3. communication theory

COMMUNICATION THEORY

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Several theorists have discussed the communication process, coming up with various models of communication, each of which have important implications.

Model

• A model provides a simplified view of something to be studied.

Aristotle

• In 300 B.C., Aristotle said: “For of the three elements in speech-making, (speaker, subject and person addressed), it is the last one, the hearer that determines the speech’s end and objective.”

Aristotle’s Model of Communication

Laswell’s view (1948)

• One of the most often cited characterizations of communication was advanced by a political scientist, Harold Lasswell.

• He said that the communication process could be best explained by the simple statement:

“Who says what to whom, in what channel, with what effect.”

• It has been described as the verbal version of Shannon and Weaver’s transmission model.

• The point of Laswell’s comment is that there must be an “effect” if communication is to take place.

• Laswell’s view of communication, as had Aristotle’s two thousand years earlier, focused primarily on verbal messages.

• It also emphasized the elements of “speaker”, “message”, and “audience”.

• He views communication as a one way process in which one individual influences others through messages.

• Laswell was all for persuasion. His work suggests that there could be a variety of outcomes or effects of communication, such as to inform, to entertain, to aggravate, and to persuade.

• His approach provides a more generalized view of the goal or effect of communication than did the Aristotelian perspective.

Shannon and Weaver’s model (1949)

• Shannon’s publication of some work done for Bell Telephone formed the basis for the Shannon Weaver Model.

• This model is focused on information theory, and in particular the transmission and reception of messages.

• The model introduces three elements not found in Aristotle’s model: a transmitter, a receiver, and sources of noise.

• In telecommunications the

transmitter and receiver would be the hardware used by the sender and receiver during the act of communication.

• The information source selects a desired message out of a set of possible messages. The selected message may consist of written of spoken words, pictures, music, etc.

Noise may come from static sources (like solar flares),

unusual weather conditions, or electron equipment that interferes with the signal.

• Although at first glance, this model seems to be geared strictly for telecommunications such as radio and television, some of the elements may easily apply to any face-to-face situation, there may be environmental or other sources of noise that interfere with the communication.

• It is the best known example of the “informational” approach to communication.

• Communication here is used in a very broad sense to include all the procedures by which one mind may affect another.

• This involves not only written and oral speech, but also music, the pictorial arts, the theatre, and in fact all human behaviour.

Shannon and Weaver attempted to do two things:

• Reduce the communication process to a set of mathematical formulas

• Discuss problems that could be handled with the model.

• Shannon and Weaver were not particularly interested in the sociological or psychological aspects of communication. Instead, they wanted to devise a communications system with as close to 100 percent efficiency as possible.

Figure 1: Shannon's (1948) model of the communication process.

• Their model is essentially a linear, left-to-right, one way model of communication.

• It lead to technical improvement in message transmission.

• Shannon’s diagram emphasizes the encoding of information to be transmitted and the decoding of received information.

• It also indicates the effects of noise on the channel through

• which the information transmitted.

Strengths• The model’s value is to the

theory of writing as it emphasizes encoding/decoding and the effects of noise

• Its simplicity• Its generality• Its quantifiability

Weaknesses• In written communication it overlooks

the motives of both the sender (writer) and the receiver (reader). People have reasons for writing and reading.

• It is a gross oversimplification of the nature of human communication which is dangerously misleading.

• The model fixes and separates the roles of “sender” and “receiver”, yet communication between two people involves simultaneous “sending” and “receiving”.

Weaknesses• It is an instrumental model which

treats communication as intended. Not all communication is intentional, e.g. body language.

• It does not take into account the context (social, political,

• cultural, historical) in which

• communication occurs.

Weaknesses• In the model the source is seen as the active

decision maker who determines the meaning of the message, the destination is the passive target, i.e. the receiver has a secondary role.

• There was no provision in the original model for feedback.

• A feedback loop was added later by theorists but the model remains linear. This became known as the interactive model.

Figure: An Interactive Model

Schramm’s models (1954)• In 1954, Schramm provided several

models. First model • The first was an elaboration of

Shannon’s.• Schramm saw communication as a

purposeful effort to establish a commonness between a source and a

• receiver.

Schramm’s first model• Insert diagram

encoderSource Destination

signal decoder

Second model• Schramm’s second model is

perhaps more significant.

• Taking the sociological aspects involved in communication into consideration, he suggests that without a common background and culture, there is little chance for a

• message to be interpreted

• correctly.

Activity

• Give examples of messages/signs which mean different things in different cultures.

• In his second model, Schramm introduced the concept of a field of experience, which he thought to be essential in determining whether or not the message would be received at its destination in the manner intended by the source.

• He argued that without common fields of experience – a common language, background or culture, etc. – there was little chance of a

• message being interpreted • correctly.

• The extent to which the signal is correctly decoded (that is,decoded so that it is the same as the original message prior to decoding) depends on the extent of the overlap of the two fields of experience.

To overcome the problem of noise he suggested the importance

of feedback.

Strengths• Provided the additional notion of

a “field of experience” or the psychological frame of reference

• Included feedback –communication is reciprocal, two-way, even though feedback may be delayed.

• Included context – a message may have different meanings associated with it, depending on the specific context or setting

• Included culture - a message may have different meanings associated with it, depending on the culture or society. Communication systems thus operate within the confines of cultural rules and expectations to which we have all been educated.

Weaknesses

• Although less linear than Shannon and Weaver’s model, it accounts only for bilateral communication between two parties.

• The complex, multiple levels of communication between several sources is beyond this model.

Third model (Circular)• In this model Schramm suggests that

an experienced communicator is attentive to feedback and constantly modifies his message in light of what he observes in or hears from his audience.

• So the roles of sender and recipient are taken on by both parties, and communication becomes circular.

• This creates a relational model of • communication and the beginning • of a convergence.

Schramm’s third model (circular)

• The Schramm view of communication was more elaborate than many others developed during the period and added new elements to describing the process.

• In addition to re-emphasizing the elements of source, message and destination, it suggests the importance of the coding and decoding process and the role of the field of experience.

• This view has been expressed by theorists as a transactional model.

A Transactional Model:

Assignment

• Research on Berlo’s model and Kincaid’s Convergence Model to be able to include them in your discussion of models of communication.

Summary• Here is a summary of the important

thoughts illustrated by each theorist:• Aristotle: The receiver holds the key

to success.• Laswell: An effect must be achieved if

communication is to take place.• Shannon and Weaver: Semantic noise

can be a major communication barrier.• Schramm: Overlapping experiences • make it easier to communicate.

AssignmentChoose any one of the following

questions (25 marks each):

Differentiate between any two models of communication, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of each.

2. In any communication process potential barriers exist. Discuss.

Deadline: 30 September 2011