a primer in enlightenment philosophy greek philosophy: ideal society italian renaissance: pragmatic...

A Primer in Enlightenment Philosophy

• Greek Philosophy: Ideal Society• Italian Renaissance: Pragmatic Society• Protestant Reformation: Mass Society• The Enlightenment: Science and Society

This presentation describes the key philosophical perspectives of ancient Greek society, the Italian Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and the Enlightenment.

In simplistic terms, these perspectives are:

Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society

Socrates (470 B.C. to 399 B.C.)

Socratic Method

• Solve problems by answering a series of questions aimed at eliminating incorrect assumptions and ineffective solutions.

• This “negative” method underlies the contemporary process of positing and rejecting hypotheses.

Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society

Socrates (470 B.C. to 399 B.C.)

Metaphysics

• Belief in immortality of the soul.People should be concerned with the “welfare of their souls” rather than with material possessions and worldly success.

• This idealist perspective strongly influenced Enlightenment philosophy.

Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society

Socrates (470 B.C. to 399 B.C.)

Knowledge

• True knowledge is that which is gained beyond the senses. The invisible world is the most intelligible. Physical events are “shadows” of their real existence.

• The material and spiritual are in inherent conflict and are irreconciliable (see: dialectic) .

Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society

Socrates (470 B.C. to 399 B.C.)

Allegory of the Cave (as told by Plato)

• Lifelong prisoners in a cave see only the shadows of events in the real world cast upon the wall of the cave they face.

• A prisoner who was released to see the real world would have difficulty convincing the other prisoners of this reality.

Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society

Socrates (470 B.C. to 399 B.C.)

Lessons of the Cave Allegory:

1. Constantly challenge what we consider to be reality.

2. Think dialectically (idea, counter-idea, new idea).

3. Rely upon reasoning over “false” material indications of reality.

Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society

Plato (424 B.C. to 328 B.C.)

Knowledge

• If knowledge is gained only fromexperience, then because the world is in constant flux, this knowledge is mere opinion.

• Knowledge gained through abstract reasoning has more lasting appeal.

• The importance of abstract theorizing.

Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society

Plato (424 B.C. to 328 B.C.)

Social Structure

• Society is best ruled by the few.• These “philosopher kings” have

expertise and “love the truth.”• Society must be diversified to include

farmers, merchants, craftsmen, etc.

• The importance of the elite, even within a democracy.

Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society

Aristotle (384 B.C. to 322 B.C.)

The Logic of Science

• Synthesis of philosophy andscience. Using induction from basic elements to discover reality.

• Development of logic to understand reality and arrive at sound conclusions.

Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society

Aristotle (384 B.C. to 322 B.C.)

Four Types of Causes

1. Material: Basic elements of theevent or condition.

2. Formal: Fundamental principles or general laws.

3. Efficient: The “independent variable” of cause. That which causes something.

4. Final: The purpose or goal of an event.

Greek Philosophy: The Ideal Society

Summary

• The use of pure reason.• Creation of ideal societies.• Search for absolute truth.• No interest in observations and testing of

hypotheses as we describe these processes today.

• Plato: “Deduction” from laws.• Aristotle: “Induction” from events.

Italian Renaissance: Pragmatism

Nicollo Machiavelli (1469-1527)

The Prince

• “How to” book for the dictator.• Pragmatic, ruthless, strategic.• Demonstrated the practical,

everyday reality of governing a large, complex (authoritarian) society.

• Society as it really is.

Protestant Reformation: Mass Society

Martin Luther (1497-1546)

Social Structure

• Power (interpretation of the bible) to the people!

• Importance of:• mass education,• critical thinking, and• the active citizen.

Protestant Reformation: Mass Society

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Social Structure

• Social order is created by humans.

• Therefore, they can change it.

• Without government, society would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short!

Protestant Reformation: Mass Society

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

• Society as an organism of interdependent parts, each working for the benefit of the whole.

• Importance of observation of the patterns of human behavior.

Protestant Reformation: Mass Society

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

• Three sources of conflict:1. Scarce resources,2. Distrust of others, and3. Desire for self glory.

• Everyone needs a certain amount of power to pursue desires and avoid fears.

• Thus, humans must find a way to maintain peace and social order.

Protestant Reformation: Mass Society

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

• People will be willing to give up individual liberties to maintain peace.

• People need order.

• The “social contract” is an agreement to obey the laws.

• But, human nature will not allow this to happen!

• Thus, the need for authoritarian government.

Protestant Reformation: Mass Society

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

• The Leviathan, or strong central government, will channel passion into effective action.

• Government should derive from human beings, not some divine sense of purpose (theocracy) or birthright (aristocracy).

• Hobbes was considered to be very liberal.

The Enlightenment

John Locke (1632-1704)

• Well educated, Puritan family.• Became interested in the “new

science.”• Emphasized individual rights.

• Agreed with Hobbes about the rise of government, but thought that God was the prime factor in politics.

• People are born with God-given rights.

The Enlightenment

John Locke (1632-1704)

• People were rewarded based upon their industriousness.

• But, people should not accumulate too much money.

• Otherwise, society could become a horrible place.

• People need a sense of order.• How to achieve order while maximizing

individual liberties?

The Enlightenment

John Locke (1632-1704)

• God’s law created a moral imperative that prevented humans from pursuing a free-for-all.

• People accepted government out of a sense of convenience and the need for protection.

• People give up rights to a protective government.

The Enlightenment

John Locke (1632-1704)

• People came before and created government.

• Individual freedom!• Private property!

• Individual freedom is the foundation of modern liberal democracy.

• Because property was God-given, people should leave enough for all to have some.

The Enlightenment

John Locke (1632-1704)

• The contract society was composed of persons with property.

• The “trustee government” protected those with property.

• Importance of the separation of church and state.

• Let God judge, not zealots!

The Enlightenment

John Locke (1632-1704)

• Thus, God gives us rights and moral imperatives to create a society for the benefit of individuals.

• Individuals, however, should not interpret God’s will.

• Let the law of the land govern people, under the guidance of God’s moral imperatives.

The Enlightenment

Jean Rousseau (1712-1778)

• Son of an academic elite.• The Social Contract• Nature ordained that all men

are equal and that the State is responsible for public order.

• People are equal and have the same goals.• No person is above the law.• Limited power of rulers.

The Enlightenment

Jean Rousseau (1712-1778)

• Champion of a democratic society.

• The noble savage: Once man became self-conscious, society began to decline.

• With human pride comes divorce from nature.

• Man must now agree to create laws, equally formed by and binding to all.

The Enlightenment

• The “Enlightenment” refers to writings in Western Europe and the American Colonies during the Eighteen century.

• The central theme was to create the perfect society here on Earth.

• Rejection of Aristocracy and Theocracy.• Liberal individualism: meaning critical

reasoning and opposition to traditional authority.

The Enlightenment

• The power of human reason (critical thinking).

• The importance of science (observation).• Progress through knowledge.• Explore new ideas, think for yourself, value

of education and practical knowledge.• Kant, Hume, Franklin, Jefferson.

The Conservative Reaction

• The need to maintain order.• The importance of the state.• Louis de Bonald: Return to medieval rule.• Emphasis on:

1. Society as an organic unity.2. Society is superior to individuals.3. Individuals are abstractions.4. The parts of society are interdependent.

The Conservative Reaction

• Emphasis on:5. Institutions are positive entities.6. Institutions are functional.7. Small groups are essential.8. Preserve religious institutions.9. People need ritual, tradition, worship.10. Status and hierarchy are essential to

society.

The Revolutions

Political Revolution• The Age of Reason (Enlightenment).American Revolution• Individual freedom, democracy.French Revolution• Fall of the aristocracy.• Fall of anarchy!Industrial Revolution• Increase in productivity.• Urbanization.

The Conservative Reaction

Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825)

• Born into the aristocracy.• Possible to discover the

structure of society and its laws.• Reliance upon natural sciences.

• Observation of patterns was essential.• Look for “organic structure” of society.• Create a science of social organization.

The Conservative Reaction

Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825)

• Methodology:1. Observe patterns.2. Patterns will disclose laws.3. Laws can be used to build

the good society.

• The study of society should be based upon the principles of science (see: Newton).

The Conservative Reaction

Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825)

• Social order through science.• The rule of science as a

“religious force.”• Humanistic approach to social

order.

• Need for order, discipline, and material productivity.

The Conservative Reaction

Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825)

• Society would be controlled by:1. Qualified experts.2. Persons of position.

• The Planned society.

• The common people could not grasp the needs of an advanced society.

• Everyone must work and be productive.

Summary

• The need to maintain order versus the rights of the individual.

• The power of ideas versus the power of material conditions.

• The importance of reason versus (and) the importance of observations.

• We can have a science of society.• We can have a planned society.