ac dc loadflow
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AC-DC LOADFLOW
INTRODUCTION
• HVDC is accepted as an economical alternative to ac transmission.
• Used in Underground, submarine, long distant transmissions• Also for interconnecting networks under different
frequencies.• This extensive application demands modelling techiques for
planning purposes.• The basic ac load flow is substantially modified to incorporate
the DC variables.• Thus there are single phase and three phase algorithms.
SOLUTIONS
• Done in Fast Decoupled Method• Sequential solution techniques.
AC and DC eqns are solved separately.For AC solution, converter stations are
represented as real & reactive Power sources.For DC soln, AC systems are represented as a
constant voltage source.These are cross substituted until the convergence
is satisfied.
AC-DC LOAD FLOW
The operating state of the combined AC-HVDC power system is defined by the vector,
where• v is a vector of the voltage magnitudes at all a.c.
system bus bars,• θ is a vector of the angles at all a.c. system bus bars
(except the reference bus which is assigned θ = 0) • x is a vector of d.c. variables
AC system eqns are derived from the ac operating conditions with modification required to real & reactive power mismatches at converter terminal bus bar.
where
• Equations derived from ac system conditions
(mismatches at converter terminal bus bars are indicated separately)
• Eqns from dc system conditions
• General AC-DC load flow problem is as
‘term’ refers to converter ac terminal bus bar
Formulation of ac-dc load flow equation based on NR algorithm
Δθ Δθterm
= [ J ] ΔV ΔVterm
Δx
J is the matrix of first order partial derivatives ΔPterm =
ΔQterm=
Modeling of HVDC systems
The representation of the dc systems requires consideration of the following:
• Converter model• DC transmission line/network model• Interface between ac and dc systems• DC system controls model
DC SYSTEM MODEL
Assumptions before selection of and formulation of eqns:• The three a.c. voltages at the terminal bus bar are balanced
and sinusoidal.• The converter operation is perfectly balanced (small voltage
drop is neglected).• The direct current and voltage are smooth.• The converter transformer is lossless and the magnetising
admittance is ignored.
Selection of Converter Variables
• Similar bridges connected to same AC terminal busbars operate identically.
Single phase equivalent circuit
DC variables• Min no. of variables is the no. of independent variables by
which any other system parameter (eg: Pdc & Qdc) can be expressed.
• The set of independent variables which is required to define the operation of the converter (i.e to model the DC system) and to define the control specification of the HVDC converter are given by
[ x ]=[Vd, Id, a, cosα, ø]T
dc per system Use common power and voltage base parameters on both
sides of the converter, i.e. the a.c. and d.c. sides for simplicity.
To preserve consistency of power in per unit, the direct current base, obtained from (MVAB)/VB has to be √3 times larger than the a.c. current base.
In pu the eqn is,
K=0.995
Equations describing the DC system are given as , 1.The fundamental current magnitude on the converter
side is related to the direct current by
2.The fundamental current magnitudes on both sides of the lossless transformer are related by the off-nominal tap,
3. The d.c. voltage may be expressed in terms of the bus bar voltage on the system side of the converter transformer, Vterm
4. The d.c. current and voltage are related by the d.c. system configuration
5. Real power equation relates dc power to transformer primary real power and secondary real power (lossless transformer)
Eqn 1,2&5 can be combined to give
The equations for Pdc and Qdc may now be written as
i.eReal power injection into the ac bus is P=Vd Id=Pdc
Reactive power injection into the ac bus is Q = P tanø
• DC system model can be summarized as follows k - no of converters present
R is the vector of DC system equations and x is the
vector of independent variables for dc system
Incorporating control Equations
At each converter, the angle ‘α’ and the transformer tap ‘a’ can be controlled with in limits to achieve
current control, dc voltage control, real & reactive power control.
Limits on the control variables must be considered when specifying Id, Vd, Pd , Qd
Each additional converter in the d.c. system contributes two further constraint equations which must be derived from the control strategy of the system to define the operating state.
Inversion operation
• All eqns for rectifier are also applicable to inverter.• Due to unidirectional nature of converter valves power
reversal requires direct voltage polarity reversal –achieved by delay angle control i.e α>900 (average inverter voltage will be negative)
• Inverter voltage in terms of extinction angle is
AC-DC LOAD FLOW
The operating state of the combined AC-HVDC power system is defined by the vector,
where• v is a vector of the voltage magnitudes at all a.c.
system bus bars,• θ is a vector of the angles at all a.c. system bus bars
(except the reference bus which is assigned θ = 0) • x is a vector of d.c. variables
AC system eqns are derived from the ac operating conditions with modification required to real & reactive power mismatches at converter terminal bus bar.
where
• Equations derived from ac system conditions
(mismatches at converter terminal bus bars are indicated separately)
• Eqns from dc system conditions
Formulation of ac-dc load flow equation based on NR algorithm
Δθ Δθterm
= [ J ] ΔV ΔVterm
Δx
J is the matrix of first order partial derivatives ΔPterm =
ΔQterm=
• Applying the ac fast decoupled assumptions to all jacobian elements related to ac system eqns gives
Solution of AC-DC power flow
The solution methodology for AC-DC power flow can be classified as
1. Simultaneous or unified2. Sequential or alternating
Simultaneous method• In the first approach the AC & DC eqns are solved
simultaneously.
• The matrices [B’] & [B’’] are usual single phase FD jacobians and are constant in value.
• The jacobian element related to dc variables are non constant and must be reevaluated at each iteration.
Sequential Solution• In the second approach, the AC and DC system equations are
solved separately and sequentially.
• The AC system is solved to some degree of convergence using a simple model for the DC system based on its last solution.
• The DC system is then solved using a simplified representation of the AC system.
Flowchart
Convergence criterion
The normal criterion for convergence in ac load flow is that the bus bar power mismatches should be small,
i.e ΔPi < ε for all PV &PQ bus bars
ΔQi < ε for all PQ bus bars
where ε=1MW/MVAR =0.1 MW/MVAR
DC convergence tolerance
• General eqn is
• An acceptable p.u tolerance for the d.c residuals (d.c. powers, voltages and currents) is typically 0.001 p.u on a 100MVA base, i.e. the same as that normally adopted for the ac system.
Multiterminal d.c system
• Each additional converter adds a further 5 variables and a set of 5 equations to the basic algorithm developed for single converter.
• Jacobian elements in the a.c system corresponding to the converter terminal bus bar gets modified in the solution
consider the multiterminal dc system shown in fig
Real power - dc jacobian in the unified method has the structure shown
ΔP/V Δθ ΔPterm1/Vterm1 Δθterm1 . . . .
ΔPterm6/Vterm6 = [J] Δ θterm6 ΔR1 ΔX1 . ΔR6 ΔX6
Reactive power - dc jacobian in the unified method has the structure shown
ΔQ/V ΔV ΔQterm1/Vterm1 ΔVterm1 . . . .
ΔQterm6/Vterm6 = [J] Δ Vterm6 ΔR1 ΔX1 . ΔR6 ΔX6
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