a comparison between male and female in their willingness to
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International Journal of Educational Investigations
Available online @ www.ijeionline.com
Vol.2, No.4: 70-81, 2015 (April)
ISSN: 2410-3446
70
A Comparison between Male and Female in their Willingness to
Communicate and Use of Socio-affective Strategies
Zahra Jamaleddin 1*
1. Department of English, Maybod Branch, Islamic Azad University, Maybod, Yazd, Iran
* Corresponding Author’s Email: zizijamali@yahoo.com
Abstract – Willingness to communicate shows anyone's wish and tendency to commence
communicating. On the other hand, socio-affective strategies are used when people want to
interact with others and face some problems. The aim of this article was twofold. The first
aim was to investigate if there was any difference in willingness to communicate between
Iranian male and female undergraduate foreign language learners at Shiraz Azad University
during the academic year of 2014-2015. The second aim was to distinguish the frequency of
socio-affective strategies used by Iranian undergraduate students based on their gender. To
this end, 50 undergraduate students (25 males and 25 females) were selected randomly and
given the willingness to communicate questionnaire developed by MacIntyre et al. (2001)
and also Oxford's strategy classification system (1990) that includes questions about the use
of the strategies. The range of their age was 22 in both males and females. To analyze the
result of the socio-affective strategies use frequencies were counted. The result indicated that
although there were some similarities and differences between males and females while using
socio--affective strategies, the differences were more in social strategies than affective ones.
After gathering the data from the questionnaires and calculating the means of the two groups,
we selected an Independent-sample T Test to compute the significant difference between the
two groups. We also measured the effect size to prove the magnitude of the difference, that
is, meaningfulness of the data. The result revealed that males had more tendency in
communication than females.
Keywords: willingness to communicate; socio-affective strategies
I. INTRODUCTION
Willingness to communicate (hereafter WTC) was developed in L1 communication
by McCroskey and his colleagues (McCroskey, 1992; McCroskey and Richamond, 1986) and
then MacIntyre and Charos (1996) applied it to L2 communication (cited in Yashima, 2002,
p. 54). In second language acquisition, WTC is defined as second or foreign language
learners’ inclination to communicate in second language situations: in other words, it is
defined as a learner's "readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific
person or persons, using a[n] L2" (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547). MacIntyre et al. (1998,
p.547) state that communication behaviors have a wide meaning and can be in form of
"speaking up in class, reading L2 newspapers, watching L2 television or utilizing a[n] L2 on
the job". They continued that most language teachers are not able to establish some chances
for L2 communication if the final end of learning process of a language is to create in
language learners' tendency to look for ways to communicate. Many believe that the two
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most effective factors in the process of learning a second or foreign language are motivation
and proficiency. But research has shown that in real occasions, outsides the classroom, these
two factors are not enough and the learners have to take part in the discourse and take
initiative to talk, too. As Dörnyei (2003) points out competence in the l2 may not be enough
(cited in Barjasteh, 2012). There are a lot of important issues that postpone communication
such as anxiety, lack of motivation, confidence, and self-efficacy. But some believe that
social and cultural issues are more important than psychological factors (Hamzehnejad and
Shariati, 2014). Some variables such as gender, attitude also have a great role in WTC.
Contextual variables such as time, place of communication and the participants taking part in
discourse affect how willing the learners are to communicate. (Mehrgan, 2013). Zarrinabadi
(2014) argued teachers’ ‘role on learners’ WTC in an Iranian setting changed the degree of
WTC. He believed teachers’ error correction, wait time, decision on the topic, and support
affect learners’ WTC. New approaches put emphasis on communicative competence and
force the learners to communicate in the target language. Communicative methods apply
conceptual models of WTC and try to involve the learners in interpersonal purposes because
being proficient and competent is not the goal of learning a second language but a means to
engage learners in discourse and communication (Mehrgan, 2013). Nowadays WTC has
become an area of research. Yashima (2004) has conducted research to find the relationship
between some variables such as proficiency, attitudes, motivation, L2 communication
confidence, and Japanese learners’ WTC in English. Attitudes towards intercultural
communication influenced WTC. The learners who were internationally oriented, they had
more trend to communicate in target language. These learners were more motivated to study
the target language and this motivation led to competency and confidence in target language
communication. This confidence had a powerful impact on WTC in the target language.
These results were in line with conceptual model of MacIntyre et al. (1998) that revealed
learner’s self-confidence was more important factor than communicative competence in
influencing WTC (Yashima, 2004). Zarrinabadi and Abdi (2011) investigated the relationship
between Iranian EFL learners’ WTC inside and outside the classroom and their language
learning orientation. The data showed that the language orientation was correlated with WTC
outside than inside the classroom. So this fact shows that teachers should emphasize the
communication and authentic language use .WTC varies according to topic, context and
interlocutors so it is not a stable characteristic. Some have conducted research to prove this
fact. Cameron (2013) selected 3 participants at New Zealand University who were permanent
migrants from Iran. They completed a questionnaire and took part in in-depth semi structured
interviews. The findings showed that some elements could contribute to WTC a lot. These
elements included personality, motivation, anxiety, learning context and the role of the
teacher. All these elements had changed for the participants because of two different teaching
environments with different teaching goals. This study was going to have a comparison, in an
Iranian setting, between males and females in WTC, an affective variable.
A. Socio-affective Strategies
Strategies are effective ways and plans that people use to achieve particular purposes.
Socio-affective strategies are connected with the society and emotions used by learners "as
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commonly accepted socio-affective strategies are strategies that help learners regulate and
control emotions, motivations, and attitudes towards learning as well as help learners learn
through contact and interaction with others" (O’Mally and Chamot 1990, cited in Chou ,
2004). Lacina (2001) argued in countries that the fashionable approach is student centered,
the class is active and dynamic to learning and teaching. So the learners achieve the goal of
teaching that is communication and discussion and it happens naturally. She contrasted the
Asian classrooms such as Korean and Japanese with the United Stated that the Asian students
are inclined in teacher-centered lectures and are not willing to initiate speaking directly. If the
teachers do not inform the learners why they have to carry out particular tasks, it can lead to
high anxiety and low motivation, and consequently to lower WTC. The teachers should
repeatedly mention why taking part in classroom discourse is essential to the students.
Therefore language teachers and learners especially Asian ones should pay much attention to
these strategies and learn how to use them. In this way they increase learners’ ability to use
the target language and help them to get involved in the classroom activities (Chou, 2004). If
the Asian learners know the power of socio-affective strategies and try to apply them, this
improves and promotes their language competence. There are some recommendations by
Chamot (1999) that the teachers and learners can follow. (1) It is necessary for the teachers to
distinguish learners’ level of use, for example, by some checklist. (2)The teachers can explain
these strategies and their usages. (3) Asian learners should learn to collaborate with their
classmates. (4) The teachers should give some opportunities to the students to assess the
effect of these socio-affective strategies.(5)These strategies can help learners become
autonomous learners so that they can use them even outside the classrooms (Chamot, 1999
cited in Chou, 2004). This paper made endeavors to distinguish which different socio-
affective strategies were used by males and females undergraduate foreign language learners.
B. Research Questions
1. Is there any significant difference between Iranian male and female of foreign language
learners in their willingness to communicate?
2. Is there any difference in the frequency of socio-affective strategies use of Iranian foreign
language learners based on their gender?
II. METHODOLOGY
A. Participants
The participants were 50 undergraduate students (25 males and 25 females) who were
majoring in English Teaching and Translation at Shiraz Azad University that were selected
randomly. The mean of their age in both males and females was 22.
B. Materials
A questionnaire that consisted of two parts to measure their WTC (Appendix A) and
frequency use of socio-affective strategies (Appendix B) was given to every participant. They
were informed that they could answer the items anonymously and they only mentioned their
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age and gender. Their WTC was assessed by the WTC questionnaire developed by MacIntyre
et al. (2001) that measures four skills areas (listening, speaking, reading, and writing). This
questionnaire measures participant’ trend to get involved in L2 communication inside and
outside the classroom. It contains 27 items which ranges from 1 to 5. (1= almost never
willing, 2= sometimes willing, 3= willing half of the time, 4= usually willing, and 5= almost
always willing). MacIntyre and his colleagues explain that this scale to be a valid and reliable
one with reliability of about 0.84. Oxford’s (1990) strategy classification system that was
attached to the above questionnaire measured their strategies, too. This classification contains
two parts, affective and social strategies that has sixteen questions (cited in Brown, 2004).
III. PROCEDURE AND RESULTS
The WTC questionnaires were administered to the students and they were asked to
mark the items that described their willingness. After calculating the means for the two
groups, we faced two different measures. The mean for males’ data was 85.28 and the mean
for the females’ data was 75.92. The mean difference by itself could not reveal anything
unless it was proved that the difference was not due to chance, or the difference was
significant. To solve this problem, the raw data were analyzed by SPSS software version 18
(SPSS Inc., Released 2009). An independent-sample T Test was applied to compare the
significant difference between the two groups. Here are the results:
Table 1: Group statistics
gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
dimension1
female 25 75.92 10.700 2.140
male 25 85.28 14.200 2.840
Table 2 : Independent Samples Test
Levene’s Test
for Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
Equal variances assumed 4.424 .041 -2.632 48 .011 -9.360 3.556 -16.510 -2.210
Equal variances not
assumed
-2.632 44.6 .012 -9.360 3.556 -16.524 -2.196
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As you see there are two different significance values so we have to consider the
significance result reported for Levene’s test. This value is .041 that is less than 0.05 (level of
significance) so the assumption of the variances not being equal is correct, that is, the Sig of
the second row is acceptable for us. The significance level is .011 which is less than .05
therefore the results indicate that there is significant difference between male and female
undergraduate foreign learners in WTC. Based on Dörnyei (2012) alone significance is not
important and the result should show meaningfulness, too in other words, we want to know
how important our decision is. By using the formula of Eta Squared the effect size was
measured that showed the relative magnitude of 0.12
Eta squared= 𝑡2/ (𝑡2+ df)
Dörnyei (2012, p. 217) explains the different amounts of effect size in this way ".01=
small effect, .06= moderate effect, and .14= large effect" that means our effect size is
acceptable.
For analyzing the different usages of socio-affective strategies between males and
females the data were collected and frequencies were counted. Following affective strategies
were using by females while taking part in communicating most frequently.
1. Lowering your anxiety: Using music
2. Encouraging yourself: Making positive statements
3. Taking your emotional temperature: Listening to your body
Following affective strategies were using by males while taking part in communicating most
frequently.
1. Lowering your anxiety: Using music
2. Encouraging yourself: Making positive statements
3. Taking your emotional temperature: Discussing your feelings with someone else
0
5
10
15
20
affective strategies used by femals
Music positive steatments liseting to your body
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The female participants used the following social strategies while communicating
1. Asking questions: Asking for clarification or verification
2. Cooperating with others: Cooperating with others
3. Emphasizing with others: Becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings
The male participants used the following social strategies while communicating
1. Asking questions: Asking for correction
2. Cooperating with others: Cooperating with proficient users of the new language
3. Emphasizing with others: Becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings
There were similarities and differences in using these strategies based on their gender
while communicating but it seemed that more differences could be seen in social strategies
than affective ones.
0
10
20
affective strategies used by males
music positive steatment discussing your feeling
0
10
20
social strategies used by females
asking for clarification cooperating with others
becoming awareof
0
10
20
social strategies used by males
asking for correction cooperation with proficient
becoming awareof
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This study showed that the males were more inclined to WTC, as mentioned earlier,
there were a lot elements that led to higher WTC such as gender, l2 communication
confidence, anxiety, context, cognitive and social strategies. Some research certifies that
WTC has relationship to self-confidence and self-efficacy (Yashima, Zenuk, & Shmizu, cited
in Brown, 2004, p.157). One probable reason why the males had higher WTC was that they
were more confident and had high level of self-confidence to initiate speaking, and
consequently with lower anxiety. This result is in line with Matsuoka (2005), in a study he
confirmed that WTC was negatively correlated to anxiety. Another reason might be that
males took risks more than females and females had a greater fear of making mistakes. Yule
(2006, p. 224) reported that women apply more frequent use of hedges because they are not
certain about what they are saying. They also use tag questions a lot to look for agreement
that shows less assertive which contributes to less WTC.
There is a strong and straight relationship between WTC and socio-affective
strategies. Heuristic model of variables influencing WTC developed by (MacIntyre et al.,
1998) that has six layers contains personal, societal, and affective variables. It can be divided
into two parts, part one with layers I , II, and III which contains variables that are situational
such as desire to communicate and L2 use, part two with layers IV, V, VI that are more stable
such as motivation, self-confidence, intergroup social variables that influence WTC. Moving
from up to down the variables leave lasting impression that socio-affective ones belong to
this area. As said earlier, teachers and students should be aware of these strategies and
diagnose them that lead to more WTC.
Figure 1: The heuristic model of variables influencing WTC (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547)
IV. CONCLUSION
Willingness to communicate influenced by some traits is an affective variable and
refers to learners’ readiness and inclination to become involved in communication and
discourse activities. Popular researchers in this area such as MacIntyre et al. (ibid) believe
WTC should be one of the main and basic purposes of language instruction in language
classrooms. Since it can facilitate the process of second language learning and second
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language communication. It has become an essential part of new and modern methods and
approaches. Every student should be given some chances to participate in classroom
discourse and discussion that lead to proficiency in language that is the primary end of
learning a foreign or second language. So teachers should try to minimum the elements and
factors that cause to reduce learners’ participation such as anxiety, fear, and apprehension.
Most students have fear and anxiety of making mistakes in the front of their peers and
teachers, teachers’ duty is to make aware of them that making mistakes is a sign and part of
learning. On the other hand, teachers should maximize some learners’ characteristics that
contribute to WTC such as motivation, the most important one, attitudes towards learning a
language, and consequently to self-efficacy and self- confidence. In Asian countries that the
students are reluctant to take part in classroom activities the teachers should consider some
points. Selecting interesting topics in which students are interested and have adequate
background knowledge. Choosing methods that gets involved the learners in activities.
Providing the students with some chances to take part in communication. Making aware of
the students to recognize their potential strategies while communicating. As mentioned
earlier, context of learning, teachers’ role and proficiency can affect students’ WTC. Course
designers take the responsibility of creating the materials and syllabus design, although
sometimes teachers are free to choose them, but creating suitable contexts and atmosphere is
teacher’s duty in order to facilitate learning and encourage students to become involved in
classroom activities and in group working tasks that develop students’ WTC. In my opinion
teachers’ proficiency can motivate students and increase their motivation. So our teachers
should be in accordance with the latest method and methodology and update their proficiency
and knowledge. In Iran, the students do not have opportunities to use English language
outside the classroom so one of the best ways that aids the students to foster communication
and interaction is WTC. Autonomy of learners should be promoted, too. New methods such
as communicative language teaching and learner-centered approaches view a learner as a
dynamic part of teaching and learning. It means that teachers should help students take
responsibilities of their learning and learn how they can learn best. These sentences refer to
learning strategies. As Brown (2006) points to this fact that learners will approach language
learning differently by using different metacognitive, cognitive, social and effective
strategies. Significant strategies that are frequently ignored by teachers and students.
REFERENCES
Barjasteh, H., & Vaseghi, R. (2012). Iranian EFL learners’ willingness to communicate
across different context - and receiver -types. International journal of English
linguistics, 2(1).
Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York, NY: Pearson
education.
Cameron, D. (2013). Willingness to communicate in English as a second language as a stable
trait or context –influenced variable: Case studies of Iranian migrants to New Zealand.
Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 36(2), 177-195. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
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Chou, Y. (2004). Promoting learners’ speaking ability by socio-affective strategies. The
internet TESL journal, 10(9).
Dörnyei, Z. (2012). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford University Press.
Hamzehnejad, F., &, Shariati, M. (2014). The comparison of willingness to communicate and
the preferred contexts between the MA students of Kerman Azad University and
Kerman institute of higher education. International journal of language learning and
applied linguistics world, 6(2).
Lacina, J. (2001). Cultural kickboxing in the ESL classroom: Encouraging active
participation. The Internet TESL Journal, 7(10), 1-3. Retrieved October 6, 2001,
Matsuoka, R., (2005). Willingness to communicate in English among Japanese college
students. Proceeding of the 10th conference of pan-pacific association of applied
linguistic, 151-159.
MacIntyre, P., Clement, R., Dornyei, Z., & Noels, K. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to
communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The
Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 545-562.
MacIntyre, P., Baker, S., Clement, R., & Conrod, S., (2001). Willingness to communicate,
social support and language learning orientations of immersion students. Studies in
second language acquisition, 23(3) 369-388
Mehrgan, K. (2013). Willingness to communicate in second language acquisition: A case
study from socio-affective prospective. Journal of comparative literature and culture,
2(4).
Nazari, A., & Allahyar, N. (2012). Increasing willingness to communicate among English as
a foreign language (EFL) students: Effective teaching strategies. Investigations in
university teaching and learning, 8, 18-29.
SPSS Inc. (Released 2009). PASW Statistics for windows, Version 18.0. Chicago: SPSS Inc.
Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese EFL
context. The modern language journal, 86(1), 54-66.
Yashima, T., Zenuk-Nishid, L. & Shimizu, K. (2004). The influence of attitudes and effect on
willingness to communicate and second language communication. Language leaning,
54(1) 119-152.
Zarrinabadi, N., & Abdi, R. (2011). Willingness to communicate and language learning
orientations in Iranian EFL context. International education studies, 4(4).
Zarrinabadi, N. (2014). Communicating in a second language: Investigating the effect of
teachers on learners’ willingness to communicate. System, 42(1), 288-294.
Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. UK: Cambridge University press.
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APPENDIX A: THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Dear Participants:
This questionnaire shows your feelings and tendency about communication with other
people, in English. Please indicate the frequency of time you choose to speak in English in
each situation (adapted from MacIntyre, Baker, Clément, & Conrod, 2001).
Sex: Male ----------- Female --------- Age: ----------
1= Almost never willing 2 = Sometimes willing
3= Willing half of the time 4 = Usually willing 5 = Almost always willing
5 4 3 2 1 Speak in a group about your summer vacation 1
5 4 3 2 1 Speak to your teacher about your homework assignment 2
5 4 3 2 1 Have a conversation with a stranger if he/she talks to you first 3
5 4 3 2 1 Ask for instructions/clarification when you are confused about
a task you must complete
4
5 4 3 2 1 Talk to a friend while waiting in line 5
5 4 3 2 1 Be an actor in a play 6
5 4 3 2 1 Describe the rules of your favorite game 7
5 4 3 2 1 Participate in a debate 8
5 4 3 2 1 Read part of an English novel 9
5 4 3 2 1 Read an English article in a paper 10
5 4 3 2 1 Read letters from a pen pal written in native English 11
5 4 3 2 1 Read personal letters or notes in which the writer has
deliberately used simple words constructions
12
5 4 3 2 1 Read an advertisement in the paper to find good merchandise,
e.g. a book, you can
13
5 4 3 2 1 Read reviews in English for popular movies 14
5 4 3 2 1 Write an invitation to invite your schoolmates to a weekend
party
15
5 4 3 2 1 Write down the instructions for your favorite hobby 16
5 4 3 2 1 Write a report on your favorite animal and its habits 17
5 4 3 2 1 Write a story 18
5 4 3 2 1 Write a letter to a friend 19
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5 4 3 2 1 Write a newspaper article 20
5 4 3 2 1 Write the answers to a “fun” quiz from a magazine 21
5 4 3 2 1 Write down a list of things you must do tomorrow 22
5 4 3 2 1 Listen to instructions in English and complete a task 23
5 4 3 2 1 Bake a cake if instructions were in English 24
5 4 3 2 1 Fill out an application form in English 25
5 4 3 2 1 Take directions from an English speaker 26
5 4 3 2 1 Understand an English movie 27
APPENDIX B:
Please mark the strategies that you use in emotional and social contexts. Numbers 1, 2, 3
show your feeling and numbers 4, 5, 6 show the way you communicate with others. (Adapted
from Oxford’s strategy classification system, 1990).
1. Lowering your anxiety:
A. Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or Mediation
B. Using music
C. Using laughter
2. Encouraging yourself
A. Making positive statements
B. Taking risks wisely
C. Rewarding yourself
3. Taking your emotional temperature
A. Listening to your body
B. Using a checklist
C. Writing a language learning diary
D. Discussing your feelings with someone else
4. Asking questions
A. Asking for clarification or verification
B. Asking for correction
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5. Cooperating with others
A. Cooperating with others
B. Cooperating with proficient users of the new language
6. Emphasizing with others
A. Developing cultural understanding
B. Becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings
Thank you for your collaboration and opinion
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