept
The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very
old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of
Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal
29
set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on
the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]
1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the
land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an
animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon
rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to
the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life
culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism
in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them
could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)
It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally
instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)
Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese
development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during
Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the
religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the
lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the
government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on
Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of
Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)
Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values
giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates
30
that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme
Y Thinley (2004) writes
Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)
Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the
country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)
Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or
postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were
no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life
expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was
considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged
mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the
land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were
self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based
on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of
the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)
Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable
social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first
explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The
National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty
of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15
31
1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early
1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE
1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not
voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister
expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link
Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid
increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless
Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the
Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several
thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions
began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between
the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade
route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the
following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of
discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources
and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards
development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural
preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of
modernization (Priesner 1999)
Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King
always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel
1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the
third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971
32
Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied
principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for
GNH
The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy
economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the
translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner
1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique
development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve
national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply
embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the
term Gross National Happiness was coined
23 GNH Discourses and Debates
The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by
the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His
keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many
scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore
the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister
Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for
GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main
ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there
were any at all
33
Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that
it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and
would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their
suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH
Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical
approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH
On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and
there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to
define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought
argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first
workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this
workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set
of Discussion Papers
After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH
Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from
February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept
of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be
operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused
largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien
(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI
which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health
livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference
discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a
34
potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic
security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any
definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference
was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on
happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop
the indicators of GNH in a later period
The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local
Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24
2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual
experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and
second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that
in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third
international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH
Index
The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused
on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the
importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in
developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference
Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index
The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)
was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase
which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current
situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators
35
psychology environment community relations education health living standard
governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the
indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the
missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be
used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the
methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human
progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners
The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation
for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the
international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government
realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH
(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are
framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH
values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-
day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level
Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business
establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is
believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company
functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the
dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a
revelation for Bhutan
On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed
his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the
36
education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH
infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a
road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles
into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in
the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state
that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum
Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many
schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)
Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and
concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very
practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot
through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of
measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness
Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that
takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations
Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index
(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross
National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the
overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI
health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing
to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the
37
philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)
president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators
of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of
Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will
provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)
In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley
(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people
perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well
into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)
argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing
economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known
about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived
experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae
that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people
Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in
revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of
policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will
enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking
GNH processes
Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble
philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not
do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)
There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human
38
happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness
of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its
policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National
Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently
quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely
wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing
Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always
remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if
they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness
(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese
government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National
Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase
25 Summary
This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of
Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding
of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged
in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is
influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life
the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional
Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way
39
of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality
and compassion are inherent in GNH
History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and
17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism
therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state
because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with
problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus
challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives
in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH
Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not
opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to
health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies
in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are
promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly
adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers
know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however
as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are
influenced by Buddhist principles
40
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS
We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the
importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize
that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general
assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings
defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by
increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)
The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of
possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed
in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the
ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key
problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often
criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in
our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine
happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts
that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an
ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of
this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some
key Buddhist principles related to happiness
Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist
worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the
psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter
The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because
41
Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the
framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six
paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise
out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path
This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief
introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the
Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana
Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble
truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and
compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the
Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to
crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the
six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and
others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme
Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings
by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will
serve as sources for constructing this framework
31 Buddhist View of Happiness
Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers
worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the
concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the
notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is
42
commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of
practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly
influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no
creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)
The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread
ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha
was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The
lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism
chief among which is the pursuit of happiness
In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai
Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for
happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche
a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on
material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)
The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or
the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment
if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if
we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This
indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai
Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism
happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often
agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn
cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer
43
the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and
suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)
Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)
And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)
There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles
ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism
Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues
through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards
sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been
(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas
teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and
righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities
that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined
with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of
possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999
p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they
are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the
Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all
materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but
a cause of suffering
44
His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary
happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means
that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the
cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma
can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp
Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which
happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the
Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us
happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing
towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are
also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and
Bhutanese
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles
321 The four noble truths
In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths
which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths
explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes
that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness
and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth
explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for
individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth
states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth
45
prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft
1997)
A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no
person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth
states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end
to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First
is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the
suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all
phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is
endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive
emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)
The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance
which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers
to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning
distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the
afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that
the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the
Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right
Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist
teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight
steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means
ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai
Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right
46
Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right
Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and
Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind
Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which
are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to
the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections
as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion
The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our
own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing
comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons
Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The
same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction
will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth
certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined
These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance
character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens
to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will
happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist
previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior
The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and
Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the
47
entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action
because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)
The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the
Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones
Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience
happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant
effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of
Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for
other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good
merit
Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma
Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions
motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-
- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right
actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either
oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy
our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of
not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)
Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content
The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of
interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually
an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and
48
everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007
Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is
composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states
that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or
five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is
made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental
formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)
(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates
and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent
self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume
that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all
interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we
do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of
themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create
happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but
also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships
The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a
compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits
all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai
Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all
Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is
normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is
49
through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all
humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world
Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can
develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is
through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and
wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense
also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist
worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness
which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework
This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana
Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century
text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six
practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are
1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti
Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita
(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way
for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life
through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are
methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The
first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and
concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities
50
However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay
people
The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following
statement
The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)
The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The
Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme
Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether
worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the
practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers
to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which
directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are
three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to
reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-
liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life
by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in
the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to
lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms
Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as
possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness
Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other
beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a
51
blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it
is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to
Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own
afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering
The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of
life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner
psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in
Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These
three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and
hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai
Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends
on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one
will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this
understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness
and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and
engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering
Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon
but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent
self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as
explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos
fourth verse states the following
Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside
52
the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)
The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the
body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to
live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus
comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai
Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing
emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses
that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how
Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are
ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and
mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to
oneself and to others
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes
53
Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will
receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in
the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and
the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states
that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six
practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training
and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six
paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is
represented by Figure 3 below
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering
54
331 Generosity
Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic
mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In
the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states
If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be
practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and
giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means
overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily
giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure
for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya
(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are
five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and
admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and
will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in
return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue
bringing happiness to oneself and others
332 Ethics
The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue
Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble
Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality
55
of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never
having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for
Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body
speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by
our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions
killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed
malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond
to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh
language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will
wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous
actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and
cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy
greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous
behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically
become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th
verse Thogme Zangpo writes
If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve
happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For
example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will
56
be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of
avoiding harsh words
Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)
By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of
negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and
our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics
we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse
for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all
goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for
progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the
path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and
mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in
training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our
actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness
333 Patience and Tolerance
The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of
patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of
patience
For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)
57
Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are
challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative
thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive
emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our
heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance
and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was
deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him
Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally
attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the
strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and
this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain
inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness
334 Perseverance
The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance
It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working
hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states
Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on
ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from
58
suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability
Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal
The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard
failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and
affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve
happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at
all times
335 Meditative Concentration
The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana
Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and
overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices
of Bodhisattva is on meditation
At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six
realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in
comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a
human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating
day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings
2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma
59
can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind
because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi
(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering
and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving
happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative
concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We
stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in
everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and
misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility
Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us
directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states
Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
336 Wisdom
The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit
Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness
Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be
disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other
practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out
If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
60
Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron
Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our
habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the
ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of
ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble
paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three
poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and
unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost
clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence
Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the
attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness
(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of
reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with
joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism
34 Summary
Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and
hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to
various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material
wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is
only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be
happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The
mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as
61
cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three
poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience
inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of
attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear
and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus
accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third
(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting
rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and
achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart
Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses
more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being
compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness
generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can
reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others
62
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING
INDICATORS
People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of
effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must
be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the
GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators
Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness
Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental
Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially
destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of
practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to
what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of
happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This
chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect
Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter
Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the
meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights
similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on
the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections
analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad
categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The
chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings
63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures
Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons
mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The
measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country
pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall
wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions
that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a
persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life
(p40)
From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist
teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly
holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or
happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective
experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness
(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes
all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi
1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences
As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind
this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to
wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that
Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman
Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike
64
believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that
they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions
The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the
self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that
self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying
emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists
who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety
are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp
Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of
negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata
2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes
both positive and negative emotions
Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A
sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the
sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off
point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full
score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient
achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any
respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National
Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from
sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is
sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the
GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method
65
is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who
are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much
information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From
the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut
off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises
questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency
cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it
based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results
42 Emotional Balance
The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of
emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative
emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or
feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the
seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and
suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and
compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary
influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information
about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors
contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)
Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own
there are causal factors associated with them
66
Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition
therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the
Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary
consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates
merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of
mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and
secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists
fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under
the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses
a Negative Emotion
Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of
ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions
These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around
us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others
succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action
All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical
action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning
distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness
frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The
four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive
regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly
considered negative under the GNH index
67
1 Jealousy
Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris
(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival
poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important
relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text
classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is
defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as
their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their
accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we
receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment
Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what
jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments
envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the
element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that
envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy
is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work
fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead
to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has
strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)
In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy
Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and
envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and
68
happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a
GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our
peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous
of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values
Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of
emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety
sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and
betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to
achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since
jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate
that it be an indicator of GNH
In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the
respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that
respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or
expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as
non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency
cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles
How often do you experience jealousy
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
69
2 Selfishness
The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of
craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and
greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi
1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and
appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)
states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)
Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe
zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively
Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As
explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential
principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one
of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a
rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your
wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that
Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In
particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-
centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the
ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to
Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness
Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms
70
Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is
opposed to the GNH values
Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following
question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a
person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that
selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH
index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait
How often do you experience selfishness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a
condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an
internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to
the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a
mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms
part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national
language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means
pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our
self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and
ourselves
71
Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of
mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out
of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire
and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to
maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and
opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since
frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such
emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing
The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of
respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience
frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes
experience frustration are given a negative score
How often do you experience frustration
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
4 Suicidal Thoughts
Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in
life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a
mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten
non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is
72
therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by
suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma
Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its
complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the
awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the
effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being
Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who
commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action
Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing
leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that
even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the
basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get
rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates
that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your
problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of
afflictive emotion
According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist
painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and
suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive
living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and
the future for the better
Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with
elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le
73
Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The
most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese
psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure
to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts
occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive
emotions
Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has
never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while
respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall
the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings
Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide
1 Yes 2 No
Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that
affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the
distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become
known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative
emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and
divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction
The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states
and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees
74
ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out
in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and
selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the
immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates
that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon
those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides
evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to
know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as
policy must attend to it them
Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and
therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate
the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are
rooted in Buddhism
b Positive Emotions
The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the
negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity
calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to
oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages
replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative
concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive
indicators of psychological wellbeing
75
5 Generosity
Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In
Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter
Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains
that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it
brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive
virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental
development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves
and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence
which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms
generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as
an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for
oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the
collection of data
How often do you experience generosity
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should
frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH
3 See Chapter Three
76
society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does
not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part
of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary
service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not
get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in
the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological
wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH
6 Calmness
Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance
Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The
Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses
the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism
as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma
text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the
tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)
Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi
(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually
at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding
and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a
happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health
and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can
77
experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue
consistent with GNH ideals
The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of
data
How often do you experience calmness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH
society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be
linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well
7 Compassion
Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist
practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important
trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only
through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues
For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of
generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the
suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the
law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent
meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to
78
overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are
considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators
Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a
GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise
and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS
(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of
others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the
suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further
scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in
bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz
Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much
coherent with the GNH values
The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how
compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity
and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently
experience compassion to get the full GNH score
How often do you experience compassion
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity
have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the
79
potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to
the Buddhist practice of paramitas
43 Spiritual Practices
From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of
practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity
can hold negative emotions at bay
8 Frequency of Meditation
The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind
The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the
importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire
hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative
practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see
directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and
masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe
meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out
that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with
little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be
able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts
(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of
California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain
involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of
80
meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated
with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not
link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist
teachings
Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm
our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has
beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression
poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced
inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three
universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of
Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of
meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of
meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more
frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind
relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to
meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is
only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature
and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)
The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported
by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a
positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of
GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is
putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of
respondents regarding the practice of meditation
Do you practice meditation
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means
one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation
is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay
population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)
904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan
still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why
the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently
meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced
among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH
values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the
indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism
9 Prayer Recitation
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power
Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to
awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which
82
literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy
like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken
once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is
thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra
literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002
p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the
truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the
blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter
ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being
Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good
vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength
compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In
Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship
between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the
great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding
effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and
right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell
peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate
while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one
close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and
concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The
83
Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of
meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)
explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the
mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile
reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming
its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of
breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the
energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The
practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist
In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to
local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil
forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone
Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned
earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism
emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with
polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which
worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans
national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent
in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices
but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform
rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under
Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other
84
deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs
invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk
2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper
valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old
tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now
considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture
The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays
daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score
Do you sayrecite prayers
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both
are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a
full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different
sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation
indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in
Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are
highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to
be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The
CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values
Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because
85
both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too
is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist
principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of
prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs
10 Taking account of Karma
As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides
the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of
ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has
influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being
morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily
life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result
depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing
non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma
conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to
avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions
bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of
causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life
The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as
daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH
score
86
Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily
basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state
According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes
and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a
clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real
reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)
serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping
each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a
GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy
society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist
principles and is consistent with GNH values
43 General Mental Health (GMH)
11 General Mental Health
The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of
depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators
under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists
87
of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to
concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the
respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with
lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-
15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some
mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)
The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should
not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score
The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health
status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect
wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase
susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)
From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of
confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)
points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own
physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have
the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health
problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own
ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress
thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist
teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus
4 A meditation technique
88
mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and
hatred
Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why
selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from
selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a
ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of
small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second
reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is
guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous
Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In
Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes
suffering
The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind
The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that
influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it
opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the
population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy
(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people
pursue happiness
44 Summary
The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
89
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following
The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration
suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an
afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through
which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism
frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result
of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views
leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus
arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what
Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others
thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a
result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to
the idea of self leads to mental stress
The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion
and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking
account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas
Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness
Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of
the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita
which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator
of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative
concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation
however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the
90
local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by
Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses
avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the
positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core
teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be
appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism
Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH
society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but
also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also
important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions
at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or
negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of
psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values
91
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS
From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the
preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the
philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal
importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without
spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops
and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to
measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises
72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate
all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in
guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The
purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are
To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect
Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does
reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and
survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo
study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist
principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by
this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of
happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most
92
The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for
people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index
measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people
Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators
reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles
related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to
happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a
basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only
worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which
can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative
concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to
the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace
must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the
happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the
outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind
that creates the cause for happiness or success
Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven
indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and
wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of
psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in
affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and
regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-
93
transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing
problems and solutions to the root causes
The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples
emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion
Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing
correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below
Indicators Buddhist Principles
1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity
6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices
7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance
8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration
9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration
10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics
11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and
suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the
three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and
94
deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly
selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness
is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-
self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I
through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term
gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary
immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism
are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the
problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these
negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress
The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion
calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the
replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous
action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself
and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect
psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly
related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the
psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with
the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and
calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by
Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political
ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in
Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-
95
term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term
happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived
from spiritual cultural and social values
This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and
cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and
happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the
mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as
Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that
Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH
Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and
conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically
strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not
contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the
inner conditions of ones own mind
Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make
better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be
considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan
Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy
community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than
those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)
By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as
necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for
developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing
96
thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-
material development is equally important as external material development
Recommendations for Future Studies
The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of
the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared
towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further
Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation
aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal
happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH
Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a
therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their
lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-
Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism
can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)
Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons
insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values
As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the
sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the
CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level
that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because
there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually
been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some
assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis
97
for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy
makers
This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected
Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing
were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of
emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only
recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire
notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but
does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective
solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity
compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the
term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity
One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from
an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have
not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid
misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced
This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar
study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further
investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the
GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the
emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the
real essence of human happiness
98
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109
Appendix 1
Gross National Happiness Index
Cultural Diversity
Psychological Wellbeing
Good Governance
Time Use
Health Education Ecology Living Standards
Commu nity Vitality
Jealousy
Selfishness s- Negative Emotions
Frustration
Suicidal Thoughts
Compassion
Positive Emotions Calmness
Generosity
Meditation
gt- Spiritual Practices Prayer Recitation
Taking account of Karma
General Health General Mental Health
110
Appendix 2
General Mental Health Questionnaire Ql During the last year would you describe your life as-
1 Very Stressful 2 Somewhat Stressful 3 Not At All Stressful 4 Dont Know
Q2 What are your main sources of stress
Q3 Been able to concentrate on what youre doing 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q4 Lost much sleep over worry 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q5 Felt you were playing a useful part in things
1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q6 Felt capable of making decisions about things 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q7 Felt constantly under strain 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual
111
4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q8 Felt you couldnt overcome your difficulties 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q9 Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Qll Been able to face up to your problems 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q12 Been feeling unhappy and depressed 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q13 Been losing confidence in yourself 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
014 Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q15 Been feeling reasonably happy all things considered 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual
112
4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Curriculum Vitae
Candidates full name Tashi Wangmo
Universities attended Maastricht School of Management The Netherlands 2007 Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management
Royal University of Bhutan Royal Institute of Management Thimphu Bhutan 2004 Post Graduate Certificate in Financial Management (PGCFM)
University of North Bengal Government College Daijeeling India 2000-2003 Bachelors of Commerce
University of New Brunswick Fredericton NB Canada 2008-2010 MPhil Policy Studies (Philosophy Politics and Economics)
ABSTRACT
Measuring wellbeing is an important task in determining whether peoples lives
are improving or becoming worse over time Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the
central development philosophy of Bhutan This philosophy aims at maximizing human
wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with spiritual
and emotional needs of the people The Centre for Bhutan Studies in 2008 developed the
Gross National Happiness Index as a tool to measure the overall wellbeing of the
Bhutanese people and to track the performances of government policies The index
comprises of 72 indicators grouped under nine domains psychological wellbeing
cultural resilience education health time use and balance good governance community
vitality ecological diversity and living standard
The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist principles of
happiness on the indicators of psychological wellbeing domain and the coherence of
indicators with the concept of GNH Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of
the indicators under the nine domains would be most beneficial due to the vastness of the
indicators this study focuses only on the indicators of psychological wellbeing Since
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social lives of
Bhutanese the Buddhist principles of happiness provides the framework to analyze the
indicators Each indicator is determined to what extent they reflect Buddhist principles
Findings from this study reveal that the core teachings of Buddhism find a place in each
of the indicators The study thus concludes that the indicators of psychological wellbeing
are influenced by Buddhism and consistent with the concept of GNH
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many people to thank for the successful completion of this study I
would first like to thank my supervisor Dr John Valk for his continuous support
guidance and encouragement I would also like to thank my co-supervisors Dr Emery
Hyslop-Margison and Dr Ellen Rose for their guidance and time which helped me
complete my study on time I would also like to thank the University of New Brunswick
especially the Graduate School Unit for partially funding my study My sincere thanks
also go to the Royal Government of Bhutan for granting me study leave
I would also like to thank Ms Tshokey Zangmo Researcher at the Centre for
Bhutan Studies for providing me with information on GNH Index and for clearing my
doubts I am also thankful to Ven Lama Mepham a Buddhist meditation teacher at the
University of Arkansas for guiding me and sharing his knowledge on Buddhist principles
Lastly I am very thankful to my family and friends for their continued love and support
iii
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
List of Abbreviations viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture 3
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy 5
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan 7
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index 8
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study 13
16 Methodology 14
17 Limitations and Significance of the study 17
18 Summary 18
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 20 21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness 21
22 Evolution of the Concept 29
23 GNH Discourses and Debates 33
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness 37
25 Summary 39
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS 41 31 Buddhist View of Happiness 42
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles 45
321 The four noble truths 45
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion 47 iv
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50
331 Generosity 55
332 Ethics 55
333 Patience and Tolerance 57
334 Perseverance 58
335 Meditative Concentration 59
336 Wisdom 60
34 Summary 61
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64
42 Emotional Balance 66
43 Spiritual Practices 80
43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87
44 Summary 89
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92
References 99
Appendix 1 110
Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae
v
List of Tables
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54
vii
List of Abbreviations
CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa
FYP Five Year Plan
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GHQ General Health Questionnaire
GNH Gross National Happiness
GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission
GPI Genuine Progress Index
HDI Human Development Index
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoHE Ministry of Health and Education
NEC National Environment Commission
NSB National Statistic Bureau
RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan
TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples
lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the
people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it
measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture
fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)
Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing
alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human
Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important
factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary
values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross
National Happiness
Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of
Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing
human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the
spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck
coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross
National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura
2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an
enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is
the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult
1
for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four
major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable
economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning
Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through
which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH
Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently
sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked
however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core
principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation
of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of
Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH
values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008
pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been
identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now
ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government
performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this
study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist
principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief
background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents
Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National
Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains
of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth
2
section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section
presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance
and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are
presented in the eighth section
11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture
Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central
Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square
kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two
leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most
isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are
smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)
farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population
945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the
population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was
estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost
entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea
level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau
2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry
of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity
Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)
The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by
Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique
3
philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and
traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme
Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than
Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of
every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed
that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)
This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority
25 SO Km
50 25
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S Gasa Ozong
Toogsa THIMPHU Paro
Tashigang
Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing
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BANGLADESH
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)
4
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy
Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung
Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to
unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan
(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was
the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education
[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system
where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head
abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement
of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for
this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -
1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious
retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung
himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal
stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was
unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then
visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country
Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional
democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization
was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation
A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country
5
of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady
decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples
participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen
the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the
establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye
Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees
(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these
committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers
previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)
On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned
nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate
the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal
Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite
occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king
was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning
monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed
that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign
He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness
today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual
pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected
government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH
6
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan
The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be
included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The
importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A
Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states
that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve
their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the
concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an
important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government
of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)
GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to
complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and
non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing
ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH
supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater
good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual
The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for
it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it
cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme
YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH
stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which
happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments
policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a
7
collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the
happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve
happiness
The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese
worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The
policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from
outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to
diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning
Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross
National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision
emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and
environmental conservation
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index
Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese
government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and
equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural
preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have
constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to
as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism
and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the
government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt
the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot
8
guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators
were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural
resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality
ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness
are explained below
1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life
life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable
indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and
generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional
balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the
indicators under this domain
2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two
indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent
delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account
3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain
intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities
that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust
belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community
and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality
Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density
4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and
strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of
changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that
9
encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music
dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural
diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan
skill Value transmission and Basic precept
5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The
GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of
health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated
health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month
Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding
practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to
health
6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and
collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and
skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic
ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally
The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and
Folk and historical literacy
7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception
of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation
Ecological knowledge and Afforestation
8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the
individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and
10
house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food
security and Hardship
9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people
perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality
The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government
performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and
corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good
governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator
A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in
nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of
GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result
of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of
950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS
in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and
principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)
states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally
weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal
intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each
domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high
response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For
example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often
they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion
forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the
11
option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only
eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72
indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)
The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is
currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki
Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the
conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured
semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of
the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual
having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS
2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based
on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or
objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective
survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those
elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime
accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and
volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of
monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report
survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of
subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index
is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and
determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains
12
The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average
squared distance from cutoff
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study
Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with
the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by
the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and
emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified
are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the
resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do
the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept
of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what
extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators
with the concept of GNH
Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be
most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the
indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I
choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health
living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional
economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development
Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been
included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of
13
psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it
would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators
16 Methodology
The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist
principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This
policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze
the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes
and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social
problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses
determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for
determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a
given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the
governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the
concept of GNH
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social
lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most
important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not
to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH
indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First
the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will
determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is
14
a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As
such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced
the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and
Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study
attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist
influence which then might support the notion put forth by them
Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on
GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on
GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such
as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are
used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by
the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist
principles of happiness
The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to
overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a
conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an
inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key
principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be
discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma
principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical
basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas
An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope
15
and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will
serve as a basis for assessing the indicators
Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana
Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse
Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven
bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-
1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from
hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings
The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used
for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every
sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the
teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected
in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such
as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used
The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the
Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the
indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-
processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-
one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical
standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as
how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing
indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the
indicators are referred to for this study
16
17 Limitations and Significance of the study
There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study
focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH
indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives
Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the
indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles
and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous
Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of
Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche
Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the
indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country
As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the
GNH index are available
The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the
psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of
the GNH index are not discussed
Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons
First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study
that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism
This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in
studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of
GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be
an area of future research
17
Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the
government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH
index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the
design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of
the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is
important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be
distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine
whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept
18 Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at
Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy
The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the
methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter
Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how
the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been
influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to
each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the
development of the GNH index are also discussed
Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological
wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined
Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and
compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices
18
of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the
teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles
Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological
wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each
indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent
to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency
of the indicators with the concept of GNH
Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future
studies
19
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)
is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather
implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic
construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in
the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more
depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999
2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have
argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter
reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship
between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored
Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist
principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to
understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH
The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the
core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points
out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold
path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how
the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century
when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section
examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development
giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the
noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20
GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the
review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by
questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples
wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH
21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness
Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This
is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of
the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans
value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left
exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH
context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both
economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to
pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as
the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against
the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values
In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH
thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social
and cultural values
Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH
are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted
in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is
essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces
21
harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana
Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan
Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material
rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the
importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and
pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as
peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo
2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly
influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of
Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the
Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of
Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion
and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice
According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is
happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche
as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to
remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the
cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure
and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the
means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is
often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the
process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in
the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in
22
Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam
Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to
change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the
importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as
altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength
Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and
economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be
a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley
states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan
Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates
living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places
equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of
GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it
the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its
social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was
overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field
(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their
forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the
governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to
environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)
argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse
theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that
GNH is therefore a response to this realization
23
Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless
Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan
Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from
the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a
society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that
this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri
(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-
specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist
values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist
Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be
clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief
ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy
and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among
these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment
(Rinzin 2006)
1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation
Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of
happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our
happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical
environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the
uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in
the world
24
Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning
Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong
arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The
relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally
different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an
independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all
dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that
nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of
conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)
Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and
rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-
human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these
spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)
These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese
consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system
The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the
constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage
2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion
The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an
integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned
development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their
policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist
Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the
25
doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary
rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich
religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam
namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to
promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-
damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty
community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and
superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and
teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)
In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people
consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese
culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a
way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through
tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and
cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening
the Bhutanese culture and tradition
3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development
The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development
While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external
factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the
concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs
(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an
end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety
26
insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic
development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is
easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness
Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have
opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the
government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable
goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and
exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for
economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998
Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are
sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the
requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher
1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or
cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on
trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and
follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on
economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By
following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage
in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society
4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance
This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a
GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys
political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent
27
accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission
[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts
that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of
GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most
important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic
government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy
would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the
freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a
Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise
Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the
path to good governance that leads to GNH
Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006
states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig
and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional
Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people
Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which
encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right
Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right
Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese
judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws
(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2
Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right
Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip
28
(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10
Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as
cited by Powers 1995)
Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech
and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy
makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any
individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the
three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like
the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)
Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working
with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to
understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that
refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the
relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence
Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and
wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work
with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to
nurture and manifest these qualities
22 Evolution of the Concept
The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very
old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of
Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal
29
set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on
the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]
1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the
land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an
animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon
rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to
the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life
culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism
in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them
could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)
It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally
instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)
Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese
development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during
Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the
religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the
lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the
government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on
Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of
Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)
Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values
giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates
30
that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme
Y Thinley (2004) writes
Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)
Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the
country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)
Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or
postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were
no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life
expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was
considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged
mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the
land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were
self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based
on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of
the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)
Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable
social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first
explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The
National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty
of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15
31
1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early
1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE
1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not
voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister
expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link
Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid
increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless
Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the
Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several
thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions
began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between
the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade
route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the
following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of
discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources
and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards
development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural
preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of
modernization (Priesner 1999)
Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King
always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel
1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the
third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971
32
Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied
principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for
GNH
The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy
economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the
translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner
1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique
development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve
national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply
embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the
term Gross National Happiness was coined
23 GNH Discourses and Debates
The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by
the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His
keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many
scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore
the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister
Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for
GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main
ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there
were any at all
33
Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that
it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and
would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their
suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH
Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical
approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH
On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and
there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to
define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought
argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first
workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this
workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set
of Discussion Papers
After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH
Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from
February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept
of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be
operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused
largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien
(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI
which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health
livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference
discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a
34
potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic
security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any
definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference
was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on
happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop
the indicators of GNH in a later period
The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local
Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24
2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual
experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and
second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that
in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third
international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH
Index
The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused
on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the
importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in
developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference
Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index
The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)
was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase
which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current
situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators
35
psychology environment community relations education health living standard
governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the
indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the
missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be
used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the
methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human
progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners
The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation
for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the
international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government
realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH
(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are
framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH
values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-
day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level
Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business
establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is
believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company
functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the
dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a
revelation for Bhutan
On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed
his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the
36
education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH
infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a
road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles
into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in
the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state
that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum
Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many
schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)
Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and
concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very
practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot
through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of
measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness
Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that
takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations
Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index
(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross
National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the
overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI
health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing
to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the
37
philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)
president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators
of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of
Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will
provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)
In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley
(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people
perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well
into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)
argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing
economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known
about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived
experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae
that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people
Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in
revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of
policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will
enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking
GNH processes
Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble
philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not
do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)
There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human
38
happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness
of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its
policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National
Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently
quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely
wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing
Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always
remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if
they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness
(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese
government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National
Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase
25 Summary
This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of
Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding
of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged
in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is
influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life
the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional
Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way
39
of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality
and compassion are inherent in GNH
History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and
17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism
therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state
because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with
problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus
challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives
in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH
Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not
opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to
health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies
in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are
promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly
adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers
know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however
as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are
influenced by Buddhist principles
40
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS
We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the
importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize
that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general
assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings
defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by
increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)
The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of
possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed
in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the
ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key
problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often
criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in
our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine
happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts
that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an
ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of
this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some
key Buddhist principles related to happiness
Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist
worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the
psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter
The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because
41
Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the
framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six
paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise
out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path
This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief
introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the
Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana
Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble
truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and
compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the
Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to
crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the
six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and
others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme
Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings
by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will
serve as sources for constructing this framework
31 Buddhist View of Happiness
Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers
worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the
concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the
notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is
42
commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of
practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly
influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no
creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)
The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread
ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha
was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The
lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism
chief among which is the pursuit of happiness
In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai
Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for
happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche
a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on
material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)
The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or
the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment
if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if
we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This
indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai
Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism
happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often
agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn
cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer
43
the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and
suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)
Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)
And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)
There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles
ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism
Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues
through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards
sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been
(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas
teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and
righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities
that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined
with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of
possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999
p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they
are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the
Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all
materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but
a cause of suffering
44
His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary
happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means
that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the
cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma
can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp
Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which
happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the
Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us
happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing
towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are
also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and
Bhutanese
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles
321 The four noble truths
In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths
which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths
explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes
that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness
and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth
explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for
individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth
states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth
45
prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft
1997)
A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no
person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth
states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end
to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First
is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the
suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all
phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is
endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive
emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)
The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance
which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers
to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning
distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the
afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that
the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the
Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right
Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist
teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight
steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means
ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai
Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right
46
Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right
Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and
Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind
Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which
are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to
the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections
as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion
The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our
own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing
comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons
Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The
same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction
will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth
certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined
These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance
character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens
to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will
happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist
previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior
The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and
Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the
47
entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action
because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)
The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the
Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones
Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience
happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant
effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of
Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for
other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good
merit
Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma
Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions
motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-
- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right
actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either
oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy
our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of
not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)
Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content
The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of
interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually
an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and
48
everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007
Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is
composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states
that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or
five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is
made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental
formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)
(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates
and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent
self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume
that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all
interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we
do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of
themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create
happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but
also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships
The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a
compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits
all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai
Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all
Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is
normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is
49
through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all
humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world
Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can
develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is
through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and
wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense
also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist
worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness
which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework
This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana
Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century
text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six
practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are
1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti
Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita
(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way
for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life
through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are
methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The
first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and
concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities
50
However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay
people
The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following
statement
The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)
The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The
Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme
Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether
worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the
practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers
to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which
directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are
three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to
reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-
liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life
by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in
the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to
lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms
Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as
possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness
Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other
beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a
51
blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it
is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to
Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own
afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering
The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of
life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner
psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in
Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These
three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and
hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai
Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends
on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one
will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this
understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness
and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and
engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering
Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon
but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent
self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as
explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos
fourth verse states the following
Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside
52
the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)
The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the
body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to
live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus
comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai
Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing
emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses
that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how
Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are
ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and
mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to
oneself and to others
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes
53
Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will
receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in
the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and
the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states
that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six
practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training
and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six
paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is
represented by Figure 3 below
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering
54
331 Generosity
Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic
mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In
the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states
If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be
practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and
giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means
overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily
giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure
for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya
(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are
five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and
admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and
will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in
return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue
bringing happiness to oneself and others
332 Ethics
The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue
Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble
Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality
55
of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never
having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for
Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body
speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by
our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions
killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed
malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond
to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh
language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will
wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous
actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and
cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy
greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous
behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically
become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th
verse Thogme Zangpo writes
If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve
happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For
example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will
56
be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of
avoiding harsh words
Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)
By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of
negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and
our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics
we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse
for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all
goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for
progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the
path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and
mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in
training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our
actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness
333 Patience and Tolerance
The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of
patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of
patience
For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)
57
Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are
challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative
thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive
emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our
heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance
and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was
deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him
Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally
attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the
strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and
this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain
inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness
334 Perseverance
The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance
It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working
hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states
Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on
ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from
58
suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability
Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal
The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard
failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and
affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve
happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at
all times
335 Meditative Concentration
The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana
Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and
overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices
of Bodhisattva is on meditation
At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six
realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in
comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a
human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating
day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings
2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma
59
can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind
because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi
(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering
and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving
happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative
concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We
stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in
everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and
misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility
Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us
directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states
Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
336 Wisdom
The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit
Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness
Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be
disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other
practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out
If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
60
Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron
Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our
habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the
ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of
ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble
paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three
poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and
unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost
clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence
Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the
attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness
(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of
reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with
joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism
34 Summary
Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and
hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to
various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material
wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is
only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be
happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The
mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as
61
cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three
poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience
inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of
attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear
and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus
accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third
(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting
rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and
achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart
Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses
more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being
compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness
generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can
reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others
62
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING
INDICATORS
People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of
effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must
be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the
GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators
Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness
Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental
Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially
destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of
practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to
what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of
happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This
chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect
Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter
Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the
meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights
similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on
the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections
analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad
categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The
chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings
63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures
Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons
mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The
measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country
pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall
wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions
that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a
persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life
(p40)
From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist
teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly
holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or
happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective
experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness
(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes
all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi
1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences
As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind
this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to
wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that
Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman
Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike
64
believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that
they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions
The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the
self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that
self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying
emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists
who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety
are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp
Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of
negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata
2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes
both positive and negative emotions
Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A
sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the
sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off
point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full
score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient
achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any
respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National
Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from
sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is
sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the
GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method
65
is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who
are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much
information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From
the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut
off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises
questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency
cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it
based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results
42 Emotional Balance
The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of
emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative
emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or
feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the
seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and
suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and
compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary
influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information
about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors
contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)
Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own
there are causal factors associated with them
66
Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition
therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the
Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary
consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates
merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of
mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and
secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists
fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under
the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses
a Negative Emotion
Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of
ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions
These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around
us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others
succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action
All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical
action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning
distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness
frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The
four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive
regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly
considered negative under the GNH index
67
1 Jealousy
Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris
(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival
poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important
relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text
classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is
defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as
their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their
accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we
receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment
Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what
jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments
envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the
element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that
envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy
is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work
fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead
to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has
strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)
In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy
Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and
envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and
68
happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a
GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our
peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous
of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values
Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of
emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety
sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and
betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to
achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since
jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate
that it be an indicator of GNH
In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the
respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that
respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or
expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as
non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency
cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles
How often do you experience jealousy
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
69
2 Selfishness
The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of
craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and
greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi
1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and
appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)
states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)
Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe
zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively
Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As
explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential
principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one
of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a
rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your
wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that
Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In
particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-
centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the
ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to
Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness
Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms
70
Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is
opposed to the GNH values
Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following
question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a
person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that
selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH
index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait
How often do you experience selfishness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a
condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an
internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to
the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a
mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms
part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national
language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means
pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our
self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and
ourselves
71
Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of
mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out
of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire
and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to
maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and
opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since
frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such
emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing
The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of
respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience
frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes
experience frustration are given a negative score
How often do you experience frustration
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
4 Suicidal Thoughts
Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in
life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a
mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten
non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is
72
therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by
suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma
Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its
complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the
awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the
effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being
Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who
commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action
Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing
leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that
even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the
basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get
rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates
that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your
problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of
afflictive emotion
According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist
painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and
suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive
living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and
the future for the better
Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with
elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le
73
Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The
most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese
psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure
to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts
occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive
emotions
Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has
never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while
respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall
the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings
Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide
1 Yes 2 No
Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that
affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the
distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become
known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative
emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and
divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction
The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states
and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees
74
ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out
in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and
selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the
immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates
that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon
those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides
evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to
know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as
policy must attend to it them
Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and
therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate
the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are
rooted in Buddhism
b Positive Emotions
The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the
negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity
calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to
oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages
replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative
concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive
indicators of psychological wellbeing
75
5 Generosity
Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In
Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter
Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains
that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it
brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive
virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental
development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves
and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence
which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms
generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as
an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for
oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the
collection of data
How often do you experience generosity
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should
frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH
3 See Chapter Three
76
society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does
not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part
of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary
service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not
get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in
the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological
wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH
6 Calmness
Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance
Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The
Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses
the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism
as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma
text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the
tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)
Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi
(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually
at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding
and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a
happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health
and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can
77
experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue
consistent with GNH ideals
The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of
data
How often do you experience calmness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH
society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be
linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well
7 Compassion
Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist
practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important
trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only
through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues
For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of
generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the
suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the
law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent
meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to
78
overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are
considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators
Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a
GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise
and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS
(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of
others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the
suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further
scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in
bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz
Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much
coherent with the GNH values
The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how
compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity
and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently
experience compassion to get the full GNH score
How often do you experience compassion
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity
have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the
79
potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to
the Buddhist practice of paramitas
43 Spiritual Practices
From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of
practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity
can hold negative emotions at bay
8 Frequency of Meditation
The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind
The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the
importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire
hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative
practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see
directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and
masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe
meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out
that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with
little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be
able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts
(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of
California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain
involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of
80
meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated
with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not
link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist
teachings
Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm
our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has
beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression
poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced
inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three
universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of
Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of
meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of
meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more
frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind
relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to
meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is
only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature
and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)
The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported
by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a
positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of
GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is
putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of
respondents regarding the practice of meditation
Do you practice meditation
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means
one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation
is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay
population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)
904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan
still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why
the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently
meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced
among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH
values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the
indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism
9 Prayer Recitation
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power
Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to
awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which
82
literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy
like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken
once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is
thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra
literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002
p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the
truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the
blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter
ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being
Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good
vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength
compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In
Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship
between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the
great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding
effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and
right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell
peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate
while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one
close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and
concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The
83
Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of
meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)
explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the
mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile
reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming
its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of
breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the
energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The
practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist
In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to
local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil
forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone
Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned
earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism
emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with
polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which
worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans
national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent
in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices
but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform
rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under
Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other
84
deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs
invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk
2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper
valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old
tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now
considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture
The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays
daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score
Do you sayrecite prayers
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both
are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a
full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different
sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation
indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in
Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are
highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to
be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The
CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values
Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because
85
both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too
is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist
principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of
prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs
10 Taking account of Karma
As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides
the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of
ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has
influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being
morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily
life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result
depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing
non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma
conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to
avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions
bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of
causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life
The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as
daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH
score
86
Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily
basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state
According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes
and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a
clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real
reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)
serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping
each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a
GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy
society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist
principles and is consistent with GNH values
43 General Mental Health (GMH)
11 General Mental Health
The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of
depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators
under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists
87
of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to
concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the
respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with
lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-
15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some
mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)
The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should
not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score
The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health
status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect
wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase
susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)
From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of
confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)
points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own
physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have
the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health
problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own
ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress
thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist
teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus
4 A meditation technique
88
mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and
hatred
Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why
selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from
selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a
ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of
small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second
reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is
guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous
Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In
Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes
suffering
The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind
The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that
influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it
opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the
population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy
(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people
pursue happiness
44 Summary
The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
89
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following
The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration
suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an
afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through
which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism
frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result
of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views
leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus
arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what
Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others
thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a
result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to
the idea of self leads to mental stress
The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion
and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking
account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas
Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness
Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of
the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita
which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator
of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative
concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation
however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the
90
local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by
Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses
avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the
positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core
teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be
appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism
Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH
society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but
also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also
important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions
at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or
negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of
psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values
91
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS
From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the
preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the
philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal
importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without
spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops
and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to
measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises
72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate
all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in
guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The
purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are
To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect
Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does
reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and
survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo
study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist
principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by
this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of
happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most
92
The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for
people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index
measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people
Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators
reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles
related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to
happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a
basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only
worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which
can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative
concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to
the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace
must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the
happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the
outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind
that creates the cause for happiness or success
Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven
indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and
wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of
psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in
affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and
regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-
93
transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing
problems and solutions to the root causes
The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples
emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion
Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing
correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below
Indicators Buddhist Principles
1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity
6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices
7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance
8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration
9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration
10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics
11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and
suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the
three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and
94
deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly
selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness
is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-
self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I
through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term
gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary
immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism
are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the
problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these
negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress
The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion
calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the
replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous
action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself
and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect
psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly
related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the
psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with
the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and
calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by
Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political
ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in
Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-
95
term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term
happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived
from spiritual cultural and social values
This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and
cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and
happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the
mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as
Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that
Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH
Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and
conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically
strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not
contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the
inner conditions of ones own mind
Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make
better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be
considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan
Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy
community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than
those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)
By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as
necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for
developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing
96
thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-
material development is equally important as external material development
Recommendations for Future Studies
The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of
the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared
towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further
Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation
aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal
happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH
Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a
therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their
lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-
Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism
can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)
Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons
insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values
As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the
sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the
CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level
that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because
there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually
been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some
assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis
97
for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy
makers
This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected
Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing
were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of
emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only
recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire
notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but
does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective
solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity
compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the
term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity
One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from
an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have
not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid
misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced
This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar
study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further
investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the
GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the
emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the
real essence of human happiness
98
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Tashi K P Prakke D amp Chettri S (1999) Gross national happiness Concept for the debate Karma Galay [ed] (1999) Gross National Happiness A Set of Discussion Papers
Tashi K P (2004) The Role of Buddhism in Achieving Gross National Happiness Proceeding of the First International Seminar on GNH (p483mdash495) Edited by Karma Ura and Karma Galey Centre for Bhutan Studies
The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary Retrieved from Dictionarycom website httpdictionarvreferencecombrowsefrustration
Thinley JY (1998) Gross National Happiness Keynote Speech Delivered at the Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific 30 October ~ 1 November 1998 Seoul Republic of Korea Retrieved from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH Ch2 UThinlevpdf
Thinley JY (1999) Gross National Happiness and Human Development - Searching for Common Ground Opening statement to the Workshop Retrieved from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH Chi UThinlevpdf
Thinley JY (2005) Gross National Happiness and Development (Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Gross National Happiness held in Halifax Canada) Centre for Bhutan Studies Retrieved on June262009 from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesscomArticlesonGNHSecondGNH8-Rethinkingpdf
Thinley Y J (2007) What does gross national happiness mean Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development- local pathway to global being St Francis Xavier University Antigonish Nova Scotia Canada in 2005 Retrieved from httpwwwgpiatlanticorgconferenceproceedingsthinleyhtm
Tourism Council of Bhutan (2008) Discover Bhutan-the travel magazine Thimphu Bhutan
Ura K (2008) Explanation of GNH Index Centre for Bhutan Studies Retrieved on June 12 2009 from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhlndexintruductionGNHaspx
Wangchuk R (2005 April 19) Bonism and Shamanism an integral part of Bongop culture Kuenselonline Retrieved from httpwwwkuenselonlinecommodulesphpname=Newsampfile=printampsid=5318
108
Wangchuk JK (2008) Coronation Address of His Majesty King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuk Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomdefaultaspx
Wijeyawansa W L (2009) Buddhist Spectrum Buddhism and wealth Retrieved from httpwwwdailvnewslk2009ll24fea30asp
Williams DT (2008) Devil Talk Miltons Post-Modern Satan and his Disciples Touchstone A Journal of Mere Christianity 21(7) 24-27
Wolfe R Elder D(2007) Approaches to Policy Analysis Retrieved fromhttppostqueensuca~wolfer802MPAMPA802htm
Wright D S (2009) The Six Perfections Buddhism and Cultivation of Character Oxford University Press Retrieved from httpbooksgooglecabooksid=YeCAtSdxikYCampprintsec=frontcoverampdq=the+si x+perfections+of+buddhismampsource=blampots=WuFE9hRfJbampsig=nDnQTu6Gikc7Kd HgkcDiOODZ-aOamphl=enampei=fULzS53vOYqG9ASawpTNDwampsa=Xampoi=book resultampct=resultampre snum=8ampved=0CD8Q6AEwBwv=onepageampqampf=false
Zangmo T (2009) Womens contribution to Gross National Happiness A critical analysis of the role of Nuns and Nunneries in education and sustainable development in Bhutan Retrieved from httpproquestumicompqdwebindex=2ampsid=lampsrchmode=lampvinst=PRODampf mt=6ampstartpage=-lampclientid=10774ampvname=PQDampRQT=309ampdid-1800026961ampscaling=FULLampts= 1270154841ampvtvpe=PQDamprqt=309ampTS=1270154847ampclientld=10774
Zangpo TN (nd) Gyalse Laglin (The Thirty-seven Practices of Bodhisattvas) (Ratnashri Meditation Centre Trans) Sweden (12th Century) Retrieved from httphomeswipnetseratnashricommentarvpdf
109
Appendix 1
Gross National Happiness Index
Cultural Diversity
Psychological Wellbeing
Good Governance
Time Use
Health Education Ecology Living Standards
Commu nity Vitality
Jealousy
Selfishness s- Negative Emotions
Frustration
Suicidal Thoughts
Compassion
Positive Emotions Calmness
Generosity
Meditation
gt- Spiritual Practices Prayer Recitation
Taking account of Karma
General Health General Mental Health
110
Appendix 2
General Mental Health Questionnaire Ql During the last year would you describe your life as-
1 Very Stressful 2 Somewhat Stressful 3 Not At All Stressful 4 Dont Know
Q2 What are your main sources of stress
Q3 Been able to concentrate on what youre doing 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q4 Lost much sleep over worry 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q5 Felt you were playing a useful part in things
1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q6 Felt capable of making decisions about things 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q7 Felt constantly under strain 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual
111
4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q8 Felt you couldnt overcome your difficulties 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q9 Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Qll Been able to face up to your problems 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q12 Been feeling unhappy and depressed 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q13 Been losing confidence in yourself 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
014 Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q15 Been feeling reasonably happy all things considered 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual
112
4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Curriculum Vitae
Candidates full name Tashi Wangmo
Universities attended Maastricht School of Management The Netherlands 2007 Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management
Royal University of Bhutan Royal Institute of Management Thimphu Bhutan 2004 Post Graduate Certificate in Financial Management (PGCFM)
University of North Bengal Government College Daijeeling India 2000-2003 Bachelors of Commerce
University of New Brunswick Fredericton NB Canada 2008-2010 MPhil Policy Studies (Philosophy Politics and Economics)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many people to thank for the successful completion of this study I
would first like to thank my supervisor Dr John Valk for his continuous support
guidance and encouragement I would also like to thank my co-supervisors Dr Emery
Hyslop-Margison and Dr Ellen Rose for their guidance and time which helped me
complete my study on time I would also like to thank the University of New Brunswick
especially the Graduate School Unit for partially funding my study My sincere thanks
also go to the Royal Government of Bhutan for granting me study leave
I would also like to thank Ms Tshokey Zangmo Researcher at the Centre for
Bhutan Studies for providing me with information on GNH Index and for clearing my
doubts I am also thankful to Ven Lama Mepham a Buddhist meditation teacher at the
University of Arkansas for guiding me and sharing his knowledge on Buddhist principles
Lastly I am very thankful to my family and friends for their continued love and support
iii
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
List of Abbreviations viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture 3
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy 5
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan 7
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index 8
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study 13
16 Methodology 14
17 Limitations and Significance of the study 17
18 Summary 18
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 20 21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness 21
22 Evolution of the Concept 29
23 GNH Discourses and Debates 33
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness 37
25 Summary 39
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS 41 31 Buddhist View of Happiness 42
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles 45
321 The four noble truths 45
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion 47 iv
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50
331 Generosity 55
332 Ethics 55
333 Patience and Tolerance 57
334 Perseverance 58
335 Meditative Concentration 59
336 Wisdom 60
34 Summary 61
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64
42 Emotional Balance 66
43 Spiritual Practices 80
43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87
44 Summary 89
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92
References 99
Appendix 1 110
Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae
v
List of Tables
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54
vii
List of Abbreviations
CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa
FYP Five Year Plan
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GHQ General Health Questionnaire
GNH Gross National Happiness
GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission
GPI Genuine Progress Index
HDI Human Development Index
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoHE Ministry of Health and Education
NEC National Environment Commission
NSB National Statistic Bureau
RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan
TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples
lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the
people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it
measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture
fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)
Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing
alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human
Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important
factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary
values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross
National Happiness
Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of
Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing
human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the
spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck
coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross
National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura
2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an
enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is
the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult
1
for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four
major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable
economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning
Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through
which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH
Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently
sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked
however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core
principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation
of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of
Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH
values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008
pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been
identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now
ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government
performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this
study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist
principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief
background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents
Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National
Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains
of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth
2
section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section
presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance
and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are
presented in the eighth section
11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture
Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central
Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square
kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two
leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most
isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are
smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)
farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population
945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the
population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was
estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost
entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea
level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau
2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry
of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity
Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)
The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by
Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique
3
philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and
traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme
Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than
Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of
every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed
that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)
This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority
25 SO Km
50 25
G r e a
S Gasa Ozong
Toogsa THIMPHU Paro
Tashigang
Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing
r~
BANGLADESH
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)
4
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy
Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung
Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to
unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan
(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was
the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education
[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system
where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head
abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement
of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for
this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -
1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious
retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung
himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal
stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was
unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then
visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country
Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional
democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization
was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation
A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country
5
of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady
decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples
participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen
the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the
establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye
Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees
(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these
committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers
previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)
On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned
nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate
the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal
Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite
occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king
was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning
monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed
that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign
He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness
today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual
pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected
government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH
6
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan
The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be
included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The
importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A
Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states
that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve
their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the
concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an
important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government
of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)
GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to
complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and
non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing
ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH
supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater
good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual
The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for
it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it
cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme
YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH
stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which
happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments
policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a
7
collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the
happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve
happiness
The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese
worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The
policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from
outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to
diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning
Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross
National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision
emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and
environmental conservation
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index
Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese
government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and
equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural
preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have
constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to
as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism
and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the
government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt
the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot
8
guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators
were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural
resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality
ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness
are explained below
1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life
life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable
indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and
generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional
balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the
indicators under this domain
2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two
indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent
delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account
3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain
intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities
that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust
belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community
and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality
Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density
4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and
strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of
changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that
9
encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music
dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural
diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan
skill Value transmission and Basic precept
5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The
GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of
health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated
health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month
Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding
practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to
health
6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and
collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and
skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic
ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally
The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and
Folk and historical literacy
7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception
of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation
Ecological knowledge and Afforestation
8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the
individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and
10
house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food
security and Hardship
9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people
perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality
The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government
performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and
corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good
governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator
A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in
nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of
GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result
of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of
950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS
in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and
principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)
states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally
weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal
intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each
domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high
response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For
example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often
they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion
forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the
11
option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only
eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72
indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)
The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is
currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki
Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the
conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured
semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of
the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual
having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS
2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based
on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or
objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective
survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those
elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime
accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and
volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of
monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report
survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of
subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index
is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and
determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains
12
The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average
squared distance from cutoff
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study
Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with
the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by
the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and
emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified
are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the
resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do
the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept
of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what
extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators
with the concept of GNH
Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be
most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the
indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I
choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health
living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional
economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development
Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been
included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of
13
psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it
would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators
16 Methodology
The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist
principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This
policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze
the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes
and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social
problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses
determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for
determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a
given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the
governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the
concept of GNH
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social
lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most
important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not
to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH
indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First
the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will
determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is
14
a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As
such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced
the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and
Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study
attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist
influence which then might support the notion put forth by them
Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on
GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on
GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such
as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are
used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by
the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist
principles of happiness
The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to
overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a
conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an
inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key
principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be
discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma
principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical
basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas
An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope
15
and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will
serve as a basis for assessing the indicators
Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana
Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse
Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven
bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-
1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from
hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings
The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used
for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every
sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the
teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected
in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such
as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used
The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the
Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the
indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-
processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-
one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical
standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as
how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing
indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the
indicators are referred to for this study
16
17 Limitations and Significance of the study
There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study
focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH
indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives
Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the
indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles
and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous
Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of
Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche
Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the
indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country
As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the
GNH index are available
The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the
psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of
the GNH index are not discussed
Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons
First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study
that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism
This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in
studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of
GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be
an area of future research
17
Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the
government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH
index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the
design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of
the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is
important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be
distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine
whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept
18 Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at
Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy
The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the
methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter
Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how
the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been
influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to
each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the
development of the GNH index are also discussed
Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological
wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined
Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and
compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices
18
of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the
teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles
Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological
wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each
indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent
to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency
of the indicators with the concept of GNH
Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future
studies
19
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)
is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather
implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic
construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in
the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more
depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999
2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have
argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter
reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship
between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored
Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist
principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to
understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH
The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the
core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points
out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold
path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how
the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century
when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section
examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development
giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the
noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20
GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the
review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by
questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples
wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH
21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness
Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This
is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of
the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans
value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left
exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH
context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both
economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to
pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as
the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against
the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values
In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH
thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social
and cultural values
Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH
are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted
in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is
essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces
21
harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana
Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan
Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material
rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the
importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and
pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as
peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo
2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly
influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of
Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the
Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of
Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion
and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice
According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is
happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche
as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to
remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the
cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure
and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the
means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is
often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the
process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in
the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in
22
Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam
Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to
change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the
importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as
altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength
Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and
economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be
a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley
states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan
Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates
living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places
equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of
GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it
the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its
social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was
overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field
(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their
forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the
governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to
environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)
argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse
theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that
GNH is therefore a response to this realization
23
Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless
Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan
Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from
the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a
society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that
this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri
(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-
specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist
values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist
Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be
clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief
ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy
and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among
these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment
(Rinzin 2006)
1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation
Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of
happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our
happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical
environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the
uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in
the world
24
Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning
Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong
arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The
relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally
different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an
independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all
dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that
nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of
conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)
Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and
rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-
human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these
spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)
These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese
consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system
The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the
constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage
2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion
The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an
integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned
development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their
policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist
Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the
25
doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary
rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich
religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam
namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to
promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-
damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty
community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and
superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and
teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)
In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people
consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese
culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a
way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through
tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and
cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening
the Bhutanese culture and tradition
3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development
The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development
While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external
factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the
concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs
(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an
end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety
26
insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic
development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is
easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness
Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have
opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the
government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable
goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and
exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for
economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998
Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are
sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the
requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher
1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or
cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on
trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and
follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on
economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By
following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage
in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society
4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance
This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a
GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys
political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent
27
accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission
[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts
that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of
GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most
important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic
government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy
would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the
freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a
Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise
Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the
path to good governance that leads to GNH
Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006
states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig
and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional
Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people
Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which
encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right
Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right
Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese
judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws
(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2
Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right
Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip
28
(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10
Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as
cited by Powers 1995)
Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech
and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy
makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any
individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the
three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like
the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)
Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working
with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to
understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that
refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the
relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence
Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and
wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work
with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to
nurture and manifest these qualities
22 Evolution of the Concept
The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very
old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of
Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal
29
set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on
the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]
1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the
land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an
animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon
rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to
the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life
culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism
in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them
could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)
It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally
instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)
Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese
development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during
Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the
religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the
lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the
government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on
Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of
Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)
Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values
giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates
30
that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme
Y Thinley (2004) writes
Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)
Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the
country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)
Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or
postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were
no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life
expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was
considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged
mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the
land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were
self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based
on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of
the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)
Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable
social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first
explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The
National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty
of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15
31
1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early
1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE
1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not
voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister
expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link
Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid
increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless
Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the
Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several
thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions
began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between
the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade
route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the
following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of
discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources
and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards
development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural
preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of
modernization (Priesner 1999)
Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King
always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel
1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the
third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971
32
Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied
principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for
GNH
The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy
economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the
translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner
1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique
development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve
national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply
embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the
term Gross National Happiness was coined
23 GNH Discourses and Debates
The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by
the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His
keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many
scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore
the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister
Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for
GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main
ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there
were any at all
33
Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that
it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and
would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their
suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH
Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical
approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH
On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and
there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to
define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought
argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first
workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this
workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set
of Discussion Papers
After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH
Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from
February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept
of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be
operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused
largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien
(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI
which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health
livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference
discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a
34
potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic
security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any
definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference
was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on
happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop
the indicators of GNH in a later period
The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local
Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24
2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual
experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and
second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that
in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third
international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH
Index
The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused
on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the
importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in
developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference
Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index
The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)
was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase
which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current
situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators
35
psychology environment community relations education health living standard
governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the
indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the
missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be
used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the
methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human
progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners
The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation
for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the
international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government
realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH
(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are
framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH
values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-
day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level
Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business
establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is
believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company
functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the
dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a
revelation for Bhutan
On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed
his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the
36
education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH
infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a
road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles
into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in
the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state
that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum
Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many
schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)
Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and
concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very
practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot
through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of
measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness
Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that
takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations
Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index
(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross
National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the
overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI
health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing
to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the
37
philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)
president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators
of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of
Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will
provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)
In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley
(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people
perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well
into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)
argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing
economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known
about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived
experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae
that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people
Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in
revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of
policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will
enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking
GNH processes
Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble
philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not
do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)
There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human
38
happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness
of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its
policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National
Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently
quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely
wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing
Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always
remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if
they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness
(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese
government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National
Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase
25 Summary
This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of
Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding
of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged
in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is
influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life
the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional
Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way
39
of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality
and compassion are inherent in GNH
History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and
17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism
therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state
because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with
problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus
challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives
in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH
Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not
opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to
health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies
in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are
promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly
adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers
know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however
as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are
influenced by Buddhist principles
40
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS
We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the
importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize
that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general
assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings
defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by
increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)
The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of
possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed
in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the
ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key
problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often
criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in
our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine
happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts
that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an
ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of
this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some
key Buddhist principles related to happiness
Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist
worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the
psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter
The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because
41
Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the
framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six
paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise
out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path
This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief
introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the
Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana
Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble
truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and
compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the
Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to
crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the
six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and
others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme
Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings
by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will
serve as sources for constructing this framework
31 Buddhist View of Happiness
Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers
worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the
concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the
notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is
42
commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of
practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly
influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no
creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)
The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread
ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha
was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The
lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism
chief among which is the pursuit of happiness
In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai
Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for
happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche
a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on
material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)
The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or
the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment
if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if
we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This
indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai
Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism
happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often
agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn
cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer
43
the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and
suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)
Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)
And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)
There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles
ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism
Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues
through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards
sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been
(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas
teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and
righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities
that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined
with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of
possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999
p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they
are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the
Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all
materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but
a cause of suffering
44
His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary
happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means
that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the
cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma
can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp
Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which
happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the
Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us
happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing
towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are
also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and
Bhutanese
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles
321 The four noble truths
In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths
which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths
explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes
that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness
and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth
explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for
individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth
states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth
45
prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft
1997)
A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no
person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth
states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end
to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First
is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the
suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all
phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is
endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive
emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)
The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance
which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers
to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning
distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the
afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that
the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the
Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right
Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist
teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight
steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means
ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai
Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right
46
Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right
Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and
Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind
Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which
are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to
the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections
as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion
The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our
own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing
comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons
Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The
same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction
will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth
certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined
These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance
character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens
to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will
happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist
previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior
The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and
Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the
47
entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action
because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)
The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the
Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones
Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience
happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant
effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of
Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for
other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good
merit
Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma
Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions
motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-
- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right
actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either
oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy
our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of
not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)
Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content
The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of
interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually
an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and
48
everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007
Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is
composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states
that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or
five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is
made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental
formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)
(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates
and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent
self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume
that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all
interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we
do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of
themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create
happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but
also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships
The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a
compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits
all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai
Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all
Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is
normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is
49
through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all
humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world
Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can
develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is
through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and
wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense
also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist
worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness
which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework
This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana
Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century
text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six
practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are
1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti
Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita
(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way
for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life
through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are
methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The
first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and
concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities
50
However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay
people
The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following
statement
The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)
The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The
Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme
Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether
worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the
practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers
to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which
directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are
three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to
reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-
liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life
by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in
the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to
lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms
Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as
possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness
Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other
beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a
51
blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it
is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to
Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own
afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering
The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of
life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner
psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in
Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These
three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and
hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai
Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends
on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one
will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this
understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness
and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and
engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering
Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon
but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent
self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as
explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos
fourth verse states the following
Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside
52
the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)
The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the
body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to
live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus
comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai
Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing
emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses
that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how
Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are
ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and
mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to
oneself and to others
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes
53
Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will
receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in
the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and
the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states
that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six
practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training
and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six
paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is
represented by Figure 3 below
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering
54
331 Generosity
Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic
mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In
the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states
If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be
practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and
giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means
overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily
giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure
for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya
(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are
five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and
admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and
will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in
return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue
bringing happiness to oneself and others
332 Ethics
The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue
Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble
Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality
55
of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never
having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for
Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body
speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by
our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions
killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed
malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond
to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh
language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will
wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous
actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and
cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy
greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous
behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically
become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th
verse Thogme Zangpo writes
If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve
happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For
example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will
56
be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of
avoiding harsh words
Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)
By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of
negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and
our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics
we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse
for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all
goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for
progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the
path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and
mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in
training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our
actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness
333 Patience and Tolerance
The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of
patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of
patience
For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)
57
Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are
challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative
thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive
emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our
heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance
and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was
deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him
Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally
attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the
strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and
this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain
inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness
334 Perseverance
The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance
It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working
hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states
Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on
ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from
58
suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability
Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal
The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard
failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and
affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve
happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at
all times
335 Meditative Concentration
The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana
Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and
overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices
of Bodhisattva is on meditation
At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six
realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in
comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a
human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating
day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings
2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma
59
can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind
because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi
(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering
and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving
happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative
concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We
stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in
everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and
misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility
Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us
directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states
Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
336 Wisdom
The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit
Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness
Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be
disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other
practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out
If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
60
Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron
Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our
habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the
ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of
ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble
paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three
poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and
unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost
clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence
Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the
attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness
(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of
reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with
joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism
34 Summary
Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and
hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to
various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material
wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is
only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be
happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The
mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as
61
cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three
poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience
inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of
attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear
and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus
accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third
(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting
rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and
achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart
Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses
more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being
compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness
generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can
reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others
62
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING
INDICATORS
People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of
effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must
be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the
GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators
Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness
Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental
Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially
destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of
practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to
what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of
happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This
chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect
Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter
Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the
meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights
similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on
the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections
analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad
categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The
chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings
63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures
Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons
mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The
measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country
pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall
wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions
that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a
persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life
(p40)
From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist
teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly
holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or
happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective
experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness
(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes
all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi
1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences
As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind
this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to
wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that
Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman
Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike
64
believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that
they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions
The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the
self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that
self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying
emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists
who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety
are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp
Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of
negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata
2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes
both positive and negative emotions
Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A
sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the
sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off
point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full
score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient
achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any
respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National
Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from
sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is
sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the
GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method
65
is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who
are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much
information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From
the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut
off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises
questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency
cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it
based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results
42 Emotional Balance
The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of
emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative
emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or
feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the
seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and
suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and
compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary
influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information
about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors
contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)
Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own
there are causal factors associated with them
66
Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition
therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the
Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary
consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates
merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of
mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and
secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists
fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under
the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses
a Negative Emotion
Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of
ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions
These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around
us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others
succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action
All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical
action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning
distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness
frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The
four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive
regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly
considered negative under the GNH index
67
1 Jealousy
Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris
(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival
poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important
relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text
classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is
defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as
their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their
accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we
receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment
Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what
jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments
envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the
element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that
envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy
is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work
fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead
to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has
strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)
In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy
Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and
envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and
68
happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a
GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our
peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous
of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values
Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of
emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety
sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and
betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to
achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since
jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate
that it be an indicator of GNH
In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the
respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that
respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or
expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as
non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency
cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles
How often do you experience jealousy
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
69
2 Selfishness
The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of
craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and
greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi
1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and
appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)
states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)
Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe
zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively
Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As
explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential
principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one
of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a
rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your
wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that
Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In
particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-
centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the
ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to
Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness
Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms
70
Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is
opposed to the GNH values
Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following
question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a
person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that
selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH
index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait
How often do you experience selfishness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a
condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an
internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to
the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a
mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms
part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national
language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means
pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our
self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and
ourselves
71
Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of
mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out
of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire
and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to
maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and
opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since
frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such
emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing
The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of
respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience
frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes
experience frustration are given a negative score
How often do you experience frustration
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
4 Suicidal Thoughts
Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in
life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a
mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten
non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is
72
therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by
suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma
Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its
complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the
awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the
effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being
Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who
commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action
Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing
leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that
even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the
basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get
rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates
that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your
problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of
afflictive emotion
According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist
painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and
suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive
living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and
the future for the better
Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with
elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le
73
Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The
most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese
psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure
to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts
occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive
emotions
Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has
never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while
respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall
the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings
Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide
1 Yes 2 No
Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that
affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the
distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become
known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative
emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and
divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction
The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states
and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees
74
ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out
in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and
selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the
immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates
that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon
those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides
evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to
know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as
policy must attend to it them
Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and
therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate
the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are
rooted in Buddhism
b Positive Emotions
The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the
negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity
calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to
oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages
replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative
concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive
indicators of psychological wellbeing
75
5 Generosity
Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In
Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter
Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains
that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it
brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive
virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental
development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves
and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence
which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms
generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as
an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for
oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the
collection of data
How often do you experience generosity
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should
frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH
3 See Chapter Three
76
society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does
not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part
of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary
service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not
get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in
the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological
wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH
6 Calmness
Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance
Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The
Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses
the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism
as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma
text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the
tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)
Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi
(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually
at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding
and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a
happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health
and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can
77
experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue
consistent with GNH ideals
The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of
data
How often do you experience calmness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH
society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be
linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well
7 Compassion
Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist
practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important
trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only
through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues
For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of
generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the
suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the
law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent
meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to
78
overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are
considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators
Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a
GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise
and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS
(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of
others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the
suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further
scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in
bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz
Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much
coherent with the GNH values
The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how
compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity
and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently
experience compassion to get the full GNH score
How often do you experience compassion
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity
have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the
79
potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to
the Buddhist practice of paramitas
43 Spiritual Practices
From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of
practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity
can hold negative emotions at bay
8 Frequency of Meditation
The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind
The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the
importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire
hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative
practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see
directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and
masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe
meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out
that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with
little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be
able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts
(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of
California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain
involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of
80
meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated
with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not
link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist
teachings
Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm
our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has
beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression
poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced
inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three
universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of
Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of
meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of
meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more
frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind
relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to
meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is
only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature
and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)
The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported
by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a
positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of
GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is
putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of
respondents regarding the practice of meditation
Do you practice meditation
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means
one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation
is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay
population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)
904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan
still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why
the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently
meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced
among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH
values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the
indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism
9 Prayer Recitation
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power
Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to
awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which
82
literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy
like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken
once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is
thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra
literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002
p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the
truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the
blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter
ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being
Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good
vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength
compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In
Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship
between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the
great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding
effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and
right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell
peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate
while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one
close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and
concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The
83
Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of
meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)
explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the
mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile
reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming
its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of
breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the
energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The
practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist
In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to
local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil
forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone
Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned
earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism
emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with
polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which
worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans
national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent
in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices
but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform
rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under
Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other
84
deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs
invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk
2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper
valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old
tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now
considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture
The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays
daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score
Do you sayrecite prayers
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both
are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a
full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different
sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation
indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in
Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are
highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to
be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The
CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values
Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because
85
both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too
is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist
principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of
prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs
10 Taking account of Karma
As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides
the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of
ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has
influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being
morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily
life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result
depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing
non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma
conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to
avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions
bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of
causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life
The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as
daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH
score
86
Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily
basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state
According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes
and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a
clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real
reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)
serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping
each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a
GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy
society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist
principles and is consistent with GNH values
43 General Mental Health (GMH)
11 General Mental Health
The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of
depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators
under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists
87
of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to
concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the
respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with
lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-
15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some
mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)
The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should
not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score
The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health
status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect
wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase
susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)
From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of
confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)
points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own
physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have
the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health
problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own
ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress
thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist
teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus
4 A meditation technique
88
mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and
hatred
Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why
selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from
selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a
ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of
small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second
reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is
guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous
Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In
Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes
suffering
The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind
The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that
influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it
opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the
population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy
(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people
pursue happiness
44 Summary
The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
89
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following
The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration
suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an
afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through
which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism
frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result
of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views
leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus
arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what
Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others
thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a
result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to
the idea of self leads to mental stress
The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion
and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking
account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas
Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness
Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of
the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita
which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator
of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative
concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation
however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the
90
local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by
Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses
avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the
positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core
teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be
appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism
Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH
society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but
also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also
important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions
at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or
negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of
psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values
91
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS
From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the
preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the
philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal
importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without
spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops
and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to
measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises
72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate
all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in
guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The
purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are
To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect
Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does
reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and
survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo
study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist
principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by
this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of
happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most
92
The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for
people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index
measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people
Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators
reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles
related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to
happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a
basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only
worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which
can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative
concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to
the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace
must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the
happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the
outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind
that creates the cause for happiness or success
Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven
indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and
wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of
psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in
affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and
regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-
93
transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing
problems and solutions to the root causes
The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples
emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion
Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing
correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below
Indicators Buddhist Principles
1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity
6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices
7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance
8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration
9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration
10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics
11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and
suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the
three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and
94
deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly
selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness
is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-
self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I
through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term
gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary
immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism
are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the
problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these
negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress
The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion
calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the
replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous
action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself
and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect
psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly
related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the
psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with
the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and
calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by
Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political
ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in
Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-
95
term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term
happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived
from spiritual cultural and social values
This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and
cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and
happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the
mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as
Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that
Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH
Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and
conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically
strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not
contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the
inner conditions of ones own mind
Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make
better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be
considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan
Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy
community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than
those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)
By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as
necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for
developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing
96
thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-
material development is equally important as external material development
Recommendations for Future Studies
The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of
the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared
towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further
Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation
aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal
happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH
Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a
therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their
lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-
Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism
can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)
Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons
insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values
As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the
sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the
CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level
that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because
there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually
been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some
assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis
97
for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy
makers
This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected
Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing
were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of
emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only
recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire
notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but
does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective
solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity
compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the
term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity
One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from
an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have
not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid
misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced
This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar
study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further
investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the
GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the
emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the
real essence of human happiness
98
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109
Appendix 1
Gross National Happiness Index
Cultural Diversity
Psychological Wellbeing
Good Governance
Time Use
Health Education Ecology Living Standards
Commu nity Vitality
Jealousy
Selfishness s- Negative Emotions
Frustration
Suicidal Thoughts
Compassion
Positive Emotions Calmness
Generosity
Meditation
gt- Spiritual Practices Prayer Recitation
Taking account of Karma
General Health General Mental Health
110
Appendix 2
General Mental Health Questionnaire Ql During the last year would you describe your life as-
1 Very Stressful 2 Somewhat Stressful 3 Not At All Stressful 4 Dont Know
Q2 What are your main sources of stress
Q3 Been able to concentrate on what youre doing 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q4 Lost much sleep over worry 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q5 Felt you were playing a useful part in things
1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q6 Felt capable of making decisions about things 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q7 Felt constantly under strain 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual
111
4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q8 Felt you couldnt overcome your difficulties 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q9 Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Qll Been able to face up to your problems 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q12 Been feeling unhappy and depressed 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q13 Been losing confidence in yourself 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
014 Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q15 Been feeling reasonably happy all things considered 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual
112
4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Curriculum Vitae
Candidates full name Tashi Wangmo
Universities attended Maastricht School of Management The Netherlands 2007 Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management
Royal University of Bhutan Royal Institute of Management Thimphu Bhutan 2004 Post Graduate Certificate in Financial Management (PGCFM)
University of North Bengal Government College Daijeeling India 2000-2003 Bachelors of Commerce
University of New Brunswick Fredericton NB Canada 2008-2010 MPhil Policy Studies (Philosophy Politics and Economics)
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
List of Abbreviations viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture 3
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy 5
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan 7
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index 8
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study 13
16 Methodology 14
17 Limitations and Significance of the study 17
18 Summary 18
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 20 21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness 21
22 Evolution of the Concept 29
23 GNH Discourses and Debates 33
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness 37
25 Summary 39
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS 41 31 Buddhist View of Happiness 42
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles 45
321 The four noble truths 45
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion 47 iv
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50
331 Generosity 55
332 Ethics 55
333 Patience and Tolerance 57
334 Perseverance 58
335 Meditative Concentration 59
336 Wisdom 60
34 Summary 61
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64
42 Emotional Balance 66
43 Spiritual Practices 80
43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87
44 Summary 89
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92
References 99
Appendix 1 110
Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae
v
List of Tables
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54
vii
List of Abbreviations
CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa
FYP Five Year Plan
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GHQ General Health Questionnaire
GNH Gross National Happiness
GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission
GPI Genuine Progress Index
HDI Human Development Index
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoHE Ministry of Health and Education
NEC National Environment Commission
NSB National Statistic Bureau
RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan
TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples
lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the
people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it
measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture
fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)
Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing
alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human
Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important
factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary
values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross
National Happiness
Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of
Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing
human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the
spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck
coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross
National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura
2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an
enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is
the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult
1
for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four
major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable
economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning
Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through
which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH
Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently
sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked
however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core
principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation
of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of
Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH
values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008
pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been
identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now
ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government
performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this
study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist
principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief
background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents
Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National
Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains
of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth
2
section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section
presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance
and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are
presented in the eighth section
11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture
Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central
Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square
kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two
leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most
isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are
smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)
farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population
945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the
population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was
estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost
entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea
level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau
2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry
of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity
Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)
The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by
Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique
3
philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and
traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme
Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than
Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of
every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed
that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)
This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority
25 SO Km
50 25
G r e a
S Gasa Ozong
Toogsa THIMPHU Paro
Tashigang
Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing
r~
BANGLADESH
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)
4
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy
Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung
Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to
unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan
(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was
the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education
[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system
where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head
abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement
of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for
this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -
1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious
retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung
himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal
stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was
unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then
visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country
Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional
democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization
was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation
A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country
5
of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady
decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples
participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen
the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the
establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye
Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees
(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these
committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers
previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)
On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned
nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate
the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal
Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite
occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king
was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning
monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed
that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign
He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness
today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual
pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected
government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH
6
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan
The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be
included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The
importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A
Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states
that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve
their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the
concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an
important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government
of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)
GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to
complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and
non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing
ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH
supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater
good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual
The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for
it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it
cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme
YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH
stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which
happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments
policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a
7
collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the
happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve
happiness
The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese
worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The
policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from
outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to
diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning
Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross
National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision
emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and
environmental conservation
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index
Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese
government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and
equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural
preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have
constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to
as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism
and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the
government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt
the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot
8
guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators
were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural
resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality
ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness
are explained below
1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life
life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable
indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and
generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional
balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the
indicators under this domain
2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two
indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent
delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account
3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain
intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities
that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust
belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community
and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality
Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density
4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and
strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of
changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that
9
encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music
dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural
diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan
skill Value transmission and Basic precept
5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The
GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of
health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated
health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month
Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding
practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to
health
6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and
collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and
skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic
ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally
The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and
Folk and historical literacy
7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception
of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation
Ecological knowledge and Afforestation
8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the
individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and
10
house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food
security and Hardship
9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people
perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality
The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government
performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and
corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good
governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator
A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in
nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of
GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result
of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of
950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS
in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and
principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)
states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally
weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal
intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each
domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high
response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For
example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often
they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion
forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the
11
option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only
eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72
indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)
The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is
currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki
Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the
conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured
semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of
the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual
having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS
2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based
on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or
objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective
survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those
elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime
accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and
volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of
monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report
survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of
subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index
is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and
determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains
12
The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average
squared distance from cutoff
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study
Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with
the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by
the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and
emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified
are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the
resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do
the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept
of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what
extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators
with the concept of GNH
Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be
most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the
indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I
choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health
living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional
economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development
Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been
included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of
13
psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it
would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators
16 Methodology
The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist
principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This
policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze
the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes
and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social
problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses
determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for
determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a
given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the
governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the
concept of GNH
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social
lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most
important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not
to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH
indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First
the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will
determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is
14
a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As
such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced
the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and
Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study
attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist
influence which then might support the notion put forth by them
Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on
GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on
GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such
as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are
used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by
the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist
principles of happiness
The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to
overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a
conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an
inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key
principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be
discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma
principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical
basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas
An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope
15
and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will
serve as a basis for assessing the indicators
Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana
Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse
Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven
bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-
1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from
hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings
The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used
for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every
sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the
teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected
in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such
as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used
The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the
Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the
indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-
processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-
one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical
standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as
how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing
indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the
indicators are referred to for this study
16
17 Limitations and Significance of the study
There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study
focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH
indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives
Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the
indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles
and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous
Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of
Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche
Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the
indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country
As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the
GNH index are available
The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the
psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of
the GNH index are not discussed
Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons
First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study
that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism
This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in
studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of
GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be
an area of future research
17
Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the
government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH
index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the
design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of
the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is
important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be
distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine
whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept
18 Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at
Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy
The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the
methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter
Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how
the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been
influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to
each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the
development of the GNH index are also discussed
Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological
wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined
Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and
compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices
18
of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the
teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles
Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological
wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each
indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent
to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency
of the indicators with the concept of GNH
Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future
studies
19
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)
is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather
implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic
construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in
the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more
depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999
2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have
argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter
reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship
between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored
Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist
principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to
understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH
The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the
core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points
out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold
path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how
the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century
when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section
examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development
giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the
noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20
GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the
review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by
questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples
wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH
21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness
Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This
is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of
the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans
value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left
exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH
context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both
economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to
pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as
the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against
the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values
In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH
thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social
and cultural values
Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH
are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted
in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is
essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces
21
harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana
Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan
Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material
rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the
importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and
pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as
peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo
2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly
influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of
Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the
Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of
Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion
and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice
According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is
happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche
as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to
remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the
cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure
and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the
means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is
often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the
process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in
the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in
22
Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam
Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to
change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the
importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as
altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength
Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and
economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be
a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley
states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan
Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates
living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places
equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of
GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it
the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its
social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was
overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field
(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their
forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the
governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to
environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)
argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse
theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that
GNH is therefore a response to this realization
23
Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless
Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan
Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from
the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a
society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that
this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri
(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-
specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist
values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist
Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be
clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief
ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy
and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among
these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment
(Rinzin 2006)
1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation
Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of
happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our
happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical
environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the
uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in
the world
24
Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning
Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong
arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The
relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally
different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an
independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all
dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that
nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of
conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)
Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and
rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-
human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these
spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)
These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese
consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system
The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the
constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage
2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion
The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an
integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned
development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their
policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist
Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the
25
doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary
rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich
religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam
namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to
promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-
damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty
community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and
superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and
teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)
In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people
consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese
culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a
way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through
tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and
cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening
the Bhutanese culture and tradition
3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development
The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development
While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external
factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the
concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs
(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an
end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety
26
insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic
development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is
easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness
Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have
opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the
government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable
goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and
exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for
economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998
Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are
sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the
requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher
1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or
cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on
trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and
follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on
economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By
following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage
in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society
4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance
This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a
GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys
political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent
27
accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission
[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts
that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of
GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most
important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic
government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy
would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the
freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a
Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise
Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the
path to good governance that leads to GNH
Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006
states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig
and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional
Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people
Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which
encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right
Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right
Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese
judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws
(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2
Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right
Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip
28
(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10
Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as
cited by Powers 1995)
Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech
and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy
makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any
individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the
three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like
the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)
Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working
with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to
understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that
refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the
relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence
Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and
wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work
with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to
nurture and manifest these qualities
22 Evolution of the Concept
The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very
old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of
Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal
29
set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on
the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]
1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the
land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an
animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon
rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to
the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life
culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism
in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them
could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)
It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally
instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)
Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese
development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during
Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the
religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the
lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the
government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on
Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of
Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)
Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values
giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates
30
that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme
Y Thinley (2004) writes
Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)
Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the
country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)
Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or
postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were
no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life
expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was
considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged
mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the
land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were
self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based
on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of
the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)
Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable
social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first
explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The
National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty
of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15
31
1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early
1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE
1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not
voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister
expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link
Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid
increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless
Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the
Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several
thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions
began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between
the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade
route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the
following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of
discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources
and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards
development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural
preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of
modernization (Priesner 1999)
Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King
always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel
1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the
third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971
32
Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied
principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for
GNH
The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy
economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the
translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner
1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique
development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve
national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply
embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the
term Gross National Happiness was coined
23 GNH Discourses and Debates
The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by
the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His
keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many
scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore
the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister
Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for
GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main
ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there
were any at all
33
Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that
it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and
would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their
suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH
Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical
approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH
On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and
there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to
define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought
argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first
workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this
workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set
of Discussion Papers
After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH
Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from
February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept
of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be
operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused
largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien
(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI
which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health
livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference
discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a
34
potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic
security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any
definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference
was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on
happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop
the indicators of GNH in a later period
The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local
Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24
2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual
experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and
second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that
in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third
international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH
Index
The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused
on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the
importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in
developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference
Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index
The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)
was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase
which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current
situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators
35
psychology environment community relations education health living standard
governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the
indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the
missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be
used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the
methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human
progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners
The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation
for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the
international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government
realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH
(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are
framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH
values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-
day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level
Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business
establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is
believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company
functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the
dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a
revelation for Bhutan
On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed
his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the
36
education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH
infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a
road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles
into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in
the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state
that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum
Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many
schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)
Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and
concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very
practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot
through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of
measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness
Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that
takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations
Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index
(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross
National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the
overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI
health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing
to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the
37
philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)
president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators
of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of
Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will
provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)
In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley
(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people
perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well
into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)
argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing
economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known
about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived
experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae
that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people
Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in
revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of
policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will
enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking
GNH processes
Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble
philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not
do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)
There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human
38
happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness
of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its
policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National
Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently
quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely
wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing
Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always
remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if
they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness
(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese
government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National
Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase
25 Summary
This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of
Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding
of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged
in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is
influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life
the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional
Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way
39
of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality
and compassion are inherent in GNH
History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and
17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism
therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state
because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with
problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus
challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives
in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH
Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not
opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to
health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies
in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are
promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly
adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers
know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however
as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are
influenced by Buddhist principles
40
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS
We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the
importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize
that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general
assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings
defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by
increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)
The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of
possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed
in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the
ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key
problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often
criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in
our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine
happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts
that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an
ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of
this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some
key Buddhist principles related to happiness
Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist
worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the
psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter
The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because
41
Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the
framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six
paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise
out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path
This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief
introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the
Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana
Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble
truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and
compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the
Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to
crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the
six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and
others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme
Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings
by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will
serve as sources for constructing this framework
31 Buddhist View of Happiness
Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers
worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the
concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the
notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is
42
commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of
practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly
influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no
creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)
The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread
ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha
was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The
lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism
chief among which is the pursuit of happiness
In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai
Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for
happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche
a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on
material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)
The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or
the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment
if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if
we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This
indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai
Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism
happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often
agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn
cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer
43
the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and
suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)
Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)
And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)
There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles
ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism
Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues
through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards
sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been
(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas
teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and
righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities
that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined
with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of
possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999
p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they
are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the
Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all
materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but
a cause of suffering
44
His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary
happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means
that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the
cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma
can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp
Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which
happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the
Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us
happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing
towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are
also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and
Bhutanese
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles
321 The four noble truths
In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths
which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths
explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes
that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness
and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth
explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for
individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth
states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth
45
prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft
1997)
A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no
person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth
states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end
to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First
is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the
suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all
phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is
endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive
emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)
The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance
which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers
to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning
distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the
afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that
the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the
Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right
Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist
teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight
steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means
ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai
Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right
46
Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right
Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and
Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind
Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which
are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to
the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections
as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion
The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our
own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing
comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons
Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The
same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction
will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth
certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined
These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance
character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens
to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will
happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist
previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior
The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and
Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the
47
entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action
because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)
The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the
Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones
Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience
happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant
effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of
Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for
other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good
merit
Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma
Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions
motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-
- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right
actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either
oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy
our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of
not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)
Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content
The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of
interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually
an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and
48
everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007
Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is
composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states
that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or
five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is
made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental
formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)
(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates
and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent
self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume
that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all
interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we
do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of
themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create
happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but
also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships
The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a
compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits
all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai
Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all
Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is
normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is
49
through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all
humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world
Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can
develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is
through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and
wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense
also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist
worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness
which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework
This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana
Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century
text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six
practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are
1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti
Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita
(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way
for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life
through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are
methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The
first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and
concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities
50
However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay
people
The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following
statement
The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)
The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The
Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme
Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether
worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the
practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers
to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which
directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are
three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to
reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-
liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life
by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in
the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to
lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms
Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as
possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness
Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other
beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a
51
blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it
is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to
Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own
afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering
The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of
life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner
psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in
Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These
three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and
hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai
Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends
on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one
will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this
understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness
and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and
engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering
Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon
but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent
self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as
explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos
fourth verse states the following
Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside
52
the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)
The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the
body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to
live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus
comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai
Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing
emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses
that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how
Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are
ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and
mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to
oneself and to others
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes
53
Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will
receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in
the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and
the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states
that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six
practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training
and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six
paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is
represented by Figure 3 below
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering
54
331 Generosity
Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic
mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In
the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states
If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be
practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and
giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means
overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily
giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure
for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya
(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are
five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and
admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and
will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in
return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue
bringing happiness to oneself and others
332 Ethics
The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue
Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble
Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality
55
of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never
having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for
Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body
speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by
our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions
killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed
malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond
to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh
language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will
wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous
actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and
cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy
greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous
behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically
become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th
verse Thogme Zangpo writes
If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve
happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For
example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will
56
be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of
avoiding harsh words
Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)
By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of
negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and
our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics
we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse
for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all
goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for
progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the
path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and
mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in
training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our
actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness
333 Patience and Tolerance
The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of
patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of
patience
For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)
57
Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are
challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative
thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive
emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our
heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance
and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was
deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him
Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally
attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the
strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and
this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain
inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness
334 Perseverance
The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance
It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working
hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states
Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on
ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from
58
suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability
Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal
The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard
failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and
affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve
happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at
all times
335 Meditative Concentration
The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana
Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and
overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices
of Bodhisattva is on meditation
At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six
realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in
comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a
human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating
day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings
2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma
59
can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind
because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi
(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering
and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving
happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative
concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We
stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in
everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and
misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility
Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us
directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states
Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
336 Wisdom
The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit
Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness
Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be
disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other
practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out
If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
60
Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron
Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our
habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the
ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of
ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble
paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three
poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and
unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost
clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence
Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the
attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness
(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of
reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with
joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism
34 Summary
Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and
hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to
various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material
wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is
only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be
happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The
mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as
61
cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three
poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience
inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of
attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear
and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus
accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third
(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting
rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and
achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart
Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses
more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being
compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness
generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can
reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others
62
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING
INDICATORS
People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of
effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must
be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the
GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators
Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness
Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental
Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially
destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of
practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to
what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of
happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This
chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect
Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter
Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the
meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights
similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on
the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections
analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad
categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The
chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings
63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures
Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons
mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The
measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country
pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall
wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions
that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a
persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life
(p40)
From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist
teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly
holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or
happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective
experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness
(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes
all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi
1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences
As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind
this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to
wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that
Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman
Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike
64
believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that
they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions
The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the
self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that
self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying
emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists
who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety
are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp
Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of
negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata
2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes
both positive and negative emotions
Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A
sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the
sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off
point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full
score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient
achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any
respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National
Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from
sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is
sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the
GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method
65
is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who
are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much
information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From
the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut
off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises
questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency
cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it
based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results
42 Emotional Balance
The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of
emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative
emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or
feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the
seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and
suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and
compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary
influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information
about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors
contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)
Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own
there are causal factors associated with them
66
Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition
therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the
Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary
consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates
merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of
mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and
secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists
fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under
the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses
a Negative Emotion
Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of
ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions
These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around
us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others
succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action
All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical
action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning
distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness
frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The
four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive
regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly
considered negative under the GNH index
67
1 Jealousy
Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris
(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival
poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important
relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text
classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is
defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as
their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their
accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we
receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment
Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what
jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments
envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the
element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that
envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy
is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work
fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead
to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has
strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)
In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy
Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and
envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and
68
happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a
GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our
peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous
of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values
Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of
emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety
sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and
betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to
achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since
jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate
that it be an indicator of GNH
In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the
respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that
respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or
expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as
non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency
cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles
How often do you experience jealousy
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
69
2 Selfishness
The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of
craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and
greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi
1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and
appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)
states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)
Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe
zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively
Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As
explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential
principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one
of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a
rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your
wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that
Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In
particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-
centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the
ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to
Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness
Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms
70
Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is
opposed to the GNH values
Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following
question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a
person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that
selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH
index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait
How often do you experience selfishness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a
condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an
internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to
the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a
mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms
part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national
language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means
pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our
self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and
ourselves
71
Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of
mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out
of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire
and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to
maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and
opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since
frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such
emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing
The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of
respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience
frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes
experience frustration are given a negative score
How often do you experience frustration
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
4 Suicidal Thoughts
Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in
life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a
mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten
non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is
72
therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by
suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma
Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its
complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the
awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the
effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being
Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who
commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action
Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing
leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that
even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the
basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get
rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates
that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your
problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of
afflictive emotion
According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist
painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and
suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive
living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and
the future for the better
Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with
elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le
73
Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The
most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese
psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure
to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts
occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive
emotions
Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has
never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while
respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall
the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings
Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide
1 Yes 2 No
Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that
affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the
distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become
known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative
emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and
divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction
The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states
and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees
74
ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out
in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and
selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the
immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates
that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon
those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides
evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to
know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as
policy must attend to it them
Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and
therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate
the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are
rooted in Buddhism
b Positive Emotions
The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the
negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity
calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to
oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages
replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative
concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive
indicators of psychological wellbeing
75
5 Generosity
Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In
Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter
Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains
that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it
brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive
virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental
development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves
and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence
which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms
generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as
an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for
oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the
collection of data
How often do you experience generosity
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should
frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH
3 See Chapter Three
76
society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does
not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part
of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary
service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not
get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in
the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological
wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH
6 Calmness
Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance
Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The
Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses
the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism
as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma
text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the
tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)
Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi
(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually
at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding
and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a
happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health
and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can
77
experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue
consistent with GNH ideals
The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of
data
How often do you experience calmness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH
society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be
linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well
7 Compassion
Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist
practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important
trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only
through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues
For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of
generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the
suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the
law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent
meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to
78
overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are
considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators
Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a
GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise
and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS
(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of
others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the
suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further
scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in
bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz
Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much
coherent with the GNH values
The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how
compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity
and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently
experience compassion to get the full GNH score
How often do you experience compassion
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity
have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the
79
potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to
the Buddhist practice of paramitas
43 Spiritual Practices
From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of
practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity
can hold negative emotions at bay
8 Frequency of Meditation
The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind
The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the
importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire
hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative
practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see
directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and
masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe
meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out
that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with
little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be
able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts
(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of
California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain
involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of
80
meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated
with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not
link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist
teachings
Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm
our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has
beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression
poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced
inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three
universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of
Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of
meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of
meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more
frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind
relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to
meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is
only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature
and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)
The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported
by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a
positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of
GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is
putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of
respondents regarding the practice of meditation
Do you practice meditation
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means
one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation
is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay
population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)
904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan
still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why
the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently
meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced
among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH
values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the
indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism
9 Prayer Recitation
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power
Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to
awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which
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literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy
like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken
once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is
thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra
literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002
p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the
truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the
blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter
ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being
Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good
vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength
compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In
Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship
between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the
great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding
effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and
right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell
peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate
while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one
close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and
concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The
83
Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of
meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)
explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the
mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile
reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming
its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of
breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the
energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The
practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist
In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to
local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil
forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone
Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned
earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism
emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with
polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which
worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans
national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent
in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices
but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform
rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under
Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other
84
deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs
invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk
2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper
valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old
tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now
considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture
The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays
daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score
Do you sayrecite prayers
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both
are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a
full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different
sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation
indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in
Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are
highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to
be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The
CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values
Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because
85
both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too
is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist
principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of
prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs
10 Taking account of Karma
As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides
the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of
ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has
influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being
morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily
life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result
depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing
non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma
conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to
avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions
bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of
causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life
The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as
daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH
score
86
Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily
basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state
According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes
and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a
clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real
reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)
serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping
each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a
GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy
society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist
principles and is consistent with GNH values
43 General Mental Health (GMH)
11 General Mental Health
The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of
depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators
under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists
87
of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to
concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the
respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with
lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-
15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some
mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)
The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should
not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score
The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health
status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect
wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase
susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)
From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of
confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)
points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own
physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have
the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health
problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own
ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress
thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist
teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus
4 A meditation technique
88
mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and
hatred
Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why
selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from
selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a
ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of
small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second
reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is
guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous
Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In
Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes
suffering
The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind
The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that
influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it
opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the
population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy
(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people
pursue happiness
44 Summary
The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
89
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following
The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration
suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an
afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through
which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism
frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result
of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views
leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus
arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what
Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others
thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a
result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to
the idea of self leads to mental stress
The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion
and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking
account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas
Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness
Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of
the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita
which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator
of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative
concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation
however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the
90
local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by
Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses
avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the
positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core
teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be
appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism
Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH
society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but
also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also
important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions
at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or
negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of
psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values
91
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS
From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the
preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the
philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal
importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without
spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops
and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to
measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises
72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate
all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in
guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The
purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are
To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect
Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does
reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and
survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo
study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist
principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by
this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of
happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most
92
The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for
people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index
measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people
Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators
reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles
related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to
happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a
basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only
worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which
can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative
concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to
the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace
must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the
happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the
outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind
that creates the cause for happiness or success
Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven
indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and
wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of
psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in
affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and
regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-
93
transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing
problems and solutions to the root causes
The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples
emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion
Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing
correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below
Indicators Buddhist Principles
1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity
6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices
7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance
8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration
9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration
10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics
11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and
suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the
three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and
94
deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly
selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness
is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-
self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I
through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term
gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary
immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism
are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the
problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these
negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress
The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion
calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the
replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous
action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself
and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect
psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly
related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the
psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with
the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and
calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by
Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political
ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in
Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-
95
term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term
happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived
from spiritual cultural and social values
This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and
cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and
happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the
mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as
Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that
Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH
Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and
conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically
strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not
contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the
inner conditions of ones own mind
Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make
better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be
considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan
Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy
community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than
those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)
By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as
necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for
developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing
96
thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-
material development is equally important as external material development
Recommendations for Future Studies
The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of
the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared
towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further
Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation
aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal
happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH
Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a
therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their
lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-
Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism
can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)
Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons
insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values
As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the
sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the
CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level
that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because
there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually
been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some
assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis
97
for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy
makers
This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected
Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing
were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of
emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only
recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire
notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but
does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective
solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity
compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the
term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity
One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from
an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have
not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid
misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced
This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar
study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further
investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the
GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the
emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the
real essence of human happiness
98
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109
Appendix 1
Gross National Happiness Index
Cultural Diversity
Psychological Wellbeing
Good Governance
Time Use
Health Education Ecology Living Standards
Commu nity Vitality
Jealousy
Selfishness s- Negative Emotions
Frustration
Suicidal Thoughts
Compassion
Positive Emotions Calmness
Generosity
Meditation
gt- Spiritual Practices Prayer Recitation
Taking account of Karma
General Health General Mental Health
110
Appendix 2
General Mental Health Questionnaire Ql During the last year would you describe your life as-
1 Very Stressful 2 Somewhat Stressful 3 Not At All Stressful 4 Dont Know
Q2 What are your main sources of stress
Q3 Been able to concentrate on what youre doing 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q4 Lost much sleep over worry 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q5 Felt you were playing a useful part in things
1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q6 Felt capable of making decisions about things 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q7 Felt constantly under strain 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual
111
4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q8 Felt you couldnt overcome your difficulties 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q9 Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Qll Been able to face up to your problems 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q12 Been feeling unhappy and depressed 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q13 Been losing confidence in yourself 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
014 Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q15 Been feeling reasonably happy all things considered 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual
112
4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Curriculum Vitae
Candidates full name Tashi Wangmo
Universities attended Maastricht School of Management The Netherlands 2007 Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management
Royal University of Bhutan Royal Institute of Management Thimphu Bhutan 2004 Post Graduate Certificate in Financial Management (PGCFM)
University of North Bengal Government College Daijeeling India 2000-2003 Bachelors of Commerce
University of New Brunswick Fredericton NB Canada 2008-2010 MPhil Policy Studies (Philosophy Politics and Economics)
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50
331 Generosity 55
332 Ethics 55
333 Patience and Tolerance 57
334 Perseverance 58
335 Meditative Concentration 59
336 Wisdom 60
34 Summary 61
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64
42 Emotional Balance 66
43 Spiritual Practices 80
43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87
44 Summary 89
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92
References 99
Appendix 1 110
Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae
v
List of Tables
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54
vii
List of Abbreviations
CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa
FYP Five Year Plan
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GHQ General Health Questionnaire
GNH Gross National Happiness
GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission
GPI Genuine Progress Index
HDI Human Development Index
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoHE Ministry of Health and Education
NEC National Environment Commission
NSB National Statistic Bureau
RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan
TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples
lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the
people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it
measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture
fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)
Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing
alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human
Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important
factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary
values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross
National Happiness
Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of
Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing
human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the
spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck
coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross
National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura
2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an
enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is
the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult
1
for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four
major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable
economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning
Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through
which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH
Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently
sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked
however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core
principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation
of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of
Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH
values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008
pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been
identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now
ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government
performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this
study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist
principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief
background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents
Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National
Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains
of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth
2
section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section
presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance
and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are
presented in the eighth section
11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture
Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central
Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square
kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two
leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most
isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are
smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)
farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population
945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the
population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was
estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost
entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea
level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau
2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry
of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity
Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)
The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by
Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique
3
philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and
traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme
Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than
Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of
every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed
that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)
This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority
25 SO Km
50 25
G r e a
S Gasa Ozong
Toogsa THIMPHU Paro
Tashigang
Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing
r~
BANGLADESH
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)
4
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy
Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung
Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to
unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan
(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was
the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education
[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system
where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head
abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement
of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for
this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -
1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious
retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung
himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal
stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was
unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then
visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country
Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional
democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization
was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation
A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country
5
of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady
decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples
participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen
the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the
establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye
Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees
(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these
committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers
previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)
On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned
nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate
the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal
Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite
occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king
was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning
monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed
that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign
He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness
today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual
pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected
government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH
6
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan
The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be
included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The
importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A
Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states
that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve
their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the
concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an
important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government
of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)
GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to
complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and
non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing
ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH
supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater
good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual
The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for
it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it
cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme
YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH
stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which
happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments
policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a
7
collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the
happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve
happiness
The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese
worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The
policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from
outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to
diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning
Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross
National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision
emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and
environmental conservation
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index
Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese
government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and
equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural
preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have
constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to
as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism
and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the
government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt
the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot
8
guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators
were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural
resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality
ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness
are explained below
1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life
life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable
indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and
generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional
balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the
indicators under this domain
2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two
indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent
delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account
3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain
intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities
that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust
belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community
and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality
Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density
4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and
strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of
changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that
9
encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music
dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural
diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan
skill Value transmission and Basic precept
5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The
GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of
health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated
health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month
Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding
practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to
health
6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and
collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and
skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic
ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally
The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and
Folk and historical literacy
7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception
of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation
Ecological knowledge and Afforestation
8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the
individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and
10
house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food
security and Hardship
9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people
perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality
The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government
performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and
corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good
governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator
A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in
nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of
GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result
of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of
950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS
in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and
principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)
states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally
weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal
intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each
domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high
response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For
example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often
they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion
forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the
11
option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only
eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72
indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)
The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is
currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki
Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the
conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured
semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of
the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual
having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS
2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based
on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or
objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective
survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those
elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime
accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and
volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of
monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report
survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of
subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index
is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and
determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains
12
The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average
squared distance from cutoff
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study
Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with
the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by
the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and
emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified
are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the
resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do
the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept
of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what
extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators
with the concept of GNH
Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be
most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the
indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I
choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health
living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional
economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development
Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been
included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of
13
psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it
would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators
16 Methodology
The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist
principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This
policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze
the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes
and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social
problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses
determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for
determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a
given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the
governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the
concept of GNH
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social
lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most
important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not
to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH
indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First
the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will
determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is
14
a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As
such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced
the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and
Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study
attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist
influence which then might support the notion put forth by them
Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on
GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on
GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such
as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are
used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by
the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist
principles of happiness
The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to
overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a
conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an
inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key
principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be
discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma
principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical
basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas
An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope
15
and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will
serve as a basis for assessing the indicators
Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana
Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse
Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven
bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-
1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from
hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings
The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used
for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every
sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the
teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected
in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such
as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used
The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the
Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the
indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-
processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-
one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical
standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as
how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing
indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the
indicators are referred to for this study
16
17 Limitations and Significance of the study
There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study
focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH
indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives
Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the
indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles
and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous
Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of
Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche
Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the
indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country
As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the
GNH index are available
The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the
psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of
the GNH index are not discussed
Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons
First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study
that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism
This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in
studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of
GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be
an area of future research
17
Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the
government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH
index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the
design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of
the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is
important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be
distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine
whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept
18 Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at
Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy
The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the
methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter
Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how
the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been
influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to
each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the
development of the GNH index are also discussed
Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological
wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined
Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and
compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices
18
of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the
teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles
Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological
wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each
indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent
to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency
of the indicators with the concept of GNH
Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future
studies
19
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)
is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather
implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic
construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in
the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more
depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999
2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have
argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter
reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship
between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored
Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist
principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to
understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH
The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the
core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points
out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold
path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how
the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century
when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section
examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development
giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the
noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20
GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the
review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by
questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples
wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH
21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness
Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This
is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of
the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans
value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left
exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH
context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both
economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to
pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as
the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against
the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values
In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH
thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social
and cultural values
Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH
are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted
in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is
essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces
21
harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana
Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan
Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material
rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the
importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and
pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as
peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo
2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly
influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of
Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the
Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of
Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion
and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice
According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is
happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche
as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to
remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the
cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure
and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the
means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is
often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the
process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in
the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in
22
Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam
Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to
change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the
importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as
altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength
Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and
economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be
a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley
states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan
Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates
living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places
equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of
GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it
the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its
social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was
overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field
(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their
forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the
governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to
environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)
argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse
theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that
GNH is therefore a response to this realization
23
Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless
Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan
Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from
the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a
society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that
this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri
(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-
specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist
values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist
Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be
clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief
ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy
and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among
these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment
(Rinzin 2006)
1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation
Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of
happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our
happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical
environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the
uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in
the world
24
Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning
Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong
arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The
relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally
different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an
independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all
dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that
nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of
conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)
Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and
rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-
human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these
spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)
These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese
consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system
The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the
constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage
2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion
The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an
integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned
development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their
policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist
Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the
25
doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary
rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich
religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam
namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to
promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-
damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty
community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and
superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and
teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)
In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people
consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese
culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a
way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through
tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and
cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening
the Bhutanese culture and tradition
3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development
The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development
While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external
factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the
concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs
(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an
end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety
26
insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic
development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is
easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness
Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have
opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the
government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable
goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and
exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for
economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998
Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are
sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the
requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher
1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or
cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on
trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and
follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on
economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By
following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage
in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society
4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance
This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a
GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys
political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent
27
accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission
[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts
that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of
GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most
important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic
government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy
would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the
freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a
Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise
Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the
path to good governance that leads to GNH
Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006
states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig
and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional
Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people
Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which
encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right
Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right
Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese
judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws
(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2
Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right
Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip
28
(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10
Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as
cited by Powers 1995)
Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech
and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy
makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any
individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the
three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like
the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)
Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working
with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to
understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that
refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the
relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence
Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and
wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work
with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to
nurture and manifest these qualities
22 Evolution of the Concept
The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very
old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of
Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal
29
set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on
the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]
1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the
land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an
animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon
rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to
the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life
culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism
in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them
could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)
It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally
instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)
Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese
development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during
Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the
religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the
lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the
government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on
Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of
Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)
Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values
giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates
30
that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme
Y Thinley (2004) writes
Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)
Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the
country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)
Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or
postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were
no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life
expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was
considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged
mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the
land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were
self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based
on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of
the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)
Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable
social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first
explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The
National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty
of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15
31
1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early
1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE
1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not
voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister
expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link
Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid
increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless
Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the
Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several
thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions
began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between
the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade
route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the
following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of
discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources
and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards
development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural
preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of
modernization (Priesner 1999)
Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King
always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel
1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the
third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971
32
Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied
principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for
GNH
The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy
economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the
translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner
1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique
development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve
national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply
embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the
term Gross National Happiness was coined
23 GNH Discourses and Debates
The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by
the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His
keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many
scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore
the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister
Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for
GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main
ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there
were any at all
33
Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that
it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and
would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their
suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH
Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical
approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH
On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and
there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to
define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought
argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first
workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this
workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set
of Discussion Papers
After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH
Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from
February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept
of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be
operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused
largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien
(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI
which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health
livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference
discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a
34
potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic
security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any
definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference
was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on
happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop
the indicators of GNH in a later period
The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local
Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24
2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual
experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and
second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that
in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third
international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH
Index
The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused
on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the
importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in
developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference
Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index
The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)
was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase
which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current
situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators
35
psychology environment community relations education health living standard
governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the
indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the
missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be
used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the
methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human
progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners
The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation
for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the
international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government
realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH
(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are
framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH
values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-
day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level
Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business
establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is
believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company
functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the
dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a
revelation for Bhutan
On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed
his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the
36
education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH
infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a
road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles
into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in
the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state
that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum
Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many
schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)
Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and
concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very
practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot
through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of
measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness
Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that
takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations
Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index
(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross
National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the
overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI
health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing
to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the
37
philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)
president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators
of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of
Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will
provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)
In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley
(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people
perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well
into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)
argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing
economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known
about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived
experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae
that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people
Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in
revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of
policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will
enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking
GNH processes
Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble
philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not
do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)
There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human
38
happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness
of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its
policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National
Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently
quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely
wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing
Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always
remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if
they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness
(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese
government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National
Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase
25 Summary
This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of
Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding
of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged
in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is
influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life
the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional
Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way
39
of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality
and compassion are inherent in GNH
History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and
17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism
therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state
because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with
problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus
challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives
in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH
Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not
opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to
health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies
in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are
promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly
adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers
know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however
as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are
influenced by Buddhist principles
40
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS
We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the
importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize
that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general
assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings
defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by
increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)
The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of
possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed
in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the
ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key
problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often
criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in
our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine
happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts
that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an
ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of
this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some
key Buddhist principles related to happiness
Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist
worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the
psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter
The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because
41
Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the
framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six
paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise
out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path
This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief
introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the
Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana
Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble
truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and
compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the
Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to
crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the
six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and
others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme
Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings
by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will
serve as sources for constructing this framework
31 Buddhist View of Happiness
Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers
worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the
concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the
notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is
42
commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of
practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly
influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no
creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)
The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread
ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha
was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The
lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism
chief among which is the pursuit of happiness
In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai
Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for
happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche
a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on
material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)
The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or
the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment
if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if
we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This
indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai
Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism
happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often
agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn
cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer
43
the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and
suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)
Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)
And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)
There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles
ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism
Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues
through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards
sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been
(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas
teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and
righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities
that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined
with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of
possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999
p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they
are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the
Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all
materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but
a cause of suffering
44
His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary
happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means
that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the
cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma
can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp
Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which
happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the
Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us
happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing
towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are
also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and
Bhutanese
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles
321 The four noble truths
In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths
which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths
explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes
that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness
and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth
explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for
individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth
states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth
45
prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft
1997)
A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no
person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth
states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end
to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First
is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the
suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all
phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is
endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive
emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)
The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance
which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers
to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning
distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the
afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that
the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the
Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right
Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist
teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight
steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means
ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai
Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right
46
Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right
Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and
Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind
Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which
are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to
the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections
as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion
The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our
own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing
comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons
Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The
same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction
will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth
certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined
These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance
character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens
to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will
happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist
previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior
The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and
Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the
47
entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action
because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)
The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the
Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones
Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience
happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant
effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of
Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for
other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good
merit
Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma
Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions
motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-
- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right
actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either
oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy
our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of
not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)
Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content
The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of
interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually
an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and
48
everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007
Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is
composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states
that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or
five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is
made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental
formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)
(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates
and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent
self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume
that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all
interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we
do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of
themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create
happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but
also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships
The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a
compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits
all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai
Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all
Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is
normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is
49
through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all
humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world
Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can
develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is
through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and
wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense
also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist
worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness
which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework
This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana
Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century
text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six
practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are
1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti
Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita
(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way
for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life
through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are
methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The
first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and
concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities
50
However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay
people
The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following
statement
The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)
The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The
Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme
Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether
worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the
practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers
to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which
directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are
three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to
reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-
liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life
by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in
the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to
lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms
Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as
possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness
Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other
beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a
51
blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it
is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to
Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own
afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering
The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of
life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner
psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in
Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These
three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and
hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai
Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends
on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one
will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this
understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness
and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and
engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering
Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon
but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent
self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as
explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos
fourth verse states the following
Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside
52
the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)
The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the
body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to
live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus
comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai
Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing
emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses
that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how
Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are
ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and
mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to
oneself and to others
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes
53
Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will
receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in
the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and
the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states
that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six
practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training
and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six
paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is
represented by Figure 3 below
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering
54
331 Generosity
Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic
mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In
the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states
If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be
practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and
giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means
overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily
giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure
for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya
(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are
five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and
admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and
will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in
return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue
bringing happiness to oneself and others
332 Ethics
The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue
Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble
Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality
55
of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never
having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for
Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body
speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by
our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions
killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed
malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond
to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh
language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will
wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous
actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and
cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy
greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous
behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically
become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th
verse Thogme Zangpo writes
If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve
happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For
example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will
56
be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of
avoiding harsh words
Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)
By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of
negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and
our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics
we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse
for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all
goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for
progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the
path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and
mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in
training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our
actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness
333 Patience and Tolerance
The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of
patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of
patience
For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)
57
Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are
challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative
thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive
emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our
heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance
and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was
deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him
Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally
attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the
strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and
this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain
inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness
334 Perseverance
The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance
It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working
hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states
Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on
ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from
58
suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability
Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal
The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard
failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and
affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve
happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at
all times
335 Meditative Concentration
The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana
Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and
overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices
of Bodhisattva is on meditation
At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six
realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in
comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a
human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating
day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings
2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma
59
can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind
because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi
(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering
and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving
happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative
concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We
stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in
everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and
misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility
Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us
directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states
Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
336 Wisdom
The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit
Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness
Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be
disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other
practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out
If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
60
Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron
Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our
habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the
ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of
ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble
paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three
poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and
unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost
clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence
Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the
attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness
(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of
reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with
joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism
34 Summary
Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and
hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to
various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material
wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is
only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be
happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The
mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as
61
cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three
poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience
inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of
attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear
and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus
accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third
(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting
rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and
achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart
Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses
more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being
compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness
generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can
reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others
62
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING
INDICATORS
People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of
effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must
be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the
GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators
Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness
Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental
Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially
destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of
practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to
what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of
happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This
chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect
Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter
Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the
meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights
similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on
the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections
analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad
categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The
chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings
63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures
Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons
mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The
measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country
pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall
wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions
that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a
persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life
(p40)
From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist
teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly
holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or
happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective
experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness
(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes
all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi
1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences
As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind
this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to
wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that
Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman
Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike
64
believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that
they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions
The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the
self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that
self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying
emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists
who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety
are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp
Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of
negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata
2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes
both positive and negative emotions
Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A
sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the
sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off
point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full
score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient
achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any
respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National
Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from
sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is
sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the
GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method
65
is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who
are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much
information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From
the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut
off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises
questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency
cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it
based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results
42 Emotional Balance
The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of
emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative
emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or
feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the
seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and
suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and
compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary
influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information
about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors
contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)
Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own
there are causal factors associated with them
66
Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition
therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the
Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary
consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates
merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of
mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and
secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists
fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under
the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses
a Negative Emotion
Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of
ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions
These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around
us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others
succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action
All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical
action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning
distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness
frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The
four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive
regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly
considered negative under the GNH index
67
1 Jealousy
Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris
(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival
poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important
relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text
classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is
defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as
their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their
accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we
receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment
Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what
jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments
envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the
element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that
envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy
is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work
fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead
to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has
strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)
In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy
Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and
envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and
68
happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a
GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our
peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous
of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values
Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of
emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety
sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and
betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to
achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since
jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate
that it be an indicator of GNH
In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the
respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that
respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or
expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as
non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency
cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles
How often do you experience jealousy
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
69
2 Selfishness
The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of
craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and
greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi
1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and
appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)
states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)
Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe
zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively
Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As
explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential
principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one
of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a
rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your
wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that
Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In
particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-
centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the
ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to
Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness
Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms
70
Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is
opposed to the GNH values
Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following
question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a
person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that
selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH
index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait
How often do you experience selfishness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a
condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an
internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to
the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a
mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms
part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national
language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means
pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our
self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and
ourselves
71
Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of
mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out
of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire
and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to
maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and
opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since
frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such
emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing
The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of
respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience
frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes
experience frustration are given a negative score
How often do you experience frustration
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
4 Suicidal Thoughts
Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in
life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a
mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten
non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is
72
therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by
suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma
Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its
complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the
awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the
effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being
Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who
commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action
Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing
leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that
even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the
basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get
rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates
that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your
problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of
afflictive emotion
According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist
painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and
suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive
living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and
the future for the better
Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with
elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le
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Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The
most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese
psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure
to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts
occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive
emotions
Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has
never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while
respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall
the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings
Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide
1 Yes 2 No
Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that
affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the
distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become
known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative
emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and
divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction
The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states
and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees
74
ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out
in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and
selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the
immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates
that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon
those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides
evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to
know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as
policy must attend to it them
Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and
therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate
the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are
rooted in Buddhism
b Positive Emotions
The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the
negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity
calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to
oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages
replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative
concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive
indicators of psychological wellbeing
75
5 Generosity
Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In
Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter
Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains
that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it
brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive
virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental
development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves
and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence
which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms
generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as
an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for
oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the
collection of data
How often do you experience generosity
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should
frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH
3 See Chapter Three
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society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does
not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part
of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary
service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not
get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in
the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological
wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH
6 Calmness
Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance
Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The
Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses
the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism
as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma
text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the
tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)
Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi
(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually
at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding
and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a
happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health
and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can
77
experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue
consistent with GNH ideals
The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of
data
How often do you experience calmness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH
society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be
linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well
7 Compassion
Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist
practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important
trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only
through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues
For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of
generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the
suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the
law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent
meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to
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overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are
considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators
Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a
GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise
and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS
(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of
others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the
suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further
scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in
bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz
Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much
coherent with the GNH values
The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how
compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity
and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently
experience compassion to get the full GNH score
How often do you experience compassion
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity
have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the
79
potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to
the Buddhist practice of paramitas
43 Spiritual Practices
From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of
practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity
can hold negative emotions at bay
8 Frequency of Meditation
The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind
The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the
importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire
hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative
practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see
directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and
masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe
meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out
that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with
little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be
able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts
(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of
California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain
involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of
80
meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated
with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not
link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist
teachings
Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm
our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has
beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression
poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced
inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three
universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of
Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of
meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of
meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more
frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind
relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to
meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is
only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature
and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)
The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported
by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a
positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of
GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is
putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of
respondents regarding the practice of meditation
Do you practice meditation
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means
one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation
is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay
population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)
904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan
still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why
the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently
meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced
among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH
values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the
indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism
9 Prayer Recitation
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power
Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to
awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which
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literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy
like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken
once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is
thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra
literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002
p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the
truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the
blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter
ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being
Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good
vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength
compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In
Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship
between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the
great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding
effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and
right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell
peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate
while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one
close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and
concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The
83
Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of
meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)
explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the
mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile
reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming
its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of
breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the
energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The
practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist
In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to
local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil
forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone
Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned
earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism
emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with
polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which
worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans
national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent
in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices
but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform
rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under
Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other
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deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs
invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk
2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper
valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old
tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now
considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture
The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays
daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score
Do you sayrecite prayers
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both
are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a
full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different
sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation
indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in
Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are
highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to
be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The
CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values
Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because
85
both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too
is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist
principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of
prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs
10 Taking account of Karma
As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides
the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of
ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has
influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being
morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily
life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result
depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing
non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma
conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to
avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions
bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of
causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life
The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as
daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH
score
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Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily
basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state
According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes
and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a
clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real
reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)
serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping
each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a
GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy
society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist
principles and is consistent with GNH values
43 General Mental Health (GMH)
11 General Mental Health
The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of
depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators
under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists
87
of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to
concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the
respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with
lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-
15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some
mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)
The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should
not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score
The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health
status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect
wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase
susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)
From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of
confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)
points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own
physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have
the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health
problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own
ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress
thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist
teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus
4 A meditation technique
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mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and
hatred
Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why
selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from
selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a
ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of
small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second
reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is
guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous
Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In
Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes
suffering
The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind
The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that
influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it
opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the
population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy
(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people
pursue happiness
44 Summary
The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
89
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following
The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration
suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an
afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through
which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism
frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result
of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views
leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus
arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what
Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others
thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a
result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to
the idea of self leads to mental stress
The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion
and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking
account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas
Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness
Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of
the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita
which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator
of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative
concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation
however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the
90
local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by
Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses
avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the
positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core
teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be
appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism
Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH
society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but
also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also
important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions
at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or
negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of
psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values
91
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS
From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the
preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the
philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal
importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without
spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops
and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to
measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises
72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate
all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in
guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The
purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are
To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect
Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does
reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and
survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo
study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist
principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by
this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of
happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most
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The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for
people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index
measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people
Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators
reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles
related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to
happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a
basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only
worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which
can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative
concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to
the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace
must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the
happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the
outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind
that creates the cause for happiness or success
Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven
indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and
wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of
psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in
affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and
regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-
93
transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing
problems and solutions to the root causes
The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples
emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion
Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing
correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below
Indicators Buddhist Principles
1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity
6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices
7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance
8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration
9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration
10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics
11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and
suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the
three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and
94
deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly
selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness
is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-
self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I
through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term
gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary
immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism
are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the
problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these
negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress
The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion
calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the
replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous
action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself
and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect
psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly
related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the
psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with
the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and
calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by
Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political
ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in
Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-
95
term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term
happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived
from spiritual cultural and social values
This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and
cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and
happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the
mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as
Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that
Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH
Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and
conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically
strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not
contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the
inner conditions of ones own mind
Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make
better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be
considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan
Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy
community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than
those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)
By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as
necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for
developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing
96
thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-
material development is equally important as external material development
Recommendations for Future Studies
The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of
the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared
towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further
Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation
aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal
happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH
Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a
therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their
lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-
Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism
can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)
Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons
insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values
As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the
sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the
CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level
that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because
there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually
been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some
assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis
97
for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy
makers
This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected
Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing
were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of
emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only
recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire
notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but
does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective
solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity
compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the
term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity
One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from
an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have
not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid
misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced
This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar
study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further
investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the
GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the
emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the
real essence of human happiness
98
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109
Appendix 1
Gross National Happiness Index
Cultural Diversity
Psychological Wellbeing
Good Governance
Time Use
Health Education Ecology Living Standards
Commu nity Vitality
Jealousy
Selfishness s- Negative Emotions
Frustration
Suicidal Thoughts
Compassion
Positive Emotions Calmness
Generosity
Meditation
gt- Spiritual Practices Prayer Recitation
Taking account of Karma
General Health General Mental Health
110
Appendix 2
General Mental Health Questionnaire Ql During the last year would you describe your life as-
1 Very Stressful 2 Somewhat Stressful 3 Not At All Stressful 4 Dont Know
Q2 What are your main sources of stress
Q3 Been able to concentrate on what youre doing 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q4 Lost much sleep over worry 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q5 Felt you were playing a useful part in things
1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q6 Felt capable of making decisions about things 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q7 Felt constantly under strain 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual
111
4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q8 Felt you couldnt overcome your difficulties 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q9 Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Qll Been able to face up to your problems 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q12 Been feeling unhappy and depressed 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q13 Been losing confidence in yourself 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
014 Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q15 Been feeling reasonably happy all things considered 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual
112
4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Curriculum Vitae
Candidates full name Tashi Wangmo
Universities attended Maastricht School of Management The Netherlands 2007 Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management
Royal University of Bhutan Royal Institute of Management Thimphu Bhutan 2004 Post Graduate Certificate in Financial Management (PGCFM)
University of North Bengal Government College Daijeeling India 2000-2003 Bachelors of Commerce
University of New Brunswick Fredericton NB Canada 2008-2010 MPhil Policy Studies (Philosophy Politics and Economics)
List of Tables
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54
vii
List of Abbreviations
CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa
FYP Five Year Plan
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GHQ General Health Questionnaire
GNH Gross National Happiness
GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission
GPI Genuine Progress Index
HDI Human Development Index
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoHE Ministry of Health and Education
NEC National Environment Commission
NSB National Statistic Bureau
RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan
TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples
lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the
people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it
measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture
fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)
Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing
alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human
Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important
factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary
values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross
National Happiness
Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of
Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing
human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the
spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck
coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross
National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura
2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an
enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is
the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult
1
for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four
major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable
economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning
Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through
which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH
Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently
sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked
however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core
principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation
of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of
Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH
values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008
pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been
identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now
ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government
performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this
study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist
principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief
background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents
Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National
Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains
of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth
2
section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section
presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance
and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are
presented in the eighth section
11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture
Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central
Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square
kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two
leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most
isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are
smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)
farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population
945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the
population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was
estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost
entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea
level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau
2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry
of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity
Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)
The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by
Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique
3
philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and
traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme
Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than
Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of
every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed
that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)
This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority
25 SO Km
50 25
G r e a
S Gasa Ozong
Toogsa THIMPHU Paro
Tashigang
Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing
r~
BANGLADESH
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)
4
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy
Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung
Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to
unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan
(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was
the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education
[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system
where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head
abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement
of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for
this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -
1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious
retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung
himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal
stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was
unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then
visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country
Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional
democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization
was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation
A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country
5
of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady
decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples
participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen
the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the
establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye
Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees
(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these
committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers
previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)
On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned
nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate
the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal
Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite
occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king
was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning
monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed
that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign
He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness
today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual
pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected
government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH
6
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan
The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be
included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The
importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A
Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states
that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve
their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the
concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an
important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government
of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)
GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to
complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and
non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing
ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH
supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater
good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual
The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for
it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it
cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme
YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH
stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which
happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments
policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a
7
collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the
happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve
happiness
The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese
worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The
policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from
outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to
diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning
Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross
National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision
emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and
environmental conservation
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index
Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese
government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and
equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural
preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have
constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to
as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism
and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the
government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt
the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot
8
guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators
were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural
resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality
ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness
are explained below
1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life
life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable
indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and
generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional
balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the
indicators under this domain
2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two
indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent
delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account
3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain
intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities
that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust
belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community
and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality
Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density
4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and
strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of
changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that
9
encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music
dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural
diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan
skill Value transmission and Basic precept
5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The
GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of
health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated
health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month
Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding
practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to
health
6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and
collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and
skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic
ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally
The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and
Folk and historical literacy
7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception
of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation
Ecological knowledge and Afforestation
8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the
individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and
10
house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food
security and Hardship
9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people
perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality
The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government
performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and
corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good
governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator
A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in
nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of
GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result
of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of
950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS
in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and
principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)
states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally
weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal
intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each
domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high
response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For
example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often
they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion
forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the
11
option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only
eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72
indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)
The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is
currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki
Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the
conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured
semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of
the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual
having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS
2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based
on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or
objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective
survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those
elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime
accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and
volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of
monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report
survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of
subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index
is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and
determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains
12
The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average
squared distance from cutoff
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study
Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with
the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by
the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and
emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified
are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the
resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do
the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept
of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what
extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators
with the concept of GNH
Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be
most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the
indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I
choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health
living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional
economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development
Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been
included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of
13
psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it
would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators
16 Methodology
The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist
principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This
policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze
the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes
and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social
problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses
determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for
determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a
given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the
governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the
concept of GNH
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social
lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most
important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not
to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH
indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First
the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will
determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is
14
a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As
such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced
the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and
Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study
attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist
influence which then might support the notion put forth by them
Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on
GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on
GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such
as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are
used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by
the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist
principles of happiness
The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to
overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a
conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an
inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key
principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be
discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma
principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical
basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas
An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope
15
and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will
serve as a basis for assessing the indicators
Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana
Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse
Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven
bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-
1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from
hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings
The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used
for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every
sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the
teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected
in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such
as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used
The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the
Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the
indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-
processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-
one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical
standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as
how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing
indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the
indicators are referred to for this study
16
17 Limitations and Significance of the study
There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study
focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH
indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives
Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the
indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles
and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous
Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of
Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche
Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the
indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country
As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the
GNH index are available
The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the
psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of
the GNH index are not discussed
Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons
First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study
that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism
This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in
studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of
GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be
an area of future research
17
Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the
government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH
index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the
design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of
the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is
important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be
distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine
whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept
18 Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at
Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy
The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the
methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter
Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how
the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been
influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to
each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the
development of the GNH index are also discussed
Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological
wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined
Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and
compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices
18
of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the
teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles
Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological
wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each
indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent
to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency
of the indicators with the concept of GNH
Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future
studies
19
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)
is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather
implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic
construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in
the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more
depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999
2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have
argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter
reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship
between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored
Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist
principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to
understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH
The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the
core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points
out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold
path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how
the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century
when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section
examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development
giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the
noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20
GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the
review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by
questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples
wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH
21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness
Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This
is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of
the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans
value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left
exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH
context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both
economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to
pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as
the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against
the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values
In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH
thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social
and cultural values
Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH
are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted
in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is
essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces
21
harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana
Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan
Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material
rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the
importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and
pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as
peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo
2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly
influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of
Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the
Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of
Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion
and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice
According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is
happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche
as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to
remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the
cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure
and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the
means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is
often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the
process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in
the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in
22
Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam
Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to
change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the
importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as
altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength
Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and
economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be
a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley
states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan
Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates
living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places
equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of
GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it
the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its
social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was
overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field
(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their
forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the
governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to
environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)
argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse
theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that
GNH is therefore a response to this realization
23
Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless
Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan
Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from
the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a
society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that
this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri
(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-
specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist
values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist
Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be
clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief
ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy
and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among
these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment
(Rinzin 2006)
1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation
Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of
happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our
happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical
environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the
uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in
the world
24
Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning
Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong
arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The
relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally
different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an
independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all
dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that
nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of
conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)
Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and
rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-
human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these
spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)
These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese
consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system
The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the
constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage
2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion
The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an
integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned
development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their
policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist
Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the
25
doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary
rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich
religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam
namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to
promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-
damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty
community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and
superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and
teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)
In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people
consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese
culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a
way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through
tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and
cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening
the Bhutanese culture and tradition
3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development
The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development
While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external
factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the
concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs
(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an
end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety
26
insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic
development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is
easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness
Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have
opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the
government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable
goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and
exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for
economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998
Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are
sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the
requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher
1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or
cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on
trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and
follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on
economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By
following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage
in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society
4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance
This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a
GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys
political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent
27
accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission
[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts
that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of
GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most
important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic
government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy
would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the
freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a
Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise
Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the
path to good governance that leads to GNH
Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006
states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig
and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional
Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people
Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which
encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right
Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right
Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese
judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws
(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2
Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right
Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip
28
(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10
Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as
cited by Powers 1995)
Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech
and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy
makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any
individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the
three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like
the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)
Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working
with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to
understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that
refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the
relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence
Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and
wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work
with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to
nurture and manifest these qualities
22 Evolution of the Concept
The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very
old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of
Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal
29
set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on
the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]
1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the
land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an
animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon
rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to
the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life
culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism
in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them
could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)
It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally
instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)
Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese
development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during
Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the
religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the
lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the
government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on
Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of
Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)
Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values
giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates
30
that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme
Y Thinley (2004) writes
Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)
Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the
country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)
Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or
postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were
no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life
expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was
considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged
mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the
land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were
self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based
on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of
the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)
Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable
social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first
explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The
National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty
of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15
31
1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early
1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE
1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not
voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister
expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link
Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid
increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless
Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the
Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several
thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions
began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between
the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade
route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the
following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of
discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources
and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards
development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural
preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of
modernization (Priesner 1999)
Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King
always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel
1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the
third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971
32
Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied
principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for
GNH
The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy
economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the
translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner
1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique
development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve
national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply
embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the
term Gross National Happiness was coined
23 GNH Discourses and Debates
The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by
the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His
keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many
scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore
the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister
Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for
GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main
ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there
were any at all
33
Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that
it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and
would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their
suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH
Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical
approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH
On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and
there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to
define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought
argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first
workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this
workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set
of Discussion Papers
After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH
Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from
February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept
of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be
operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused
largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien
(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI
which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health
livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference
discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a
34
potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic
security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any
definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference
was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on
happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop
the indicators of GNH in a later period
The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local
Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24
2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual
experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and
second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that
in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third
international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH
Index
The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused
on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the
importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in
developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference
Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index
The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)
was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase
which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current
situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators
35
psychology environment community relations education health living standard
governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the
indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the
missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be
used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the
methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human
progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners
The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation
for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the
international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government
realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH
(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are
framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH
values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-
day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level
Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business
establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is
believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company
functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the
dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a
revelation for Bhutan
On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed
his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the
36
education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH
infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a
road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles
into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in
the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state
that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum
Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many
schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)
Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and
concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very
practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot
through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of
measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness
Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that
takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations
Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index
(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross
National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the
overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI
health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing
to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the
37
philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)
president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators
of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of
Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will
provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)
In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley
(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people
perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well
into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)
argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing
economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known
about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived
experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae
that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people
Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in
revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of
policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will
enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking
GNH processes
Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble
philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not
do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)
There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human
38
happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness
of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its
policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National
Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently
quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely
wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing
Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always
remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if
they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness
(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese
government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National
Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase
25 Summary
This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of
Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding
of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged
in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is
influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life
the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional
Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way
39
of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality
and compassion are inherent in GNH
History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and
17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism
therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state
because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with
problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus
challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives
in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH
Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not
opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to
health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies
in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are
promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly
adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers
know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however
as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are
influenced by Buddhist principles
40
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS
We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the
importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize
that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general
assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings
defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by
increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)
The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of
possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed
in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the
ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key
problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often
criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in
our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine
happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts
that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an
ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of
this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some
key Buddhist principles related to happiness
Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist
worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the
psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter
The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because
41
Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the
framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six
paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise
out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path
This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief
introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the
Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana
Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble
truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and
compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the
Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to
crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the
six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and
others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme
Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings
by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will
serve as sources for constructing this framework
31 Buddhist View of Happiness
Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers
worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the
concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the
notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is
42
commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of
practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly
influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no
creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)
The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread
ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha
was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The
lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism
chief among which is the pursuit of happiness
In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai
Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for
happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche
a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on
material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)
The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or
the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment
if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if
we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This
indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai
Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism
happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often
agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn
cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer
43
the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and
suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)
Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)
And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)
There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles
ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism
Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues
through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards
sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been
(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas
teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and
righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities
that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined
with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of
possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999
p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they
are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the
Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all
materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but
a cause of suffering
44
His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary
happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means
that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the
cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma
can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp
Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which
happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the
Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us
happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing
towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are
also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and
Bhutanese
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles
321 The four noble truths
In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths
which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths
explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes
that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness
and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth
explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for
individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth
states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth
45
prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft
1997)
A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no
person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth
states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end
to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First
is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the
suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all
phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is
endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive
emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)
The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance
which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers
to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning
distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the
afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that
the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the
Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right
Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist
teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight
steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means
ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai
Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right
46
Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right
Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and
Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind
Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which
are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to
the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections
as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion
The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our
own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing
comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons
Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The
same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction
will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth
certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined
These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance
character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens
to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will
happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist
previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior
The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and
Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the
47
entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action
because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)
The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the
Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones
Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience
happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant
effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of
Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for
other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good
merit
Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma
Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions
motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-
- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right
actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either
oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy
our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of
not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)
Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content
The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of
interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually
an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and
48
everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007
Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is
composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states
that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or
five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is
made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental
formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)
(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates
and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent
self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume
that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all
interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we
do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of
themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create
happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but
also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships
The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a
compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits
all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai
Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all
Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is
normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is
49
through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all
humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world
Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can
develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is
through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and
wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense
also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist
worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness
which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework
This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana
Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century
text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six
practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are
1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti
Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita
(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way
for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life
through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are
methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The
first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and
concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities
50
However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay
people
The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following
statement
The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)
The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The
Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme
Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether
worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the
practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers
to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which
directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are
three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to
reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-
liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life
by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in
the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to
lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms
Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as
possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness
Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other
beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a
51
blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it
is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to
Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own
afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering
The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of
life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner
psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in
Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These
three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and
hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai
Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends
on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one
will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this
understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness
and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and
engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering
Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon
but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent
self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as
explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos
fourth verse states the following
Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside
52
the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)
The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the
body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to
live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus
comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai
Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing
emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses
that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how
Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are
ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and
mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to
oneself and to others
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes
53
Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will
receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in
the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and
the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states
that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six
practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training
and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six
paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is
represented by Figure 3 below
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering
54
331 Generosity
Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic
mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In
the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states
If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be
practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and
giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means
overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily
giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure
for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya
(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are
five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and
admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and
will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in
return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue
bringing happiness to oneself and others
332 Ethics
The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue
Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble
Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality
55
of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never
having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for
Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body
speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by
our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions
killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed
malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond
to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh
language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will
wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous
actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and
cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy
greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous
behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically
become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th
verse Thogme Zangpo writes
If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve
happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For
example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will
56
be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of
avoiding harsh words
Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)
By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of
negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and
our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics
we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse
for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all
goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for
progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the
path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and
mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in
training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our
actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness
333 Patience and Tolerance
The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of
patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of
patience
For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)
57
Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are
challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative
thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive
emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our
heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance
and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was
deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him
Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally
attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the
strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and
this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain
inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness
334 Perseverance
The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance
It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working
hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states
Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on
ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from
58
suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability
Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal
The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard
failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and
affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve
happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at
all times
335 Meditative Concentration
The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana
Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and
overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices
of Bodhisattva is on meditation
At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six
realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in
comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a
human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating
day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings
2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma
59
can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind
because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi
(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering
and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving
happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative
concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We
stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in
everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and
misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility
Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us
directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states
Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
336 Wisdom
The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit
Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness
Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be
disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other
practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out
If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
60
Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron
Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our
habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the
ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of
ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble
paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three
poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and
unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost
clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence
Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the
attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness
(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of
reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with
joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism
34 Summary
Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and
hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to
various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material
wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is
only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be
happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The
mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as
61
cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three
poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience
inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of
attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear
and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus
accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third
(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting
rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and
achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart
Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses
more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being
compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness
generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can
reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others
62
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING
INDICATORS
People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of
effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must
be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the
GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators
Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness
Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental
Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially
destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of
practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to
what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of
happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This
chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect
Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter
Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the
meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights
similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on
the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections
analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad
categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The
chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings
63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures
Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons
mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The
measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country
pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall
wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions
that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a
persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life
(p40)
From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist
teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly
holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or
happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective
experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness
(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes
all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi
1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences
As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind
this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to
wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that
Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman
Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike
64
believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that
they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions
The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the
self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that
self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying
emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists
who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety
are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp
Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of
negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata
2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes
both positive and negative emotions
Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A
sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the
sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off
point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full
score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient
achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any
respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National
Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from
sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is
sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the
GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method
65
is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who
are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much
information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From
the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut
off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises
questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency
cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it
based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results
42 Emotional Balance
The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of
emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative
emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or
feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the
seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and
suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and
compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary
influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information
about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors
contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)
Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own
there are causal factors associated with them
66
Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition
therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the
Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary
consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates
merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of
mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and
secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists
fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under
the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses
a Negative Emotion
Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of
ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions
These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around
us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others
succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action
All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical
action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning
distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness
frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The
four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive
regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly
considered negative under the GNH index
67
1 Jealousy
Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris
(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival
poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important
relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text
classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is
defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as
their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their
accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we
receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment
Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what
jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments
envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the
element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that
envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy
is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work
fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead
to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has
strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)
In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy
Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and
envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and
68
happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a
GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our
peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous
of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values
Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of
emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety
sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and
betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to
achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since
jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate
that it be an indicator of GNH
In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the
respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that
respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or
expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as
non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency
cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles
How often do you experience jealousy
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
69
2 Selfishness
The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of
craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and
greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi
1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and
appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)
states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)
Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe
zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively
Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As
explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential
principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one
of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a
rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your
wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that
Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In
particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-
centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the
ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to
Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness
Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms
70
Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is
opposed to the GNH values
Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following
question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a
person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that
selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH
index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait
How often do you experience selfishness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a
condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an
internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to
the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a
mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms
part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national
language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means
pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our
self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and
ourselves
71
Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of
mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out
of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire
and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to
maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and
opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since
frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such
emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing
The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of
respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience
frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes
experience frustration are given a negative score
How often do you experience frustration
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
4 Suicidal Thoughts
Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in
life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a
mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten
non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is
72
therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by
suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma
Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its
complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the
awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the
effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being
Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who
commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action
Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing
leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that
even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the
basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get
rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates
that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your
problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of
afflictive emotion
According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist
painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and
suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive
living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and
the future for the better
Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with
elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le
73
Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The
most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese
psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure
to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts
occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive
emotions
Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has
never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while
respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall
the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings
Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide
1 Yes 2 No
Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that
affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the
distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become
known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative
emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and
divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction
The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states
and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees
74
ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out
in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and
selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the
immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates
that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon
those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides
evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to
know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as
policy must attend to it them
Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and
therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate
the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are
rooted in Buddhism
b Positive Emotions
The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the
negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity
calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to
oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages
replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative
concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive
indicators of psychological wellbeing
75
5 Generosity
Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In
Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter
Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains
that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it
brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive
virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental
development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves
and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence
which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms
generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as
an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for
oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the
collection of data
How often do you experience generosity
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should
frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH
3 See Chapter Three
76
society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does
not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part
of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary
service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not
get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in
the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological
wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH
6 Calmness
Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance
Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The
Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses
the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism
as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma
text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the
tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)
Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi
(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually
at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding
and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a
happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health
and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can
77
experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue
consistent with GNH ideals
The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of
data
How often do you experience calmness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH
society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be
linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well
7 Compassion
Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist
practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important
trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only
through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues
For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of
generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the
suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the
law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent
meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to
78
overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are
considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators
Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a
GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise
and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS
(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of
others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the
suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further
scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in
bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz
Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much
coherent with the GNH values
The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how
compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity
and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently
experience compassion to get the full GNH score
How often do you experience compassion
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity
have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the
79
potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to
the Buddhist practice of paramitas
43 Spiritual Practices
From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of
practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity
can hold negative emotions at bay
8 Frequency of Meditation
The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind
The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the
importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire
hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative
practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see
directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and
masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe
meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out
that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with
little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be
able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts
(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of
California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain
involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of
80
meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated
with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not
link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist
teachings
Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm
our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has
beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression
poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced
inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three
universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of
Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of
meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of
meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more
frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind
relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to
meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is
only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature
and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)
The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported
by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a
positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of
GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is
putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of
respondents regarding the practice of meditation
Do you practice meditation
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means
one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation
is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay
population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)
904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan
still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why
the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently
meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced
among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH
values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the
indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism
9 Prayer Recitation
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power
Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to
awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which
82
literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy
like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken
once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is
thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra
literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002
p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the
truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the
blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter
ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being
Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good
vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength
compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In
Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship
between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the
great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding
effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and
right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell
peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate
while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one
close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and
concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The
83
Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of
meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)
explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the
mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile
reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming
its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of
breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the
energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The
practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist
In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to
local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil
forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone
Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned
earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism
emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with
polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which
worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans
national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent
in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices
but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform
rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under
Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other
84
deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs
invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk
2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper
valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old
tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now
considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture
The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays
daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score
Do you sayrecite prayers
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both
are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a
full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different
sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation
indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in
Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are
highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to
be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The
CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values
Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because
85
both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too
is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist
principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of
prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs
10 Taking account of Karma
As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides
the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of
ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has
influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being
morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily
life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result
depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing
non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma
conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to
avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions
bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of
causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life
The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as
daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH
score
86
Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily
basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state
According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes
and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a
clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real
reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)
serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping
each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a
GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy
society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist
principles and is consistent with GNH values
43 General Mental Health (GMH)
11 General Mental Health
The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of
depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators
under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists
87
of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to
concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the
respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with
lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-
15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some
mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)
The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should
not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score
The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health
status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect
wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase
susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)
From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of
confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)
points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own
physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have
the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health
problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own
ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress
thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist
teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus
4 A meditation technique
88
mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and
hatred
Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why
selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from
selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a
ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of
small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second
reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is
guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous
Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In
Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes
suffering
The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind
The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that
influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it
opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the
population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy
(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people
pursue happiness
44 Summary
The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
89
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following
The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration
suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an
afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through
which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism
frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result
of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views
leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus
arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what
Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others
thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a
result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to
the idea of self leads to mental stress
The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion
and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking
account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas
Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness
Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of
the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita
which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator
of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative
concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation
however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the
90
local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by
Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses
avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the
positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core
teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be
appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism
Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH
society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but
also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also
important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions
at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or
negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of
psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values
91
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS
From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the
preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the
philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal
importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without
spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops
and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to
measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises
72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate
all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in
guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The
purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are
To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect
Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does
reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and
survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo
study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist
principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by
this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of
happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most
92
The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for
people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index
measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people
Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators
reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles
related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to
happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a
basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only
worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which
can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative
concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to
the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace
must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the
happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the
outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind
that creates the cause for happiness or success
Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven
indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and
wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of
psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in
affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and
regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-
93
transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing
problems and solutions to the root causes
The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples
emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion
Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing
correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below
Indicators Buddhist Principles
1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity
6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices
7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance
8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration
9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration
10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics
11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and
suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the
three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and
94
deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly
selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness
is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-
self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I
through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term
gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary
immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism
are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the
problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these
negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress
The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion
calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the
replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous
action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself
and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect
psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly
related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the
psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with
the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and
calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by
Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political
ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in
Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-
95
term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term
happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived
from spiritual cultural and social values
This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and
cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and
happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the
mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as
Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that
Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH
Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and
conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically
strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not
contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the
inner conditions of ones own mind
Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make
better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be
considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan
Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy
community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than
those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)
By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as
necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for
developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing
96
thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-
material development is equally important as external material development
Recommendations for Future Studies
The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of
the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared
towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further
Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation
aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal
happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH
Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a
therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their
lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-
Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism
can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)
Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons
insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values
As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the
sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the
CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level
that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because
there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually
been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some
assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis
97
for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy
makers
This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected
Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing
were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of
emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only
recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire
notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but
does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective
solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity
compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the
term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity
One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from
an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have
not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid
misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced
This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar
study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further
investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the
GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the
emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the
real essence of human happiness
98
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Priesner S (1999) Gross National Happiness - Bhutans Vision of Development and its Challenges Gross National Happiness - A Set of Discussion Papers Retrieved from Retrieved from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH Ch3 Priesnerpdf
Rinzin C (2006) On the Middle Path The Social Basis for Sustainable Development in Bhutan Utrecht University Netherlands
106
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Ryff C D amp Singer B H (1998) The contours of positive human health Psychological InquiryVolume 9 (p 1-28) Retrieved from httpdatapsvchudeleduabelcherShared20Documents320Psvchopathol ogy20282729Rvff20Singer201998pdf
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Sheldon KM Ryan RM Deci EL amp Kasser T (2004) The independent effects of goal contents and motives on well-being Its both what you pursue and why you pursue it Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30475^486
Sogyal Rinpoche (2nd Eds) (2002) The Tibetan book of living and dying New York HarperSanFrancisco
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107
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Wangchuk JK (2008) Coronation Address of His Majesty King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuk Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomdefaultaspx
Wijeyawansa W L (2009) Buddhist Spectrum Buddhism and wealth Retrieved from httpwwwdailvnewslk2009ll24fea30asp
Williams DT (2008) Devil Talk Miltons Post-Modern Satan and his Disciples Touchstone A Journal of Mere Christianity 21(7) 24-27
Wolfe R Elder D(2007) Approaches to Policy Analysis Retrieved fromhttppostqueensuca~wolfer802MPAMPA802htm
Wright D S (2009) The Six Perfections Buddhism and Cultivation of Character Oxford University Press Retrieved from httpbooksgooglecabooksid=YeCAtSdxikYCampprintsec=frontcoverampdq=the+si x+perfections+of+buddhismampsource=blampots=WuFE9hRfJbampsig=nDnQTu6Gikc7Kd HgkcDiOODZ-aOamphl=enampei=fULzS53vOYqG9ASawpTNDwampsa=Xampoi=book resultampct=resultampre snum=8ampved=0CD8Q6AEwBwv=onepageampqampf=false
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109
Appendix 1
Gross National Happiness Index
Cultural Diversity
Psychological Wellbeing
Good Governance
Time Use
Health Education Ecology Living Standards
Commu nity Vitality
Jealousy
Selfishness s- Negative Emotions
Frustration
Suicidal Thoughts
Compassion
Positive Emotions Calmness
Generosity
Meditation
gt- Spiritual Practices Prayer Recitation
Taking account of Karma
General Health General Mental Health
110
Appendix 2
General Mental Health Questionnaire Ql During the last year would you describe your life as-
1 Very Stressful 2 Somewhat Stressful 3 Not At All Stressful 4 Dont Know
Q2 What are your main sources of stress
Q3 Been able to concentrate on what youre doing 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q4 Lost much sleep over worry 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q5 Felt you were playing a useful part in things
1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q6 Felt capable of making decisions about things 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q7 Felt constantly under strain 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual
111
4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q8 Felt you couldnt overcome your difficulties 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q9 Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Qll Been able to face up to your problems 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q12 Been feeling unhappy and depressed 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q13 Been losing confidence in yourself 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
014 Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q15 Been feeling reasonably happy all things considered 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual
112
4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Curriculum Vitae
Candidates full name Tashi Wangmo
Universities attended Maastricht School of Management The Netherlands 2007 Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management
Royal University of Bhutan Royal Institute of Management Thimphu Bhutan 2004 Post Graduate Certificate in Financial Management (PGCFM)
University of North Bengal Government College Daijeeling India 2000-2003 Bachelors of Commerce
University of New Brunswick Fredericton NB Canada 2008-2010 MPhil Policy Studies (Philosophy Politics and Economics)
List of Figures
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54
vii
List of Abbreviations
CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa
FYP Five Year Plan
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GHQ General Health Questionnaire
GNH Gross National Happiness
GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission
GPI Genuine Progress Index
HDI Human Development Index
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoHE Ministry of Health and Education
NEC National Environment Commission
NSB National Statistic Bureau
RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan
TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples
lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the
people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it
measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture
fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)
Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing
alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human
Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important
factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary
values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross
National Happiness
Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of
Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing
human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the
spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck
coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross
National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura
2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an
enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is
the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult
1
for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four
major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable
economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning
Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through
which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH
Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently
sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked
however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core
principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation
of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of
Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH
values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008
pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been
identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now
ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government
performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this
study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist
principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief
background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents
Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National
Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains
of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth
2
section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section
presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance
and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are
presented in the eighth section
11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture
Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central
Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square
kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two
leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most
isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are
smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)
farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population
945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the
population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was
estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost
entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea
level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau
2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry
of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity
Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)
The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by
Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique
3
philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and
traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme
Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than
Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of
every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed
that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)
This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority
25 SO Km
50 25
G r e a
S Gasa Ozong
Toogsa THIMPHU Paro
Tashigang
Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing
r~
BANGLADESH
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)
4
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy
Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung
Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to
unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan
(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was
the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education
[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system
where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head
abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement
of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for
this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -
1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious
retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung
himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal
stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was
unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then
visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country
Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional
democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization
was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation
A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country
5
of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady
decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples
participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen
the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the
establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye
Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees
(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these
committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers
previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)
On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned
nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate
the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal
Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite
occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king
was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning
monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed
that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign
He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness
today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual
pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected
government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH
6
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan
The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be
included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The
importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A
Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states
that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve
their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the
concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an
important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government
of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)
GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to
complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and
non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing
ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH
supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater
good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual
The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for
it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it
cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme
YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH
stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which
happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments
policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a
7
collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the
happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve
happiness
The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese
worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The
policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from
outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to
diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning
Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross
National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision
emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and
environmental conservation
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index
Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese
government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and
equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural
preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have
constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to
as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism
and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the
government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt
the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot
8
guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators
were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural
resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality
ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness
are explained below
1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life
life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable
indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and
generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional
balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the
indicators under this domain
2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two
indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent
delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account
3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain
intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities
that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust
belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community
and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality
Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density
4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and
strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of
changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that
9
encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music
dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural
diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan
skill Value transmission and Basic precept
5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The
GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of
health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated
health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month
Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding
practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to
health
6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and
collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and
skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic
ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally
The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and
Folk and historical literacy
7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception
of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation
Ecological knowledge and Afforestation
8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the
individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and
10
house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food
security and Hardship
9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people
perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality
The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government
performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and
corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good
governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator
A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in
nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of
GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result
of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of
950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS
in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and
principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)
states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally
weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal
intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each
domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high
response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For
example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often
they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion
forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the
11
option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only
eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72
indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)
The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is
currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki
Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the
conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured
semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of
the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual
having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS
2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based
on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or
objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective
survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those
elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime
accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and
volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of
monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report
survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of
subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index
is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and
determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains
12
The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average
squared distance from cutoff
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study
Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with
the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by
the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and
emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified
are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the
resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do
the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept
of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what
extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators
with the concept of GNH
Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be
most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the
indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I
choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health
living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional
economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development
Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been
included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of
13
psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it
would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators
16 Methodology
The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist
principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This
policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze
the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes
and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social
problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses
determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for
determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a
given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the
governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the
concept of GNH
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social
lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most
important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not
to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH
indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First
the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will
determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is
14
a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As
such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced
the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and
Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study
attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist
influence which then might support the notion put forth by them
Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on
GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on
GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such
as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are
used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by
the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist
principles of happiness
The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to
overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a
conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an
inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key
principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be
discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma
principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical
basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas
An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope
15
and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will
serve as a basis for assessing the indicators
Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana
Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse
Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven
bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-
1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from
hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings
The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used
for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every
sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the
teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected
in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such
as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used
The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the
Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the
indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-
processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-
one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical
standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as
how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing
indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the
indicators are referred to for this study
16
17 Limitations and Significance of the study
There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study
focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH
indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives
Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the
indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles
and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous
Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of
Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche
Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the
indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country
As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the
GNH index are available
The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the
psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of
the GNH index are not discussed
Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons
First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study
that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism
This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in
studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of
GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be
an area of future research
17
Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the
government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH
index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the
design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of
the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is
important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be
distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine
whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept
18 Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at
Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy
The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the
methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter
Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how
the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been
influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to
each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the
development of the GNH index are also discussed
Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological
wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined
Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and
compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices
18
of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the
teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles
Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological
wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each
indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent
to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency
of the indicators with the concept of GNH
Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future
studies
19
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)
is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather
implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic
construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in
the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more
depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999
2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have
argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter
reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship
between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored
Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist
principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to
understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH
The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the
core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points
out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold
path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how
the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century
when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section
examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development
giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the
noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20
GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the
review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by
questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples
wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH
21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness
Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This
is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of
the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans
value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left
exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH
context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both
economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to
pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as
the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against
the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values
In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH
thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social
and cultural values
Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH
are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted
in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is
essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces
21
harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana
Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan
Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material
rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the
importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and
pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as
peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo
2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly
influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of
Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the
Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of
Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion
and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice
According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is
happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche
as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to
remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the
cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure
and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the
means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is
often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the
process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in
the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in
22
Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam
Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to
change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the
importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as
altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength
Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and
economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be
a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley
states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan
Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates
living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places
equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of
GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it
the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its
social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was
overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field
(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their
forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the
governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to
environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)
argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse
theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that
GNH is therefore a response to this realization
23
Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless
Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan
Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from
the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a
society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that
this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri
(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-
specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist
values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist
Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be
clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief
ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy
and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among
these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment
(Rinzin 2006)
1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation
Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of
happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our
happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical
environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the
uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in
the world
24
Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning
Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong
arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The
relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally
different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an
independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all
dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that
nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of
conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)
Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and
rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-
human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these
spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)
These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese
consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system
The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the
constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage
2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion
The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an
integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned
development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their
policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist
Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the
25
doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary
rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich
religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam
namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to
promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-
damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty
community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and
superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and
teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)
In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people
consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese
culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a
way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through
tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and
cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening
the Bhutanese culture and tradition
3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development
The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development
While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external
factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the
concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs
(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an
end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety
26
insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic
development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is
easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness
Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have
opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the
government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable
goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and
exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for
economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998
Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are
sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the
requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher
1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or
cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on
trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and
follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on
economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By
following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage
in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society
4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance
This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a
GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys
political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent
27
accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission
[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts
that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of
GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most
important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic
government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy
would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the
freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a
Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise
Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the
path to good governance that leads to GNH
Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006
states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig
and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional
Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people
Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which
encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right
Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right
Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese
judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws
(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2
Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right
Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip
28
(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10
Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as
cited by Powers 1995)
Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech
and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy
makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any
individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the
three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like
the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)
Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working
with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to
understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that
refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the
relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence
Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and
wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work
with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to
nurture and manifest these qualities
22 Evolution of the Concept
The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very
old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of
Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal
29
set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on
the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]
1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the
land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an
animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon
rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to
the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life
culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism
in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them
could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)
It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally
instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)
Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese
development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during
Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the
religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the
lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the
government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on
Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of
Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)
Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values
giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates
30
that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme
Y Thinley (2004) writes
Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)
Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the
country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)
Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or
postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were
no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life
expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was
considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged
mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the
land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were
self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based
on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of
the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)
Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable
social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first
explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The
National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty
of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15
31
1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early
1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE
1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not
voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister
expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link
Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid
increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless
Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the
Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several
thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions
began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between
the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade
route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the
following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of
discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources
and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards
development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural
preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of
modernization (Priesner 1999)
Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King
always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel
1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the
third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971
32
Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied
principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for
GNH
The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy
economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the
translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner
1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique
development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve
national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply
embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the
term Gross National Happiness was coined
23 GNH Discourses and Debates
The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by
the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His
keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many
scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore
the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister
Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for
GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main
ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there
were any at all
33
Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that
it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and
would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their
suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH
Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical
approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH
On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and
there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to
define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought
argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first
workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this
workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set
of Discussion Papers
After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH
Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from
February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept
of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be
operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused
largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien
(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI
which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health
livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference
discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a
34
potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic
security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any
definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference
was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on
happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop
the indicators of GNH in a later period
The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local
Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24
2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual
experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and
second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that
in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third
international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH
Index
The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused
on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the
importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in
developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference
Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index
The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)
was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase
which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current
situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators
35
psychology environment community relations education health living standard
governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the
indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the
missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be
used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the
methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human
progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners
The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation
for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the
international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government
realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH
(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are
framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH
values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-
day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level
Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business
establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is
believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company
functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the
dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a
revelation for Bhutan
On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed
his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the
36
education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH
infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a
road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles
into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in
the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state
that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum
Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many
schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)
Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and
concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very
practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot
through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of
measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness
Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that
takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations
Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index
(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross
National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the
overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI
health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing
to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the
37
philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)
president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators
of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of
Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will
provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)
In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley
(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people
perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well
into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)
argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing
economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known
about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived
experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae
that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people
Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in
revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of
policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will
enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking
GNH processes
Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble
philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not
do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)
There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human
38
happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness
of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its
policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National
Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently
quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely
wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing
Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always
remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if
they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness
(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese
government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National
Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase
25 Summary
This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of
Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding
of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged
in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is
influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life
the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional
Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way
39
of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality
and compassion are inherent in GNH
History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and
17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism
therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state
because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with
problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus
challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives
in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH
Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not
opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to
health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies
in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are
promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly
adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers
know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however
as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are
influenced by Buddhist principles
40
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS
We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the
importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize
that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general
assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings
defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by
increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)
The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of
possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed
in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the
ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key
problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often
criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in
our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine
happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts
that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an
ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of
this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some
key Buddhist principles related to happiness
Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist
worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the
psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter
The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because
41
Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the
framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six
paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise
out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path
This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief
introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the
Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana
Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble
truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and
compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the
Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to
crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the
six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and
others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme
Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings
by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will
serve as sources for constructing this framework
31 Buddhist View of Happiness
Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers
worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the
concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the
notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is
42
commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of
practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly
influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no
creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)
The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread
ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha
was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The
lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism
chief among which is the pursuit of happiness
In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai
Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for
happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche
a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on
material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)
The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or
the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment
if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if
we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This
indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai
Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism
happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often
agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn
cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer
43
the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and
suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)
Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)
And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)
There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles
ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism
Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues
through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards
sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been
(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas
teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and
righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities
that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined
with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of
possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999
p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they
are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the
Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all
materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but
a cause of suffering
44
His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary
happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means
that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the
cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma
can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp
Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which
happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the
Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us
happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing
towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are
also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and
Bhutanese
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles
321 The four noble truths
In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths
which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths
explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes
that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness
and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth
explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for
individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth
states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth
45
prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft
1997)
A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no
person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth
states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end
to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First
is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the
suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all
phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is
endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive
emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)
The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance
which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers
to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning
distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the
afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that
the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the
Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right
Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist
teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight
steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means
ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai
Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right
46
Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right
Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and
Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind
Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which
are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to
the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections
as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion
The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our
own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing
comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons
Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The
same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction
will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth
certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined
These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance
character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens
to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will
happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist
previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior
The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and
Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the
47
entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action
because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)
The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the
Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones
Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience
happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant
effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of
Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for
other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good
merit
Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma
Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions
motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-
- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right
actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either
oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy
our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of
not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)
Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content
The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of
interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually
an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and
48
everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007
Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is
composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states
that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or
five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is
made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental
formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)
(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates
and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent
self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume
that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all
interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we
do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of
themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create
happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but
also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships
The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a
compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits
all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai
Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all
Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is
normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is
49
through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all
humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world
Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can
develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is
through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and
wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense
also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist
worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness
which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework
This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana
Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century
text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six
practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are
1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti
Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita
(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way
for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life
through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are
methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The
first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and
concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities
50
However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay
people
The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following
statement
The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)
The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The
Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme
Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether
worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the
practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers
to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which
directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are
three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to
reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-
liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life
by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in
the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to
lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms
Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as
possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness
Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other
beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a
51
blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it
is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to
Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own
afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering
The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of
life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner
psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in
Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These
three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and
hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai
Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends
on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one
will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this
understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness
and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and
engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering
Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon
but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent
self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as
explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos
fourth verse states the following
Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside
52
the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)
The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the
body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to
live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus
comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai
Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing
emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses
that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how
Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are
ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and
mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to
oneself and to others
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes
53
Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will
receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in
the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and
the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states
that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six
practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training
and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six
paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is
represented by Figure 3 below
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering
54
331 Generosity
Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic
mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In
the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states
If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be
practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and
giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means
overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily
giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure
for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya
(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are
five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and
admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and
will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in
return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue
bringing happiness to oneself and others
332 Ethics
The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue
Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble
Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality
55
of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never
having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for
Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body
speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by
our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions
killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed
malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond
to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh
language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will
wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous
actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and
cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy
greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous
behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically
become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th
verse Thogme Zangpo writes
If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve
happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For
example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will
56
be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of
avoiding harsh words
Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)
By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of
negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and
our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics
we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse
for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all
goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for
progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the
path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and
mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in
training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our
actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness
333 Patience and Tolerance
The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of
patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of
patience
For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)
57
Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are
challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative
thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive
emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our
heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance
and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was
deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him
Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally
attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the
strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and
this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain
inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness
334 Perseverance
The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance
It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working
hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states
Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on
ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from
58
suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability
Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal
The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard
failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and
affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve
happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at
all times
335 Meditative Concentration
The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana
Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and
overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices
of Bodhisattva is on meditation
At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six
realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in
comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a
human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating
day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings
2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma
59
can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind
because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi
(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering
and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving
happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative
concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We
stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in
everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and
misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility
Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us
directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states
Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
336 Wisdom
The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit
Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness
Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be
disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other
practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out
If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
60
Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron
Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our
habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the
ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of
ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble
paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three
poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and
unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost
clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence
Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the
attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness
(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of
reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with
joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism
34 Summary
Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and
hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to
various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material
wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is
only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be
happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The
mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as
61
cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three
poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience
inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of
attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear
and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus
accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third
(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting
rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and
achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart
Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses
more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being
compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness
generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can
reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others
62
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING
INDICATORS
People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of
effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must
be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the
GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators
Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness
Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental
Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially
destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of
practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to
what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of
happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This
chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect
Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter
Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the
meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights
similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on
the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections
analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad
categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The
chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings
63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures
Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons
mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The
measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country
pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall
wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions
that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a
persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life
(p40)
From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist
teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly
holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or
happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective
experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness
(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes
all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi
1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences
As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind
this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to
wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that
Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman
Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike
64
believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that
they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions
The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the
self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that
self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying
emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists
who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety
are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp
Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of
negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata
2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes
both positive and negative emotions
Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A
sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the
sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off
point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full
score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient
achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any
respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National
Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from
sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is
sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the
GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method
65
is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who
are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much
information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From
the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut
off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises
questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency
cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it
based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results
42 Emotional Balance
The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of
emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative
emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or
feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the
seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and
suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and
compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary
influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information
about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors
contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)
Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own
there are causal factors associated with them
66
Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition
therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the
Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary
consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates
merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of
mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and
secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists
fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under
the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses
a Negative Emotion
Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of
ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions
These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around
us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others
succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action
All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical
action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning
distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness
frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The
four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive
regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly
considered negative under the GNH index
67
1 Jealousy
Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris
(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival
poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important
relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text
classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is
defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as
their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their
accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we
receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment
Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what
jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments
envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the
element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that
envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy
is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work
fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead
to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has
strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)
In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy
Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and
envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and
68
happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a
GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our
peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous
of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values
Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of
emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety
sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and
betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to
achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since
jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate
that it be an indicator of GNH
In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the
respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that
respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or
expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as
non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency
cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles
How often do you experience jealousy
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
69
2 Selfishness
The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of
craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and
greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi
1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and
appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)
states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)
Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe
zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively
Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As
explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential
principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one
of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a
rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your
wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that
Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In
particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-
centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the
ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to
Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness
Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms
70
Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is
opposed to the GNH values
Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following
question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a
person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that
selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH
index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait
How often do you experience selfishness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a
condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an
internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to
the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a
mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms
part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national
language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means
pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our
self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and
ourselves
71
Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of
mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out
of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire
and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to
maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and
opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since
frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such
emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing
The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of
respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience
frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes
experience frustration are given a negative score
How often do you experience frustration
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
4 Suicidal Thoughts
Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in
life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a
mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten
non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is
72
therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by
suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma
Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its
complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the
awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the
effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being
Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who
commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action
Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing
leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that
even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the
basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get
rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates
that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your
problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of
afflictive emotion
According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist
painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and
suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive
living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and
the future for the better
Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with
elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le
73
Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The
most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese
psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure
to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts
occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive
emotions
Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has
never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while
respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall
the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings
Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide
1 Yes 2 No
Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that
affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the
distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become
known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative
emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and
divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction
The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states
and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees
74
ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out
in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and
selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the
immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates
that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon
those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides
evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to
know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as
policy must attend to it them
Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and
therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate
the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are
rooted in Buddhism
b Positive Emotions
The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the
negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity
calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to
oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages
replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative
concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive
indicators of psychological wellbeing
75
5 Generosity
Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In
Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter
Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains
that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it
brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive
virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental
development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves
and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence
which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms
generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as
an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for
oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the
collection of data
How often do you experience generosity
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should
frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH
3 See Chapter Three
76
society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does
not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part
of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary
service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not
get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in
the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological
wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH
6 Calmness
Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance
Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The
Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses
the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism
as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma
text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the
tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)
Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi
(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually
at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding
and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a
happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health
and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can
77
experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue
consistent with GNH ideals
The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of
data
How often do you experience calmness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH
society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be
linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well
7 Compassion
Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist
practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important
trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only
through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues
For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of
generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the
suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the
law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent
meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to
78
overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are
considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators
Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a
GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise
and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS
(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of
others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the
suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further
scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in
bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz
Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much
coherent with the GNH values
The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how
compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity
and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently
experience compassion to get the full GNH score
How often do you experience compassion
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity
have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the
79
potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to
the Buddhist practice of paramitas
43 Spiritual Practices
From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of
practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity
can hold negative emotions at bay
8 Frequency of Meditation
The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind
The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the
importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire
hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative
practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see
directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and
masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe
meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out
that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with
little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be
able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts
(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of
California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain
involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of
80
meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated
with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not
link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist
teachings
Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm
our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has
beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression
poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced
inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three
universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of
Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of
meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of
meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more
frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind
relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to
meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is
only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature
and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)
The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported
by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a
positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of
GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is
putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of
respondents regarding the practice of meditation
Do you practice meditation
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means
one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation
is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay
population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)
904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan
still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why
the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently
meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced
among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH
values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the
indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism
9 Prayer Recitation
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power
Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to
awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which
82
literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy
like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken
once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is
thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra
literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002
p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the
truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the
blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter
ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being
Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good
vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength
compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In
Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship
between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the
great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding
effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and
right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell
peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate
while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one
close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and
concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The
83
Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of
meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)
explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the
mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile
reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming
its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of
breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the
energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The
practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist
In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to
local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil
forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone
Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned
earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism
emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with
polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which
worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans
national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent
in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices
but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform
rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under
Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other
84
deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs
invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk
2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper
valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old
tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now
considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture
The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays
daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score
Do you sayrecite prayers
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both
are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a
full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different
sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation
indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in
Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are
highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to
be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The
CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values
Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because
85
both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too
is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist
principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of
prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs
10 Taking account of Karma
As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides
the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of
ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has
influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being
morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily
life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result
depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing
non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma
conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to
avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions
bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of
causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life
The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as
daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH
score
86
Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily
basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state
According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes
and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a
clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real
reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)
serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping
each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a
GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy
society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist
principles and is consistent with GNH values
43 General Mental Health (GMH)
11 General Mental Health
The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of
depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators
under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists
87
of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to
concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the
respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with
lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-
15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some
mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)
The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should
not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score
The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health
status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect
wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase
susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)
From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of
confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)
points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own
physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have
the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health
problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own
ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress
thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist
teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus
4 A meditation technique
88
mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and
hatred
Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why
selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from
selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a
ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of
small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second
reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is
guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous
Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In
Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes
suffering
The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind
The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that
influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it
opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the
population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy
(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people
pursue happiness
44 Summary
The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
89
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following
The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration
suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an
afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through
which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism
frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result
of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views
leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus
arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what
Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others
thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a
result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to
the idea of self leads to mental stress
The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion
and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking
account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas
Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness
Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of
the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita
which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator
of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative
concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation
however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the
90
local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by
Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses
avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the
positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core
teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be
appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism
Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH
society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but
also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also
important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions
at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or
negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of
psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values
91
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS
From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the
preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the
philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal
importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without
spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops
and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to
measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises
72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate
all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in
guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The
purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are
To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect
Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does
reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and
survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo
study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist
principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by
this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of
happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most
92
The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for
people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index
measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people
Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators
reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles
related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to
happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a
basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only
worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which
can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative
concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to
the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace
must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the
happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the
outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind
that creates the cause for happiness or success
Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven
indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and
wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of
psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in
affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and
regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-
93
transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing
problems and solutions to the root causes
The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples
emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion
Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing
correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below
Indicators Buddhist Principles
1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity
6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices
7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance
8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration
9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration
10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics
11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and
suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the
three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and
94
deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly
selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness
is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-
self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I
through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term
gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary
immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism
are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the
problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these
negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress
The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion
calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the
replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous
action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself
and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect
psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly
related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the
psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with
the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and
calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by
Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political
ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in
Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-
95
term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term
happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived
from spiritual cultural and social values
This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and
cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and
happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the
mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as
Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that
Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH
Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and
conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically
strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not
contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the
inner conditions of ones own mind
Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make
better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be
considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan
Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy
community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than
those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)
By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as
necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for
developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing
96
thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-
material development is equally important as external material development
Recommendations for Future Studies
The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of
the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared
towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further
Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation
aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal
happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH
Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a
therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their
lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-
Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism
can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)
Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons
insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values
As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the
sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the
CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level
that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because
there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually
been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some
assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis
97
for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy
makers
This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected
Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing
were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of
emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only
recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire
notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but
does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective
solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity
compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the
term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity
One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from
an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have
not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid
misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced
This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar
study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further
investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the
GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the
emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the
real essence of human happiness
98
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Wijeyawansa W L (2009) Buddhist Spectrum Buddhism and wealth Retrieved from httpwwwdailvnewslk2009ll24fea30asp
Williams DT (2008) Devil Talk Miltons Post-Modern Satan and his Disciples Touchstone A Journal of Mere Christianity 21(7) 24-27
Wolfe R Elder D(2007) Approaches to Policy Analysis Retrieved fromhttppostqueensuca~wolfer802MPAMPA802htm
Wright D S (2009) The Six Perfections Buddhism and Cultivation of Character Oxford University Press Retrieved from httpbooksgooglecabooksid=YeCAtSdxikYCampprintsec=frontcoverampdq=the+si x+perfections+of+buddhismampsource=blampots=WuFE9hRfJbampsig=nDnQTu6Gikc7Kd HgkcDiOODZ-aOamphl=enampei=fULzS53vOYqG9ASawpTNDwampsa=Xampoi=book resultampct=resultampre snum=8ampved=0CD8Q6AEwBwv=onepageampqampf=false
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109
Appendix 1
Gross National Happiness Index
Cultural Diversity
Psychological Wellbeing
Good Governance
Time Use
Health Education Ecology Living Standards
Commu nity Vitality
Jealousy
Selfishness s- Negative Emotions
Frustration
Suicidal Thoughts
Compassion
Positive Emotions Calmness
Generosity
Meditation
gt- Spiritual Practices Prayer Recitation
Taking account of Karma
General Health General Mental Health
110
Appendix 2
General Mental Health Questionnaire Ql During the last year would you describe your life as-
1 Very Stressful 2 Somewhat Stressful 3 Not At All Stressful 4 Dont Know
Q2 What are your main sources of stress
Q3 Been able to concentrate on what youre doing 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q4 Lost much sleep over worry 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q5 Felt you were playing a useful part in things
1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q6 Felt capable of making decisions about things 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q7 Felt constantly under strain 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual
111
4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q8 Felt you couldnt overcome your difficulties 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q9 Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Qll Been able to face up to your problems 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q12 Been feeling unhappy and depressed 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q13 Been losing confidence in yourself 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
014 Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q15 Been feeling reasonably happy all things considered 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual
112
4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Curriculum Vitae
Candidates full name Tashi Wangmo
Universities attended Maastricht School of Management The Netherlands 2007 Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management
Royal University of Bhutan Royal Institute of Management Thimphu Bhutan 2004 Post Graduate Certificate in Financial Management (PGCFM)
University of North Bengal Government College Daijeeling India 2000-2003 Bachelors of Commerce
University of New Brunswick Fredericton NB Canada 2008-2010 MPhil Policy Studies (Philosophy Politics and Economics)
List of Abbreviations
CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa
FYP Five Year Plan
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GHQ General Health Questionnaire
GNH Gross National Happiness
GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission
GPI Genuine Progress Index
HDI Human Development Index
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoHE Ministry of Health and Education
NEC National Environment Commission
NSB National Statistic Bureau
RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan
TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan
UNDP United Nation Development Programme
viii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples
lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the
people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it
measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture
fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)
Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing
alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human
Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important
factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary
values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross
National Happiness
Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of
Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing
human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the
spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck
coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross
National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura
2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an
enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is
the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult
1
for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four
major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable
economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning
Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through
which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH
Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently
sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked
however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core
principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation
of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of
Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH
values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008
pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been
identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now
ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government
performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this
study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist
principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief
background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents
Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National
Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains
of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth
2
section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section
presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance
and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are
presented in the eighth section
11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture
Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central
Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square
kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two
leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most
isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are
smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)
farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population
945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the
population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was
estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost
entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea
level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau
2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry
of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity
Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)
The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by
Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique
3
philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and
traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme
Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than
Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of
every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed
that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)
This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority
25 SO Km
50 25
G r e a
S Gasa Ozong
Toogsa THIMPHU Paro
Tashigang
Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing
r~
BANGLADESH
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)
4
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy
Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung
Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to
unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan
(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was
the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education
[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system
where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head
abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement
of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for
this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -
1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious
retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung
himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal
stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was
unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then
visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country
Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional
democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization
was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation
A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country
5
of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady
decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples
participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen
the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the
establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye
Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees
(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these
committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers
previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)
On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned
nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate
the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal
Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite
occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king
was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning
monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed
that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign
He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness
today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual
pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected
government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH
6
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan
The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be
included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The
importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A
Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states
that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve
their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the
concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an
important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government
of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)
GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to
complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and
non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing
ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH
supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater
good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual
The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for
it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it
cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme
YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH
stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which
happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments
policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a
7
collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the
happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve
happiness
The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese
worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The
policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from
outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to
diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning
Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross
National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision
emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and
environmental conservation
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index
Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese
government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and
equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural
preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have
constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to
as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism
and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the
government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt
the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot
8
guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators
were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural
resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality
ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness
are explained below
1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life
life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable
indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and
generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional
balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the
indicators under this domain
2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two
indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent
delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account
3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain
intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities
that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust
belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community
and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality
Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density
4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and
strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of
changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that
9
encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music
dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural
diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan
skill Value transmission and Basic precept
5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The
GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of
health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated
health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month
Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding
practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to
health
6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and
collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and
skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic
ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally
The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and
Folk and historical literacy
7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception
of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation
Ecological knowledge and Afforestation
8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the
individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and
10
house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food
security and Hardship
9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people
perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality
The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government
performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and
corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good
governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator
A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in
nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of
GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result
of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of
950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS
in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and
principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)
states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally
weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal
intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each
domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high
response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For
example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often
they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion
forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the
11
option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only
eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72
indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)
The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is
currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki
Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the
conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured
semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of
the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual
having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS
2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based
on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or
objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective
survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those
elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime
accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and
volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of
monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report
survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of
subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index
is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and
determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains
12
The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average
squared distance from cutoff
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study
Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with
the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by
the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and
emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified
are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the
resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do
the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept
of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what
extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators
with the concept of GNH
Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be
most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the
indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I
choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health
living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional
economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development
Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been
included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of
13
psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it
would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators
16 Methodology
The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist
principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This
policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze
the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes
and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social
problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses
determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for
determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a
given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the
governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the
concept of GNH
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social
lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most
important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not
to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH
indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First
the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will
determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is
14
a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As
such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced
the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and
Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study
attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist
influence which then might support the notion put forth by them
Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on
GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on
GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such
as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are
used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by
the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist
principles of happiness
The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to
overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a
conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an
inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key
principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be
discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma
principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical
basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas
An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope
15
and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will
serve as a basis for assessing the indicators
Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana
Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse
Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven
bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-
1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from
hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings
The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used
for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every
sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the
teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected
in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such
as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used
The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the
Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the
indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-
processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-
one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical
standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as
how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing
indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the
indicators are referred to for this study
16
17 Limitations and Significance of the study
There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study
focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH
indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives
Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the
indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles
and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous
Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of
Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche
Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the
indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country
As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the
GNH index are available
The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the
psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of
the GNH index are not discussed
Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons
First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study
that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism
This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in
studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of
GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be
an area of future research
17
Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the
government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH
index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the
design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of
the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is
important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be
distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine
whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept
18 Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at
Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy
The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the
methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter
Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how
the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been
influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to
each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the
development of the GNH index are also discussed
Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological
wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined
Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and
compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices
18
of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the
teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles
Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological
wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each
indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent
to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency
of the indicators with the concept of GNH
Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future
studies
19
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)
is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather
implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic
construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in
the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more
depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999
2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have
argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter
reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship
between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored
Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist
principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to
understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH
The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the
core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points
out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold
path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how
the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century
when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section
examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development
giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the
noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20
GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the
review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by
questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples
wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH
21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness
Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This
is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of
the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans
value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left
exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH
context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both
economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to
pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as
the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against
the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values
In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH
thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social
and cultural values
Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH
are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted
in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is
essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces
21
harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana
Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan
Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material
rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the
importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and
pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as
peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo
2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly
influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of
Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the
Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of
Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion
and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice
According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is
happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche
as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to
remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the
cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure
and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the
means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is
often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the
process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in
the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in
22
Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam
Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to
change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the
importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as
altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength
Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and
economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be
a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley
states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan
Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates
living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places
equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of
GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it
the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its
social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was
overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field
(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their
forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the
governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to
environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)
argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse
theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that
GNH is therefore a response to this realization
23
Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless
Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan
Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from
the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a
society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that
this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri
(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-
specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist
values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist
Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be
clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief
ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy
and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among
these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment
(Rinzin 2006)
1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation
Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of
happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our
happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical
environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the
uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in
the world
24
Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning
Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong
arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The
relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally
different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an
independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all
dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that
nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of
conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)
Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and
rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-
human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these
spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)
These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese
consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system
The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the
constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage
2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion
The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an
integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned
development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their
policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist
Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the
25
doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary
rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich
religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam
namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to
promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-
damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty
community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and
superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and
teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)
In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people
consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese
culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a
way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through
tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and
cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening
the Bhutanese culture and tradition
3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development
The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development
While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external
factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the
concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs
(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an
end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety
26
insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic
development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is
easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness
Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have
opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the
government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable
goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and
exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for
economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998
Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are
sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the
requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher
1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or
cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on
trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and
follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on
economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By
following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage
in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society
4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance
This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a
GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys
political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent
27
accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission
[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts
that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of
GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most
important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic
government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy
would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the
freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a
Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise
Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the
path to good governance that leads to GNH
Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006
states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig
and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional
Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people
Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which
encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right
Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right
Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese
judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws
(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2
Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right
Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip
28
(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10
Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as
cited by Powers 1995)
Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech
and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy
makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any
individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the
three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like
the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)
Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working
with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to
understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that
refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the
relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence
Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and
wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work
with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to
nurture and manifest these qualities
22 Evolution of the Concept
The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very
old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of
Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal
29
set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on
the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]
1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the
land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an
animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon
rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to
the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life
culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism
in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them
could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)
It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally
instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)
Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese
development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during
Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the
religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the
lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the
government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on
Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of
Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)
Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values
giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates
30
that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme
Y Thinley (2004) writes
Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)
Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the
country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)
Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or
postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were
no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life
expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was
considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged
mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the
land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were
self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based
on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of
the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)
Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable
social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first
explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The
National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty
of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15
31
1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early
1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE
1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not
voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister
expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link
Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid
increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless
Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the
Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several
thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions
began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between
the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade
route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the
following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of
discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources
and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards
development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural
preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of
modernization (Priesner 1999)
Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King
always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel
1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the
third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971
32
Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied
principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for
GNH
The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy
economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the
translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner
1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique
development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve
national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply
embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the
term Gross National Happiness was coined
23 GNH Discourses and Debates
The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by
the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His
keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many
scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore
the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister
Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for
GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main
ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there
were any at all
33
Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that
it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and
would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their
suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH
Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical
approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH
On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and
there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to
define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought
argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first
workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this
workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set
of Discussion Papers
After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH
Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from
February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept
of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be
operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused
largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien
(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI
which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health
livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference
discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a
34
potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic
security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any
definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference
was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on
happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop
the indicators of GNH in a later period
The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local
Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24
2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual
experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and
second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that
in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third
international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH
Index
The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused
on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the
importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in
developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference
Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index
The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)
was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase
which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current
situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators
35
psychology environment community relations education health living standard
governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the
indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the
missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be
used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the
methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human
progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners
The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation
for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the
international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government
realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH
(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are
framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH
values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-
day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level
Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business
establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is
believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company
functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the
dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a
revelation for Bhutan
On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed
his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the
36
education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH
infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a
road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles
into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in
the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state
that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum
Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many
schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)
Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and
concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very
practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot
through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of
measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness
Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that
takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations
Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index
(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross
National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the
overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI
health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing
to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the
37
philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)
president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators
of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of
Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will
provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)
In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley
(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people
perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well
into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)
argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing
economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known
about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived
experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae
that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people
Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in
revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of
policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will
enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking
GNH processes
Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble
philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not
do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)
There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human
38
happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness
of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its
policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National
Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently
quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely
wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing
Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always
remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if
they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness
(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese
government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National
Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase
25 Summary
This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of
Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding
of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged
in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is
influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life
the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional
Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way
39
of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality
and compassion are inherent in GNH
History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and
17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism
therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state
because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with
problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus
challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives
in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH
Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not
opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to
health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies
in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are
promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly
adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers
know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however
as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are
influenced by Buddhist principles
40
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS
We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the
importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize
that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general
assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings
defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by
increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)
The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of
possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed
in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the
ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key
problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often
criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in
our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine
happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts
that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an
ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of
this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some
key Buddhist principles related to happiness
Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist
worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the
psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter
The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because
41
Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the
framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six
paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise
out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path
This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief
introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the
Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana
Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble
truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and
compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the
Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to
crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the
six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and
others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme
Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings
by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will
serve as sources for constructing this framework
31 Buddhist View of Happiness
Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers
worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the
concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the
notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is
42
commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of
practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly
influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no
creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)
The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread
ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha
was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The
lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism
chief among which is the pursuit of happiness
In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai
Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for
happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche
a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on
material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)
The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or
the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment
if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if
we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This
indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai
Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism
happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often
agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn
cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer
43
the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and
suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)
Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)
And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)
There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles
ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism
Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues
through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards
sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been
(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas
teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and
righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities
that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined
with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of
possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999
p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they
are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the
Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all
materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but
a cause of suffering
44
His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary
happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means
that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the
cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma
can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp
Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which
happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the
Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us
happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing
towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are
also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and
Bhutanese
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles
321 The four noble truths
In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths
which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths
explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes
that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness
and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth
explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for
individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth
states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth
45
prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft
1997)
A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no
person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth
states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end
to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First
is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the
suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all
phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is
endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive
emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)
The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance
which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers
to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning
distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the
afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that
the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the
Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right
Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist
teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight
steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means
ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai
Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right
46
Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right
Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and
Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind
Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which
are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to
the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections
as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion
The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our
own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing
comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons
Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The
same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction
will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth
certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined
These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance
character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens
to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will
happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist
previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior
The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and
Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the
47
entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action
because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)
The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the
Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones
Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience
happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant
effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of
Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for
other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good
merit
Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma
Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions
motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-
- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right
actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either
oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy
our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of
not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)
Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content
The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of
interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually
an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and
48
everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007
Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is
composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states
that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or
five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is
made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental
formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)
(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates
and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent
self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume
that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all
interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we
do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of
themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create
happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but
also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships
The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a
compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits
all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai
Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all
Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is
normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is
49
through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all
humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world
Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can
develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is
through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and
wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense
also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist
worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness
which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework
This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana
Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century
text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six
practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are
1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti
Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita
(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way
for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life
through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are
methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The
first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and
concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities
50
However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay
people
The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following
statement
The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)
The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The
Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme
Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether
worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the
practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers
to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which
directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are
three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to
reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-
liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life
by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in
the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to
lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms
Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as
possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness
Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other
beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a
51
blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it
is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to
Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own
afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering
The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of
life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner
psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in
Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These
three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and
hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai
Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends
on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one
will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this
understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness
and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and
engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering
Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon
but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent
self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as
explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos
fourth verse states the following
Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside
52
the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)
The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the
body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to
live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus
comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai
Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing
emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses
that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how
Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are
ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and
mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to
oneself and to others
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes
53
Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will
receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in
the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and
the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states
that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six
practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training
and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six
paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is
represented by Figure 3 below
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering
54
331 Generosity
Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic
mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In
the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states
If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be
practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and
giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means
overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily
giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure
for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya
(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are
five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and
admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and
will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in
return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue
bringing happiness to oneself and others
332 Ethics
The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue
Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble
Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality
55
of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never
having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for
Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body
speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by
our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions
killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed
malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond
to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh
language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will
wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous
actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and
cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy
greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous
behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically
become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th
verse Thogme Zangpo writes
If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve
happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For
example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will
56
be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of
avoiding harsh words
Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)
By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of
negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and
our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics
we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse
for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all
goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for
progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the
path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and
mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in
training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our
actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness
333 Patience and Tolerance
The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of
patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of
patience
For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)
57
Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are
challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative
thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive
emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our
heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance
and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was
deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him
Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally
attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the
strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and
this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain
inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness
334 Perseverance
The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance
It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working
hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states
Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on
ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from
58
suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability
Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal
The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard
failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and
affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve
happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at
all times
335 Meditative Concentration
The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana
Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and
overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices
of Bodhisattva is on meditation
At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six
realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in
comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a
human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating
day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings
2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma
59
can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind
because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi
(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering
and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving
happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative
concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We
stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in
everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and
misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility
Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us
directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states
Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
336 Wisdom
The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit
Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness
Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be
disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other
practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out
If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
60
Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron
Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our
habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the
ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of
ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble
paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three
poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and
unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost
clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence
Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the
attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness
(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of
reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with
joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism
34 Summary
Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and
hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to
various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material
wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is
only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be
happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The
mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as
61
cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three
poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience
inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of
attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear
and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus
accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third
(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting
rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and
achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart
Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses
more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being
compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness
generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can
reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others
62
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING
INDICATORS
People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of
effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must
be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the
GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators
Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness
Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental
Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially
destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of
practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to
what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of
happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This
chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect
Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter
Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the
meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights
similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on
the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections
analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad
categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The
chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings
63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures
Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons
mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The
measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country
pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall
wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions
that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a
persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life
(p40)
From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist
teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly
holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or
happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective
experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness
(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes
all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi
1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences
As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind
this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to
wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that
Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman
Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike
64
believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that
they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions
The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the
self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that
self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying
emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists
who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety
are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp
Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of
negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata
2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes
both positive and negative emotions
Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A
sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the
sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off
point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full
score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient
achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any
respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National
Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from
sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is
sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the
GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method
65
is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who
are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much
information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From
the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut
off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises
questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency
cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it
based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results
42 Emotional Balance
The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of
emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative
emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or
feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the
seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and
suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and
compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary
influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information
about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors
contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)
Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own
there are causal factors associated with them
66
Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition
therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the
Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary
consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates
merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of
mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and
secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists
fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under
the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses
a Negative Emotion
Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of
ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions
These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around
us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others
succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action
All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical
action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning
distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness
frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The
four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive
regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly
considered negative under the GNH index
67
1 Jealousy
Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris
(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival
poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important
relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text
classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is
defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as
their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their
accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we
receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment
Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what
jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments
envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the
element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that
envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy
is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work
fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead
to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has
strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)
In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy
Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and
envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and
68
happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a
GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our
peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous
of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values
Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of
emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety
sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and
betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to
achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since
jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate
that it be an indicator of GNH
In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the
respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that
respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or
expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as
non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency
cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles
How often do you experience jealousy
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
69
2 Selfishness
The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of
craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and
greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi
1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and
appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)
states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)
Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe
zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively
Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As
explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential
principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one
of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a
rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your
wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that
Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In
particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-
centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the
ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to
Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness
Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms
70
Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is
opposed to the GNH values
Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following
question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a
person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that
selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH
index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait
How often do you experience selfishness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a
condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an
internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to
the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a
mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms
part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national
language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means
pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our
self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and
ourselves
71
Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of
mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out
of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire
and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to
maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and
opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since
frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such
emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing
The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of
respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience
frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes
experience frustration are given a negative score
How often do you experience frustration
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
4 Suicidal Thoughts
Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in
life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a
mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten
non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is
72
therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by
suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma
Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its
complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the
awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the
effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being
Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who
commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action
Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing
leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that
even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the
basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get
rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates
that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your
problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of
afflictive emotion
According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist
painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and
suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive
living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and
the future for the better
Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with
elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le
73
Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The
most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese
psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure
to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts
occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive
emotions
Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has
never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while
respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall
the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings
Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide
1 Yes 2 No
Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that
affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the
distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become
known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative
emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and
divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction
The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states
and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees
74
ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out
in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and
selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the
immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates
that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon
those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides
evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to
know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as
policy must attend to it them
Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and
therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate
the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are
rooted in Buddhism
b Positive Emotions
The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the
negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity
calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to
oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages
replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative
concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive
indicators of psychological wellbeing
75
5 Generosity
Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In
Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter
Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains
that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it
brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive
virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental
development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves
and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence
which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms
generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as
an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for
oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the
collection of data
How often do you experience generosity
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should
frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH
3 See Chapter Three
76
society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does
not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part
of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary
service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not
get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in
the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological
wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH
6 Calmness
Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance
Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The
Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses
the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism
as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma
text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the
tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)
Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi
(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually
at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding
and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a
happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health
and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can
77
experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue
consistent with GNH ideals
The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of
data
How often do you experience calmness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH
society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be
linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well
7 Compassion
Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist
practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important
trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only
through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues
For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of
generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the
suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the
law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent
meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to
78
overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are
considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators
Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a
GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise
and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS
(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of
others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the
suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further
scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in
bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz
Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much
coherent with the GNH values
The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how
compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity
and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently
experience compassion to get the full GNH score
How often do you experience compassion
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity
have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the
79
potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to
the Buddhist practice of paramitas
43 Spiritual Practices
From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of
practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity
can hold negative emotions at bay
8 Frequency of Meditation
The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind
The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the
importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire
hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative
practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see
directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and
masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe
meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out
that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with
little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be
able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts
(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of
California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain
involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of
80
meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated
with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not
link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist
teachings
Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm
our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has
beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression
poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced
inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three
universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of
Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of
meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of
meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more
frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind
relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to
meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is
only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature
and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)
The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported
by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a
positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of
GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is
putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of
respondents regarding the practice of meditation
Do you practice meditation
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means
one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation
is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay
population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)
904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan
still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why
the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently
meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced
among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH
values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the
indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism
9 Prayer Recitation
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power
Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to
awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which
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literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy
like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken
once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is
thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra
literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002
p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the
truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the
blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter
ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being
Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good
vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength
compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In
Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship
between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the
great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding
effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and
right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell
peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate
while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one
close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and
concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The
83
Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of
meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)
explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the
mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile
reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming
its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of
breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the
energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The
practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist
In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to
local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil
forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone
Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned
earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism
emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with
polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which
worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans
national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent
in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices
but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform
rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under
Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other
84
deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs
invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk
2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper
valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old
tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now
considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture
The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays
daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score
Do you sayrecite prayers
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both
are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a
full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different
sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation
indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in
Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are
highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to
be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The
CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values
Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because
85
both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too
is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist
principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of
prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs
10 Taking account of Karma
As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides
the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of
ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has
influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being
morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily
life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result
depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing
non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma
conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to
avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions
bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of
causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life
The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as
daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH
score
86
Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily
basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state
According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes
and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a
clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real
reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)
serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping
each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a
GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy
society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist
principles and is consistent with GNH values
43 General Mental Health (GMH)
11 General Mental Health
The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of
depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators
under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists
87
of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to
concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the
respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with
lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-
15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some
mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)
The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should
not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score
The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health
status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect
wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase
susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)
From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of
confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)
points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own
physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have
the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health
problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own
ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress
thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist
teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus
4 A meditation technique
88
mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and
hatred
Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why
selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from
selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a
ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of
small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second
reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is
guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous
Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In
Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes
suffering
The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind
The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that
influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it
opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the
population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy
(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people
pursue happiness
44 Summary
The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
89
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following
The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration
suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an
afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through
which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism
frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result
of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views
leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus
arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what
Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others
thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a
result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to
the idea of self leads to mental stress
The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion
and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking
account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas
Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness
Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of
the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita
which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator
of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative
concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation
however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the
90
local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by
Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses
avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the
positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core
teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be
appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism
Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH
society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but
also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also
important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions
at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or
negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of
psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values
91
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS
From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the
preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the
philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal
importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without
spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops
and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to
measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises
72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate
all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in
guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The
purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are
To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect
Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does
reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and
survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo
study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist
principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by
this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of
happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most
92
The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for
people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index
measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people
Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators
reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles
related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to
happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a
basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only
worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which
can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative
concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to
the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace
must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the
happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the
outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind
that creates the cause for happiness or success
Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven
indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and
wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of
psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in
affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and
regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-
93
transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing
problems and solutions to the root causes
The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples
emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion
Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing
correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below
Indicators Buddhist Principles
1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity
6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices
7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance
8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration
9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration
10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics
11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and
suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the
three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and
94
deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly
selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness
is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-
self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I
through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term
gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary
immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism
are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the
problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these
negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress
The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion
calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the
replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous
action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself
and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect
psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly
related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the
psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with
the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and
calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by
Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political
ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in
Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-
95
term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term
happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived
from spiritual cultural and social values
This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and
cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and
happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the
mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as
Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that
Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH
Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and
conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically
strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not
contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the
inner conditions of ones own mind
Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make
better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be
considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan
Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy
community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than
those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)
By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as
necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for
developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing
96
thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-
material development is equally important as external material development
Recommendations for Future Studies
The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of
the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared
towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further
Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation
aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal
happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH
Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a
therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their
lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-
Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism
can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)
Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons
insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values
As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the
sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the
CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level
that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because
there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually
been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some
assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis
97
for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy
makers
This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected
Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing
were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of
emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only
recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire
notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but
does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective
solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity
compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the
term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity
One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from
an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have
not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid
misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced
This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar
study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further
investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the
GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the
emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the
real essence of human happiness
98
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107
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Tashi K P (2004) The Role of Buddhism in Achieving Gross National Happiness Proceeding of the First International Seminar on GNH (p483mdash495) Edited by Karma Ura and Karma Galey Centre for Bhutan Studies
The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary Retrieved from Dictionarycom website httpdictionarvreferencecombrowsefrustration
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Thinley Y J (2007) What does gross national happiness mean Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development- local pathway to global being St Francis Xavier University Antigonish Nova Scotia Canada in 2005 Retrieved from httpwwwgpiatlanticorgconferenceproceedingsthinleyhtm
Tourism Council of Bhutan (2008) Discover Bhutan-the travel magazine Thimphu Bhutan
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Wangchuk R (2005 April 19) Bonism and Shamanism an integral part of Bongop culture Kuenselonline Retrieved from httpwwwkuenselonlinecommodulesphpname=Newsampfile=printampsid=5318
108
Wangchuk JK (2008) Coronation Address of His Majesty King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuk Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomdefaultaspx
Wijeyawansa W L (2009) Buddhist Spectrum Buddhism and wealth Retrieved from httpwwwdailvnewslk2009ll24fea30asp
Williams DT (2008) Devil Talk Miltons Post-Modern Satan and his Disciples Touchstone A Journal of Mere Christianity 21(7) 24-27
Wolfe R Elder D(2007) Approaches to Policy Analysis Retrieved fromhttppostqueensuca~wolfer802MPAMPA802htm
Wright D S (2009) The Six Perfections Buddhism and Cultivation of Character Oxford University Press Retrieved from httpbooksgooglecabooksid=YeCAtSdxikYCampprintsec=frontcoverampdq=the+si x+perfections+of+buddhismampsource=blampots=WuFE9hRfJbampsig=nDnQTu6Gikc7Kd HgkcDiOODZ-aOamphl=enampei=fULzS53vOYqG9ASawpTNDwampsa=Xampoi=book resultampct=resultampre snum=8ampved=0CD8Q6AEwBwv=onepageampqampf=false
Zangmo T (2009) Womens contribution to Gross National Happiness A critical analysis of the role of Nuns and Nunneries in education and sustainable development in Bhutan Retrieved from httpproquestumicompqdwebindex=2ampsid=lampsrchmode=lampvinst=PRODampf mt=6ampstartpage=-lampclientid=10774ampvname=PQDampRQT=309ampdid-1800026961ampscaling=FULLampts= 1270154841ampvtvpe=PQDamprqt=309ampTS=1270154847ampclientld=10774
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109
Appendix 1
Gross National Happiness Index
Cultural Diversity
Psychological Wellbeing
Good Governance
Time Use
Health Education Ecology Living Standards
Commu nity Vitality
Jealousy
Selfishness s- Negative Emotions
Frustration
Suicidal Thoughts
Compassion
Positive Emotions Calmness
Generosity
Meditation
gt- Spiritual Practices Prayer Recitation
Taking account of Karma
General Health General Mental Health
110
Appendix 2
General Mental Health Questionnaire Ql During the last year would you describe your life as-
1 Very Stressful 2 Somewhat Stressful 3 Not At All Stressful 4 Dont Know
Q2 What are your main sources of stress
Q3 Been able to concentrate on what youre doing 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q4 Lost much sleep over worry 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q5 Felt you were playing a useful part in things
1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q6 Felt capable of making decisions about things 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q7 Felt constantly under strain 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual
111
4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q8 Felt you couldnt overcome your difficulties 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q9 Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Qll Been able to face up to your problems 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q12 Been feeling unhappy and depressed 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q13 Been losing confidence in yourself 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
014 Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q15 Been feeling reasonably happy all things considered 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual
112
4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Curriculum Vitae
Candidates full name Tashi Wangmo
Universities attended Maastricht School of Management The Netherlands 2007 Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management
Royal University of Bhutan Royal Institute of Management Thimphu Bhutan 2004 Post Graduate Certificate in Financial Management (PGCFM)
University of North Bengal Government College Daijeeling India 2000-2003 Bachelors of Commerce
University of New Brunswick Fredericton NB Canada 2008-2010 MPhil Policy Studies (Philosophy Politics and Economics)
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples
lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the
people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it
measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture
fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)
Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing
alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human
Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important
factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary
values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross
National Happiness
Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of
Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing
human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the
spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck
coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross
National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura
2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an
enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is
the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult
1
for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four
major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable
economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning
Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through
which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH
Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently
sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked
however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core
principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation
of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of
Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH
values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008
pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been
identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now
ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government
performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this
study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist
principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief
background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents
Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National
Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains
of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth
2
section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section
presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance
and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are
presented in the eighth section
11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture
Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central
Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square
kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two
leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most
isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are
smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)
farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population
945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the
population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was
estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost
entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea
level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau
2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry
of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity
Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)
The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by
Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique
3
philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and
traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme
Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than
Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of
every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed
that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)
This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority
25 SO Km
50 25
G r e a
S Gasa Ozong
Toogsa THIMPHU Paro
Tashigang
Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing
r~
BANGLADESH
Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)
4
12 Political History and Transition to Democracy
Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung
Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to
unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan
(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was
the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education
[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system
where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head
abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement
of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for
this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -
1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious
retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung
himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal
stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was
unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then
visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country
Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional
democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization
was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation
A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country
5
of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady
decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples
participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen
the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the
establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye
Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees
(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these
committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers
previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)
On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned
nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate
the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal
Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite
occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king
was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning
monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed
that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign
He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness
today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual
pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected
government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH
6
13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan
The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be
included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The
importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A
Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states
that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve
their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the
concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an
important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government
of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)
GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to
complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and
non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing
ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH
supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater
good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual
The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for
it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it
cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme
YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH
stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which
happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments
policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a
7
collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the
happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve
happiness
The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese
worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The
policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from
outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to
diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning
Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross
National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision
emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and
environmental conservation
14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index
Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese
government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and
equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural
preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have
constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to
as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism
and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the
government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt
the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot
8
guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators
were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural
resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality
ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness
are explained below
1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life
life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable
indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and
generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional
balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the
indicators under this domain
2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two
indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent
delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account
3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain
intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities
that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust
belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community
and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality
Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density
4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and
strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of
changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that
9
encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music
dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural
diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan
skill Value transmission and Basic precept
5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The
GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of
health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated
health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month
Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding
practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to
health
6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and
collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and
skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic
ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally
The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and
Folk and historical literacy
7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception
of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation
Ecological knowledge and Afforestation
8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the
individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and
10
house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food
security and Hardship
9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people
perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality
The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government
performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and
corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good
governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator
A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in
nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of
GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result
of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of
950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS
in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and
principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)
states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally
weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal
intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each
domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high
response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For
example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often
they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion
forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the
11
option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only
eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72
indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)
The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is
currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki
Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the
conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured
semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of
the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual
having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS
2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based
on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or
objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective
survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those
elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime
accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and
volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of
monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report
survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of
subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index
is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and
determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains
12
The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average
squared distance from cutoff
15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study
Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with
the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by
the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and
emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified
are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the
resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do
the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept
of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what
extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators
with the concept of GNH
Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be
most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the
indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I
choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health
living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional
economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development
Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been
included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of
13
psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it
would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators
16 Methodology
The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist
principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This
policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze
the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes
and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social
problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses
determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for
determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a
given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the
governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the
concept of GNH
Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social
lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most
important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not
to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH
indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First
the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will
determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is
14
a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As
such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced
the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and
Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study
attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist
influence which then might support the notion put forth by them
Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on
GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on
GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such
as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are
used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by
the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist
principles of happiness
The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to
overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a
conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an
inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key
principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be
discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma
principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical
basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas
An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope
15
and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will
serve as a basis for assessing the indicators
Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana
Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse
Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven
bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-
1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from
hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings
The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used
for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every
sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the
teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected
in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such
as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used
The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the
Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the
indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-
processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-
one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical
standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as
how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing
indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the
indicators are referred to for this study
16
17 Limitations and Significance of the study
There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study
focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH
indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives
Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the
indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles
and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous
Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of
Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche
Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the
indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country
As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the
GNH index are available
The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the
psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of
the GNH index are not discussed
Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons
First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study
that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism
This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in
studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of
GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be
an area of future research
17
Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the
government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH
index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the
design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of
the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is
important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be
distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine
whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept
18 Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at
Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy
The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the
methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter
Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how
the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been
influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to
each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the
development of the GNH index are also discussed
Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological
wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined
Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and
compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices
18
of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the
teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles
Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological
wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each
indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent
to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency
of the indicators with the concept of GNH
Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future
studies
19
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)
is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather
implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic
construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in
the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more
depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999
2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have
argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter
reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship
between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored
Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist
principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to
understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH
The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the
core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points
out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold
path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how
the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century
when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section
examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development
giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the
noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20
GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the
review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by
questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples
wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH
21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness
Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This
is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of
the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans
value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left
exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH
context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both
economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to
pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as
the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against
the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values
In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH
thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social
and cultural values
Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH
are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted
in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is
essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces
21
harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana
Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan
Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material
rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the
importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and
pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as
peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo
2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly
influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of
Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the
Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of
Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion
and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice
According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is
happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche
as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to
remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the
cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure
and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the
means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is
often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the
process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in
the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in
22
Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam
Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to
change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the
importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as
altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength
Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and
economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be
a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley
states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan
Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates
living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places
equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of
GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it
the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its
social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was
overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field
(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their
forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the
governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to
environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)
argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse
theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that
GNH is therefore a response to this realization
23
Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless
Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan
Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from
the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a
society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that
this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri
(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-
specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist
values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist
Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be
clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief
ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy
and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among
these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment
(Rinzin 2006)
1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation
Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of
happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our
happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical
environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the
uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in
the world
24
Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning
Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong
arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The
relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally
different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an
independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all
dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that
nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of
conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)
Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and
rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-
human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these
spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)
These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese
consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system
The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the
constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage
2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion
The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an
integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned
development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their
policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist
Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the
25
doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary
rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich
religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam
namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to
promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-
damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty
community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and
superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and
teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)
In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people
consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese
culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a
way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through
tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and
cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening
the Bhutanese culture and tradition
3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development
The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development
While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external
factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the
concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs
(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an
end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety
26
insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic
development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is
easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness
Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have
opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the
government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable
goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and
exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for
economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998
Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are
sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the
requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher
1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or
cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on
trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and
follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on
economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By
following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage
in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society
4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance
This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a
GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys
political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent
27
accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission
[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts
that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of
GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most
important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic
government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy
would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the
freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a
Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise
Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the
path to good governance that leads to GNH
Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006
states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig
and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional
Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people
Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which
encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right
Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right
Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese
judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws
(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2
Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right
Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip
28
(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10
Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as
cited by Powers 1995)
Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech
and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy
makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any
individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the
three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like
the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)
Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working
with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to
understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that
refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the
relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence
Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and
wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work
with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to
nurture and manifest these qualities
22 Evolution of the Concept
The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very
old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of
Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal
29
set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on
the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]
1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the
land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an
animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon
rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to
the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life
culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism
in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them
could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)
It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally
instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)
Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese
development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during
Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the
religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the
lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the
government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on
Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of
Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)
Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values
giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates
30
that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme
Y Thinley (2004) writes
Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)
Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the
country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)
Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or
postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were
no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life
expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was
considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged
mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the
land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were
self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based
on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of
the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)
Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable
social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first
explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The
National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty
of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15
31
1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early
1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE
1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not
voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister
expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link
Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid
increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless
Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the
Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several
thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions
began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between
the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade
route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the
following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of
discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources
and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards
development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural
preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of
modernization (Priesner 1999)
Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King
always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel
1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the
third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971
32
Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied
principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for
GNH
The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy
economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the
translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner
1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique
development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve
national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply
embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the
term Gross National Happiness was coined
23 GNH Discourses and Debates
The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by
the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His
keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many
scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore
the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister
Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for
GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main
ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there
were any at all
33
Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that
it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and
would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their
suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH
Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical
approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH
On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and
there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to
define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought
argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first
workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this
workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set
of Discussion Papers
After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH
Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from
February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept
of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be
operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused
largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien
(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI
which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health
livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference
discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a
34
potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic
security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any
definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference
was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on
happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop
the indicators of GNH in a later period
The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local
Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24
2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual
experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and
second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that
in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third
international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH
Index
The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused
on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the
importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in
developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference
Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index
The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)
was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase
which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current
situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators
35
psychology environment community relations education health living standard
governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the
indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the
missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be
used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the
methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human
progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners
The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation
for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the
international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government
realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH
(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are
framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH
values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-
day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level
Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business
establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is
believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company
functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the
dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a
revelation for Bhutan
On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed
his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the
36
education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH
infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a
road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles
into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in
the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state
that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum
Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many
schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)
Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and
concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very
practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot
through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of
measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions
24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness
Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that
takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations
Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index
(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross
National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the
overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI
health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing
to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the
37
philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)
president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators
of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of
Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will
provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)
In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley
(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people
perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well
into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)
argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing
economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known
about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived
experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae
that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people
Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in
revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of
policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will
enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking
GNH processes
Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble
philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not
do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)
There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human
38
happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness
of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its
policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National
Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently
quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely
wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing
Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always
remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if
they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness
(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese
government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National
Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase
25 Summary
This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of
Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding
of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged
in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is
influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life
the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional
Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way
39
of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality
and compassion are inherent in GNH
History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and
17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism
therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state
because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with
problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus
challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives
in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH
Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not
opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to
health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies
in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are
promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly
adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers
know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however
as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are
influenced by Buddhist principles
40
CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS
We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the
importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize
that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general
assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings
defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by
increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)
The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of
possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed
in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the
ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key
problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often
criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in
our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine
happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts
that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an
ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of
this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some
key Buddhist principles related to happiness
Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist
worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the
psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter
The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because
41
Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the
framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six
paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise
out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path
This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief
introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the
Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana
Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble
truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and
compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the
Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to
crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the
six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and
others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme
Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings
by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will
serve as sources for constructing this framework
31 Buddhist View of Happiness
Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers
worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the
concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the
notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is
42
commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of
practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly
influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no
creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)
The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread
ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha
was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The
lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism
chief among which is the pursuit of happiness
In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai
Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for
happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche
a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on
material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)
The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or
the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment
if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if
we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This
indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai
Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism
happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often
agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn
cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer
43
the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and
suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)
Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)
And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)
There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles
ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism
Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues
through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards
sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been
(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas
teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and
righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities
that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined
with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of
possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999
p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they
are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the
Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all
materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but
a cause of suffering
44
His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary
happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means
that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the
cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma
can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp
Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which
happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the
Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us
happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing
towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are
also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and
Bhutanese
32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles
321 The four noble truths
In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths
which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths
explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes
that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness
and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth
explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for
individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth
states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth
45
prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft
1997)
A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no
person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth
states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end
to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First
is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the
suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all
phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is
endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive
emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)
The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance
which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers
to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning
distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the
afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that
the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the
Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right
Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist
teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight
steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means
ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai
Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right
46
Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right
Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and
Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind
Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which
are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to
the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections
as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section
322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion
The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our
own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing
comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons
Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The
same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction
will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth
certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined
These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance
character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens
to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will
happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist
previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior
The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and
Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the
47
entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action
because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)
The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the
Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones
Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience
happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant
effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of
Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for
other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good
merit
Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma
Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions
motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-
- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right
actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either
oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy
our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of
not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)
Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content
The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of
interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually
an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and
48
everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007
Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is
composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states
that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or
five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is
made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental
formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)
(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates
and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent
self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume
that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all
interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we
do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of
themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create
happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but
also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships
The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a
compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits
all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai
Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all
Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is
normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is
49
through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all
humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world
Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can
develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is
through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and
wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense
also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of
interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist
worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness
which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines
33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework
This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana
Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century
text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six
practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are
1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti
Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita
(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way
for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life
through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are
methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The
first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and
concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities
50
However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay
people
The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following
statement
The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)
The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The
Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme
Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether
worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the
practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers
to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which
directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are
three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to
reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-
liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life
by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in
the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to
lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms
Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as
possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness
Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other
beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a
51
blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it
is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to
Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own
afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering
The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of
life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner
psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in
Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These
three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and
hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai
Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends
on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one
will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this
understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness
and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and
engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering
Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon
but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent
self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as
explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos
fourth verse states the following
Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside
52
the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)
The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the
body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to
live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus
comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai
Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing
emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses
that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how
Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are
ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and
mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to
oneself and to others
Figure 2 Suffering and its causes
53
Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will
receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in
the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and
the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states
that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six
practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training
and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six
paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is
represented by Figure 3 below
Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering
54
331 Generosity
Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic
mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In
the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states
If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be
practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and
giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means
overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily
giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure
for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya
(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are
five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and
admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and
will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in
return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue
bringing happiness to oneself and others
332 Ethics
The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue
Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble
Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality
55
of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never
having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for
Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body
speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by
our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions
killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed
malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond
to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh
language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will
wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous
actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and
cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy
greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous
behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically
become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th
verse Thogme Zangpo writes
If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve
happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For
example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will
56
be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of
avoiding harsh words
Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)
By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of
negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and
our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics
we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse
for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all
goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for
progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the
path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and
mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in
training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our
actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness
333 Patience and Tolerance
The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of
patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of
patience
For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)
57
Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are
challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative
thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive
emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our
heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance
and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was
deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him
Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally
attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the
strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and
this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain
inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness
334 Perseverance
The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance
It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working
hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states
Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)
Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on
ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from
58
suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability
Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal
The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard
failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and
affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve
happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at
all times
335 Meditative Concentration
The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana
Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and
overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices
of Bodhisattva is on meditation
At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six
realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in
comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a
human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating
day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings
2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma
59
can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind
because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi
(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering
and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving
happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative
concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We
stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in
everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and
misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility
Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us
directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states
Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
336 Wisdom
The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit
Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness
Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be
disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other
practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out
If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)
60
Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron
Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our
habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the
ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of
ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble
paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three
poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and
unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost
clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence
Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the
attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness
(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of
reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with
joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism
34 Summary
Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and
hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to
various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material
wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is
only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be
happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The
mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as
61
cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three
poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience
inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of
attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear
and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus
accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third
(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting
rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and
achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart
Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses
more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being
compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness
generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can
reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others
62
CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING
INDICATORS
People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of
effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must
be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the
GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators
Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness
Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental
Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially
destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of
practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to
what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of
happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This
chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect
Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter
Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH
This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the
meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights
similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on
the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections
analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad
categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The
chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings
63
41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures
Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons
mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The
measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country
pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall
wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions
that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a
persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life
(p40)
From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist
teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly
holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or
happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective
experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness
(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes
all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi
1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences
As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind
this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to
wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that
Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman
Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike
64
believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that
they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions
The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the
self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that
self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying
emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists
who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety
are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp
Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of
negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata
2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes
both positive and negative emotions
Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A
sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the
sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off
point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full
score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient
achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any
respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National
Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from
sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is
sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the
GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method
65
is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who
are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much
information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From
the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut
off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises
questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency
cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it
based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results
42 Emotional Balance
The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of
emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative
emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or
feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the
seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and
suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and
compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary
influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information
about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors
contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)
Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own
there are causal factors associated with them
66
Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition
therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the
Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary
consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates
merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of
mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and
secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists
fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under
the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses
a Negative Emotion
Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of
ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions
These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around
us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others
succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action
All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical
action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning
distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness
frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The
four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive
regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly
considered negative under the GNH index
67
1 Jealousy
Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris
(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival
poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important
relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text
classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is
defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as
their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their
accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we
receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment
Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what
jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments
envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the
element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that
envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy
is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work
fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead
to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has
strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)
In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy
Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and
envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and
68
happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a
GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our
peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous
of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values
Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of
emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety
sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and
betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to
achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since
jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate
that it be an indicator of GNH
In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the
respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that
respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or
expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as
non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency
cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles
How often do you experience jealousy
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
69
2 Selfishness
The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of
craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and
greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi
1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and
appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)
states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)
Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe
zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively
Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As
explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential
principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one
of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a
rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your
wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that
Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In
particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-
centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the
ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to
Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness
Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms
70
Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is
opposed to the GNH values
Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following
question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a
person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that
selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH
index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait
How often do you experience selfishness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a
condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an
internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to
the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a
mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms
part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national
language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means
pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our
self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and
ourselves
71
Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of
mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out
of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire
and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to
maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and
opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since
frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such
emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing
The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of
respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience
frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes
experience frustration are given a negative score
How often do you experience frustration
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
4 Suicidal Thoughts
Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in
life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a
mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten
non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is
72
therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by
suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma
Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its
complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the
awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the
effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being
Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who
commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action
Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing
leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that
even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the
basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get
rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates
that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your
problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of
afflictive emotion
According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist
painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and
suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive
living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and
the future for the better
Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with
elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le
73
Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The
most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese
psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure
to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts
occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive
emotions
Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a
negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has
never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while
respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall
the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings
Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide
1 Yes 2 No
Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that
affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the
distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become
known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative
emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and
divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction
The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states
and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees
74
ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out
in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and
selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the
immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates
that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon
those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides
evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to
know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as
policy must attend to it them
Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and
therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate
the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are
rooted in Buddhism
b Positive Emotions
The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the
negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity
calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to
oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages
replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative
concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive
indicators of psychological wellbeing
75
5 Generosity
Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In
Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter
Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains
that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it
brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive
virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental
development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves
and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence
which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms
generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as
an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for
oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the
collection of data
How often do you experience generosity
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should
frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH
3 See Chapter Three
76
society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does
not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part
of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary
service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not
get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in
the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological
wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH
6 Calmness
Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance
Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The
Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses
the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism
as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and
difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma
text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the
tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)
Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi
(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually
at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding
and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a
happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health
and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can
77
experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue
consistent with GNH ideals
The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of
data
How often do you experience calmness
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH
society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be
linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well
7 Compassion
Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist
practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important
trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only
through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues
For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of
generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the
suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the
law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent
meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to
78
overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are
considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators
Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a
GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise
and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS
(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of
others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the
suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further
scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in
bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz
Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much
coherent with the GNH values
The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how
compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity
and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently
experience compassion to get the full GNH score
How often do you experience compassion
1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never
Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity
have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the
79
potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to
the Buddhist practice of paramitas
43 Spiritual Practices
From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of
practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity
can hold negative emotions at bay
8 Frequency of Meditation
The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind
The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the
importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire
hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative
practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see
directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and
masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe
meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out
that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with
little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be
able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts
(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of
California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain
involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of
80
meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated
with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not
link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist
teachings
Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm
our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has
beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression
poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced
inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three
universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of
Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of
meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of
meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more
frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind
relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to
meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is
only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature
and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)
The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported
by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a
positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of
GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is
putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of
respondents regarding the practice of meditation
Do you practice meditation
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means
one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation
is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay
population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)
904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan
still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why
the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently
meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced
among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH
values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the
indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism
9 Prayer Recitation
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power
Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to
awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which
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literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy
like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken
once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is
thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra
literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002
p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the
truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the
blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter
ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being
Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good
vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength
compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)
A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In
Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship
between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the
great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding
effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and
right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell
peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate
while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one
close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and
concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The
83
Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of
meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)
explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the
mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile
reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming
its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of
breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the
energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The
practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist
In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to
local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil
forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone
Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned
earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism
emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with
polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which
worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans
national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent
in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices
but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform
rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under
Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other
84
deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs
invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk
2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper
valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old
tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now
considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture
The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays
daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score
Do you sayrecite prayers
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both
are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a
full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different
sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation
indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in
Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are
highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to
be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The
CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values
Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because
85
both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too
is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist
principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of
prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs
10 Taking account of Karma
As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides
the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of
ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has
influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being
morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily
life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result
depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing
non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma
conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to
avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions
bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of
causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life
The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as
daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH
score
86
Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life
1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all
Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies
For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily
basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state
According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes
and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a
clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real
reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)
serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping
each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a
GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy
society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist
principles and is consistent with GNH values
43 General Mental Health (GMH)
11 General Mental Health
The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of
depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators
under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists
87
of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to
concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the
respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with
lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-
15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some
mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)
The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should
not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score
The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health
status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect
wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase
susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)
From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of
confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)
points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own
physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have
the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health
problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own
ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress
thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist
teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus
4 A meditation technique
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mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and
hatred
Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why
selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from
selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a
ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of
small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second
reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is
guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous
Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In
Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes
suffering
The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind
The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that
influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it
opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the
population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy
(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people
pursue happiness
44 Summary
The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
89
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following
The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration
suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an
afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through
which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism
frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result
of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views
leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus
arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what
Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others
thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a
result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to
the idea of self leads to mental stress
The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion
and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking
account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas
Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness
Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of
the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita
which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator
of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative
concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation
however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the
90
local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by
Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses
avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the
positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core
teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be
appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism
Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH
society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but
also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also
important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions
at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or
negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of
psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values
91
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS
From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the
preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the
philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal
importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without
spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops
and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to
measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises
72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate
all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in
guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The
purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the
psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with
the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are
To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect
Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does
reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and
survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo
study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist
principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by
this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of
happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most
92
The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for
people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index
measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people
Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators
reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles
related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to
happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a
basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only
worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which
can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative
concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to
the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace
must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the
happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the
outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind
that creates the cause for happiness or success
Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven
indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and
wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of
psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in
affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and
regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-
93
transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing
problems and solutions to the root causes
The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples
emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion
Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing
correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of
psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below
Indicators Buddhist Principles
1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous
5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity
6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices
7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance
8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration
9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration
10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics
11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress
Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism
The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and
suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the
three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and
94
deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly
selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness
is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-
self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I
through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term
gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary
immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism
are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the
problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these
negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress
The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion
calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the
replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous
action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself
and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect
psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly
related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the
psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with
the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and
calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by
Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political
ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in
Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-
95
term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term
happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived
from spiritual cultural and social values
This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and
cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and
happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the
mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as
Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that
Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH
Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and
conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically
strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not
contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the
inner conditions of ones own mind
Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make
better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be
considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan
Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy
community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than
those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)
By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as
necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for
developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing
96
thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-
material development is equally important as external material development
Recommendations for Future Studies
The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of
the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared
towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further
Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation
aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal
happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH
Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a
therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their
lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-
Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism
can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)
Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons
insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values
As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the
sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the
CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level
that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because
there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually
been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some
assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis
97
for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy
makers
This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected
Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing
were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of
emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only
recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire
notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but
does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective
solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity
compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the
term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity
One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from
an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have
not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid
misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced
This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar
study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further
investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the
GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the
emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the
real essence of human happiness
98
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109
Appendix 1
Gross National Happiness Index
Cultural Diversity
Psychological Wellbeing
Good Governance
Time Use
Health Education Ecology Living Standards
Commu nity Vitality
Jealousy
Selfishness s- Negative Emotions
Frustration
Suicidal Thoughts
Compassion
Positive Emotions Calmness
Generosity
Meditation
gt- Spiritual Practices Prayer Recitation
Taking account of Karma
General Health General Mental Health
110
Appendix 2
General Mental Health Questionnaire Ql During the last year would you describe your life as-
1 Very Stressful 2 Somewhat Stressful 3 Not At All Stressful 4 Dont Know
Q2 What are your main sources of stress
Q3 Been able to concentrate on what youre doing 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q4 Lost much sleep over worry 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q5 Felt you were playing a useful part in things
1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q6 Felt capable of making decisions about things 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q7 Felt constantly under strain 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual
111
4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q8 Felt you couldnt overcome your difficulties 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q9 Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Qll Been able to face up to your problems 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual 4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Q12 Been feeling unhappy and depressed 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q13 Been losing confidence in yourself 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
014 Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person 1 Not At All 2 No More Than usual 3 Rather more Than Usual 4 Much More Than usual 5 Dont Know
Q15 Been feeling reasonably happy all things considered 1 More Than Usual 2 Same As usual 3 Less Than usual
112
4 Much less Than Usual 5 Dont Know
Curriculum Vitae
Candidates full name Tashi Wangmo
Universities attended Maastricht School of Management The Netherlands 2007 Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management
Royal University of Bhutan Royal Institute of Management Thimphu Bhutan 2004 Post Graduate Certificate in Financial Management (PGCFM)
University of North Bengal Government College Daijeeling India 2000-2003 Bachelors of Commerce
University of New Brunswick Fredericton NB Canada 2008-2010 MPhil Policy Studies (Philosophy Politics and Economics)
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