4.human development presentation

HUMAN DEVELOPME

Definition

• Human Development is the scientific study the patterns of growth and change that occurs throughout life

• Two Types of Change:• 1.Quantitative change refers to physical growth like

progress in height or weight.• 2. Qualitative change refers to the change of

function of an organ, resulting to improve efficiency and accuracy.

Aspects of Human Development• 1. Physical development - changes in the body

structure and motor skills.

• 2. Perceptual development - development of sensory capacities such as the changes in the seeing and hearing abilities of infants.

Aspects of Human Development

• 3. Cognitive or Intellectual development - change in mental abilities, learning capacity, memory, reasoning thought processes and language.

• 4. Personality and Social development - changes in self-concept, gender identity and one’s quality of interpersonal relationship.

8 Stages of Development

• 1. Prenatal stage• 2. Infancy (0-2 years old)• 3. Early childhood (3-6 years old)• 4. Middle childhood (7-12 years old)• 5. Adolescence (13-19 years old)• 6. Young adulthood (20-35 years old)• 7. Middle adulthood (36-49 years old)• 8. Late adulthood/Old age (50 years old-

Death)

Process of Development

Heredity is the transmission of traits from parents to offspring

Every 28 days a female ovulates and releases an egg cell to fallopian tube.

At the height of copulation the male parent releases sperm cells (300-500 million) inside the female’s vagina. The healthy sperms are programmed to swim and seek out the egg cell and fertilize it.

Female Egg Cell

Male Sperm Cell

Process of Development Out of the millions of sperms, only about 50 of them will

be able to come close to the egg cell The sperms will release enzyme that dissolves the jelly-

like coating of the egg cell. Meanwhile, the egg is no passive participant; it actually

embraces the lucky sperm cell. To avoid penetration by more than one sperm, the egg

produces brief electrical shocks on its surface (lasting about 30 seconds) followed by a hard protein coat.

The sperm cell is held down on the egg’s membrane, while the coat rises above it, pushing all the other sperms away.

The egg pulls the sperm inside itself, and moves its nucleus to meet that of the sperm.

Process of Development Fertilization, the union of the egg and the sperm,

produces a single cell that is called the zygote, which contains 23 chromosomes (strands of genetic material) contributed by the sperm and 23 chromosomes contributed by the egg.

Chromosomes are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), each segment of the DNA is a gene, the basic unit of heredity.

Human Chromosomes

These 46 chromosomes provide programming for inherited characteristics like blood type, height, skin color, and so forth. The 46 chromosomes align in pairs (23 pairs).

The first 22 pairs are called autosomes, while the 23rd pair are called sex chromosomes, they will determine the sex or gender of the developing baby.

Process of Development All eggs and 50% of all sperm cells contain x sex

chromosomes, while only the remaining 50% the sperm cells have a y sex chromosome.

A zygote with xx chromosome will become female and a zygote with xy chromosome will become a male.

Process of Development There are two types of genes, the dominant genes,

which carry dominant traits (the stronger one), and recessive genes which carries recessive traits (the weaker one).

Incomplete dominance occurs when the dominant trait was not able to cover up the recessive trait.

Codominance happens when two different dominant traits coexist in the offspring, as in the case of a combination of blood type A and blood type B, which results to having blood type AB.

Some traits are called sex-linked traits. These traits only appear in a particular gender (males)

Process of Development Examples of such are: baldness, hemophilia and colorblindness, all

manifested by the male population.

The genetics cluster of traits that you have, and are observable from the outside is your phenotype.

Your total Genetic make up, observable and not, is your genotype.

Kinds of Twins• 1. Identical or Monozygotic Twins – Twins that

developed from a single zygote that split. They look alike because they share almost the same genetic make up.

• 2. Fraternal or Dizygotic Twins – Twins the developed from the simultaneous union of 2 pairs of egg and sperm cell. They do not share the same genetic make up and may be of different gender, one male, one female.

Sex Chromosome Disorder

• Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY)• - Occurs when a genetic male has an extra x

chromosome• - Abnormal testes, no sperm production, reduced

testosterone production• - Tall, poor muscular development, enlarged breasts

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

Sex Chromosome Disorder

• Turner’s Syndrome (XO)• - There is a missing chromosome • - Short, no menstruation• - Sexually underdeveloped females

Turner’s Syndrome

Sex Chromosome Disorder• Superfemale Syndrome (XXX)• - Intellectually deficit females• - Appears quite normal

• Supermale Syndrome (XYY)• - Taller than normal males• - Below average intelligence

Autosomal Abnormalities

• Down’s Syndrome (trisomy 21)• - An extra sex chromosome appeared in the

21st pair of autosomes• - Mentally retarded• - Sloping forehead, protruding tongue, short

limbs, flattened nose, oriental in appearance

Down’s Syndrome

• Edward’s Syndrome (trisomy 18)• - An extra sex chromosome appeared

in the 18th pair of autosomes• - Abnormally small mouth, malformed

ears, elongated skull, clenched hand, short breast bone

• - With congenital heart disease

Edward’s Syndrome

• Patau’s Syndrome (trisomy 13)• - An extra sex chromosome appeared in the

13th pair of autosomes• - Defects of eye, nose, lips, ears and forebrain• - Having one eye at extreme cases• - Has more that the normal number of fingers

or toes

Patau’s Syndrome

Autosomal Abnormalities Other congenital defects (like congenital blindness,

heart disease) may be a result of maternal diseases (like malaria, chicken pox, German measles), malnutrition, alcohol, smoking, emotion problems, pills, drugs, endocrine irregularities and blood incompatibilities.

Collectively, these environmental forces that hinder the healthy development of an unborn child are called teratogens.

Teratogens Rubella (German Measles) – Blindness, deafness,

heart abnormalities Syphilis – mental retardation, physical deformities,

maternal miscarriage Addictive drugs – low birth weight, addiction to the

drug, possible death from withdrawal Smoking - premature birth, low birth weight and

length

Teratogens Alcohol – mental retardation, low weight, small head,

limb deformities Radiation from X-rays – Physical deformities, mental

retardation Inadequate diet – reduced brain growths, low weight

and length Being your than 18 – premature birth, increased

incidence of Down syndrome Being older than 35 - increased incidence of Down

syndrome

Assumptions About the Stages of Human Development Behaviors at a given stage are organized around a

dominant theme or a coherent set of characteristics.

Behaviors at one stage are qualitatively different from the behaviors at an earlier or later stage.

All children go through the same stages in the same order, but may vary in pace.

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Prenatal Development

1. Germinal Stage (Fertilization – 2 weeks)

- Rapid cell division- By the end of the stage, the fertilized egg

becomes a blastocyst (about the size of a pinhead) and plants itself in the wall of the uterus.

Fertilization

Play video-human fertilization

Cell Division

2. Embryonic Stage

(end of 2 weeks – 2 months)

- Major body systems and organs develop.- Organism becomes vulnerable to

environmental influences. - Most likely occurrences of chromosomal

abnormalities.

2. Embryonic Stage

- 1st month – Measures quarter of an inch- 2nd month – As big as an adult’s smallest

toe; back bone formed; legs and arms begin to form; facial features take shape.

Week 4

3. Fetal Stage (end of 2 months – Birth)

3rd month – 3” ; 25 grams; Assumes human form; large head; starts bone formation (teeth buds, nails); genital becomes more recognizable.

4th month – 13.5 cm.; 120 grams; about the size of a small orange; broad face, eyes widely separated; capable of swallowing and kicking; nails/eyebrows start to grow.

Week 8

Week 12

5th month – 7.3”; 440 grams; vital organs developed; more frequent movement.

6th month – 9”; 1.75 lbs.; large head, lean body; with skin wrinkles; skin pink in color; fine downy hair (lanugo) cover the body; eye brows, eye lashes visible.

7th month – 10.6”; 1.36 kg.; can open eyes; can stretch and kick; skin is red and wrinkled.

8th month – 12.2”; 5lbs.; fat begins to store in the body; lungs fully developed; head/body are proportionate; assume position for delivery.

9th month – 14.2” ; 7lbs.; redness and wrinkles fade; downy hair disappears.

Capabilities of a Newborn

We as newborns come equipped with reflexes ideally suited for our survival.

We as newborns, prefer sights and sounds that facilitate social responsiveness; we turn our heads on the direction of human voices; we gaze longer at a drawing of a face-like image than at a bull’s-eye pattern.

We prefer to look at objects 8 to 12 inches away, which just happen to be the approximate distance between a nursing infant’s eyes and a mother’s.

Within days of birth, our brain’s neural networks were stamped with the smell of our mother’s body; thus, a week-old nursing baby, placed between a gauze pad from its mother’s bra and one from another nursing mother will usually turn toward the smell of it own mother.

At three weeks, if given a pacifier that sometimes turns on recordings of its mother’s voice and sometimes that of a stranger’s. An infant will suck more vigorously when it hears its now-familiar mother’s voice.

Reflexes

Reflexes are unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

They are critical for survival Rooting reflex – turning one’s heads towards things

the touch their cheeks

Reflexes

Sucking reflex – infants suck things that touch their lips

Gag reflex – reflex to clear the throat Startle reflex – a series of movements in which an

infant flings out the arms, fans the fingers, and arches the back in response to sudden noise

Reflexes

Babinski Reflex – a baby’s toes fan out when the outer edge of the sole of the foot is stroked

Grasping Reflex Infants lose these primitive reflexes after the first few

months of life; replaced with more complex an organized behaviors.

Theories of Development

• Theory• “An organized set of ideas that are

designed to explain development.” • Essential for developing predictions about

behavior. • Predictions result in research that help to

support or clarify the theory

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

• Psychodynamic - Freud, Erikson • Learning - Watson, Skinner, Bandura • Cognitive - Piaget, Kohlberg

• A. Psychodynamic:• 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

• Psychoanalytic• Observations and notes that he made about life histories of his mentally

disturbed patients• Hypnosis, free association, dream analysis• We have goals or motives that must be satisfied

• A. Psychodynamic:• Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

• Instincts, Goals and Motives• Human behavior is energized by psychodynamic forces• Psychic (mental) energy

• A. Psychodynamic:• 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages• Biological Instincts• Eros ( life instinct) – helps the child to survive; directs life sustaining

activities such as respiration, eating, sex and the fulfillment of all other bodily needs

• Thanatos (death instinct) – set of destructive forces present in all human being ex. arson, murder, war, masochism

• A. Psychodynamic:• 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

• 3 Components of Personality• Id (pleasure principle) – serve the instincts by seeking

objects that will satisfy them; seeking immediate gratification of instinctual needs

• A. Psychodynamic:• Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

• 3 Components of Personality• Ego (reality principle) – find realistic ways of gratifying the instinct; block

the id’s irrational thinking; ability to delay gratification• Superego (moral principle) – represents the ideal and strives for

perfection rather than for pleasure or reality

• A. Psychodynamic:• 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages• a. Oral Stage (0-1) – reflects the infant’s need

for gratification from the mother. An infant’s eating, sucking, spitting, and chewing do not only satisfy hunger, but also provide pleasure.

• A. Psychodynamic:• 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages• b. Anal Stage (2-3) – reflects the toddler’s need

for gratification along the rectal area. During this stage, children must endure the demands of toilet training.

• A. Psychodynamic:• 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages• c. Phallic Stage (4-5) reflects the preschooler’s

gratification involving the genitals. Children at this stage gratify their sex instinct by fondling their genitals and developing an incestuous desire for the opposite sex parent.

• A. Psychodynamic:• 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages• c. Phallic Stage • Oedipus Complex – sexual attachment of a male

child to his mother– Electra Complex – sexual attachment of a female child to her

father. The girl envies her father for possessing a penis and wishes he would share with her the valued organ that she lacks.

• A. Psychodynamic:• 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages• d. Latency Stage (6 to puberty) – sexual

desires are repressed and the entire child’s available libido is channeled into socially acceptable outlets such as schoolwork and vigorous play that consume most of the child’s physical and psychic energy

• A. Psychodynamic:• 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages• e. Genital Stage (Puberty – onwards) – is

characterized by the maturation of the reproductive system, production of sex hormones, and a reactivation of the genital zone as an area of sensual pleasure.

SIGMUND FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

STAGEEROGENOUS

ZONE (Sexually

excitable zone in the body)

CRITICAL EVENT

FIXATIONS MANIFESTED IN ADULT BEHAVIOR (if conflicts in a

particular stage is not resolved)

Oral Stage (0-1 year old)

Mouth and lips Feeding If the child was abruptly weaned, he may manifest alcoholism, smoking, fondness of kissing, oral sadism. If the child was oversatisfied with oral pleasures, he may become, gullible and overdependent.

Anal Stage (2-3 years old)

Anus Toilet Training If the child experienced toilet training too early, he may become controlling, over organized or stubborn. If the child experienced toilet training too late, he become, sloppy, impulsive, or disorganized.

STAGEEROGENOU

S ZONE (Sexually

excitable zone in the body)

CRITICAL EVENT FIXATIONS MANIFESTED IN ADULT BEHAVIOR (if conflicts in a particular stage is

not resolved)

Phallic Stage (4-6 years old)

Genitals Gender identification. For boys, they develop sexual desire towards the mother and a desire to eliminate his competition, the father. This is called Oedipus complex. Boys become afraid of the father retaliation and develops Castration anxiety. Then they seek to become or identify with their fathers.For girls, they begin with a strong attachment to their mother but realize that boys have penis and girls don’t have. They blame the mother of this inferiority, and develop Penis envy. Their love is transferred to the father who has the sex organ she wants. This is called Electra complex. But, they still must avoid the mother’s disapproval and so they identify with their mother.

If the issues during the phallic stage are not resolved, the person may have problem with interpersonal relationships as well as dealing with authority figures. They may also become uncertain about their sexual identity.

STAGEEROGENOUS ZONE (Sexually excitable

zone in the body)

CRITICAL EVENT FIXATIONS MANIFESTED IN ADULT BEHAVIOR (if conflicts in a particular stage is not resolved)

Latency (6-12 years old)

This is a period of Peace; most sexual impulses lie dormant. The conflict in the earlier stage resolved or not will be repressed (forgotten).

Genital Stage (13 years old onwards)

Genitals The quality of relationships and degree of fulfillment and contentment that the person experiences during this long stage are tied directly to the success the person has at resolving conflicts during the earlier stages.

• A. Psychodynamic:2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

• Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1) • Autonomy vs. Shame and Guilt (1-3) • Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6) • Industry vs. Inferiority (6-Puberty) • Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) • Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood) • Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)• Integrity vs. Despair (Late Life)

ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE

CRISIS IF CRISIS IS RESOLVED…

IF CRISIS IS NOT RESOLVED…

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-2 years old)

The infant needs physical/psychological care and a healthy sense of attachment.

The person develops the virtue of hope and optimism.

The person will grow mistrusting.

2. Autonomy vs. Doubt (2-3 years old)

The child’s desire to be in control and assert independence.

The person develops the virtue of will.

The person becomes constricted and afraid of new experiences. He may also engage in power struggle against authority.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years old)

The child starts to socialize with other children though play. Play, in turn, becomes the primary medium of exploring the world.

The person develops the virtue of initiative, sense of purpose, direction and learns the value of cooperation.

The person becomes doubtful of his capacity to discover the world. He may get into fight for not cooperating.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years old)

The child engages to more serious hobbies and becomes more competitive.

The person develops the virtue of competence.

The person wallows in feelings of inferiority.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE

5. Identity vs. Identity Confusion (13-19 Years old)

This stage coincides the period of adolescence. The person needs to discover his uniqueness, feel a sense of belongingness, and integrate various roles into a single, consistent individual.

The person develops the virtue of fidelity; being able to commit to values, organizations, and people.

The person becomes diffused and manifest incongruence or inconsistency in his behavior.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-39 years old)

The person looks for intimacy in heterosexual relationship.

The person develops the virtue of commitment and mutual devotion; the ability to sacrifice and compromise.

The person will float from one partner or job to another ,and fell isolated.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE

7. Generativity vs. Self- Absorption (40-65 years old)

The person feels the need to guide and pass on what he has learned to the younger generation, through mentoring or teaching. He assesses if he has made the right decisions in their life.

The person develops the virtue of generativity, and value wisdom over physical prowess.

The person will feel stagnant, resist the truth about getting older, and relive youthful fantasies.

8. Integrity vs. Despair (66 years old onwards)

The person experiences decline in physical health. He wants to know if he had lived well.

The acquires the sense of wholeness or integrity and the virtue of wisdom.

The person lives the remainder of his life in despair.

• B. Learning Theory• Concentrates on how learning influences behavior. • Emphasizes the role of experience. • Stresses the influence of consequences on behavior. • Recognizes that people learn from watching others.

• B. Learning Theory• 1. Waston’s Behaviorism• Learning determines our behavior. • Experience is sufficient to explain the

course of development.

• B. Learning Theory• 2. B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning • The consequences of a behavior determine whether it will

be repeated. • A pleasant consequence increases the chance a behavior

will be repeated. • An unpleasant consequence decreases the chance a

behavior will be repeated.

• B. Learning Theory• 2. B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning • Positive Reinforcement - A pleasant consequence that

increases behavior. • Negative Reinforcement - Strengthening a behavior by

removing or avoiding an unpleasant condition. • Punishment - An unpleasant consequence that

decreases the frequency of a behavior.

• B. Learning Theory• 3. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory• Observational Learning, or Imitation • People learn by watching others. • Imitation is more likely when subject of observation is

seen as smart, popular, or talented. Imitation is more likely when subject of observation is rewarded for the behavior

• C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory• Emphasizes the development of the thought

processes as we mature. • Two approaches to the development of

cognition: • We develop our thinking in stages (Piaget,

Kohlberg).

C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory• 1. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

• Children gradually learn more about how the world works by little “experiments” in which they test their understanding.

• Cognitive development consists of stages in which children’s understanding of their surroundings become increasingly complex and accurate.

• C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory

1. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

2. a. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years) • The Child interacts with the world through sensation

and movement. • Develops the ability to hold a mental representation of

objects.

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development• C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory

• b. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) • Develops the ability to use symbols, such as numbers and

words, to represent objects.• Egocentric: understands the world only from his own

perspective.

– c. Concrete Operational Thought (7 years to early adolescence)

• Can use logic and reasoning • Cannot accurately consider the hypothetical

– d. Formal Operational Thought (Adolescence and beyond)

• Thinks abstractly. • Deals with the hypothetical and speculation

JEAN PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

SENSORIMOTOR

0 –2 yearsexplores world as little experimenters and develop schemas through the senses and motor activities.Discovers relationships between their actions and consequences.An important concept acquired at this stage is object permanence: before 8 months, the baby will stop searching for an object if it is covered (out of sight, out of mind), but around 8 months, baby will readily physically search for the hidden object, indicating that he or she has already has a mental representation of the object- this is object permanence

PRE-OPERATIONAL

2 – 7 yearson top of object permanence, ability for symbolic thinking emerges; seen from the child’s use of symbolic play and use of language.Use of language/words as symbol for things particularly has critical importance.Implications for play: better to let child play with unstructured materials to help facilitate his/her symbolic thinking.Child has still several limitations:1.ego-centrism – inability to consider another person’s point of view.2.animism – all things are living or animated and capable of intentions, feelings and consciousness.3.inability to decenter – inability to focus on simultaneous thoughts at the same time.4.Inability for conservation concepts – inability to follow transformations mentally.

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL

7 – 11 yearsless egocentric: can now imagine other person’s point of view; now aware that events outside the self have causes outside the self.Thinking begins to be more logical but still limited to concrete experience, i.e., can make logical judgments based on stimuli that are present to the sense.Can perform more operations, e.g. counting, classifying and thus can better understand the principles of conservation.

FORMAL OPERATIONAL

11 years onwards•hypothetical deductive reasoning develops; can now reason logically and deal with abstractions, not just concrete things.Capacity for abstractions enables person to use and understand, for instance, algebraic signs and metaphorical speech.Able to consider all variables and possibilities simultaneously, make hypotheses, and solve problems by tackling these possibilities systematically.Use of the pendulum problem to test formal operational thinking.

C. Cognitive-Developmental Theory• 2. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral

Development• Based on Piaget’s ideas of cognitive

development. • Described the development of moral thinking

through stages of increasing maturity.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL REASONING

Level / Stage of Moral Reasoning

Primary Motivation Typical Moral Reasoning

Pre Conventional MoralityStage 1: Punishment at Obedience Orientation

Stage 2: Reward Orientation

The Primary motive for action is the avoidance of punishment

Actions are motivated by the desire for rewards

A person must be obedient to powerful authority because of fear of punishment.Ex. The husband must not steal the drug because he would be punished.

The act is moral if it satisfied an important need of the person or some family member.Ex. He should steal the drug because his wife needs it and he isn’t doing any harm to the druggist. He can pay him pay.

Level / Stage of Moral

Reasoning

Conventional MoralityStage 3: Good Boy/Girl Orientation

The child strives to avoid the disapproval of others (As distinct from avoidance of punishment)

A moral action is one that causes others cause to approve.

Ex. He should steal the medicine because society expects a husband to help his wife. He is only doing something that is natural for a loving husband to do.

Level / Stage of Moral

Reasoning

Conventional MoralityStage 4: Authority Orientation / Authority-Maintaining Morality

An act is always wrong if it violates a rule or does harm to others

Moral people are those who do their duty in order to maintain the social order.

Ex. He should steal the drug because of people are allowed to be selfish and greedy, our civilization will break down. But he must pay the druggist back and must be punished because people can’t take the law into their own hands.

Post – ConventionalStage 5: Social Contract Orientation / Morality of Contract and Democracy

The individual is able to recognize that laws are subjective, that they are not worshipped in themselves but are relative to the group. Laws exist only because we agree about them (The Aspect of Social Contract). Inasmuch as the person respects the rules of the other group, however, he or she still steps in if what at stakes is a non-negotiable value (Life and Liberty)

Society has rules and both the individual and society must fulfill their parts of the contract.

Ex. Before you say that stealing is wrong, you should consider that the law should not allow the druggist to keep secret a life-saving formula. In this case, it seems reasonable for him to steal the drug.

Post – ConventionalStage 6: Ethical Principle Orientation / Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience

Individuals are concerned with upholding their personal principles, and the person no longer makes an appeal to society. Morality is just a matter of the person’s conscience regardless of what the society says. Hence, the person may sometimes feel it necessary to deviate from rules when the rules conflict with moral principles.

Society’s rules are arbitrary. Different people may interpret them in different ways. The ultimate judge of whether something is moral is a person’s own conscience.

Ex. He must steal the medicine because if his wife died he could never forgive himself. When a choice must be made between disobeying a law and saving a life. The higher principle of saving a life must prevail.

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