27th alnap meeting - india
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1
In1900therewere16citiesaroundtheworldwithpopulationsof1millionormorepeople,
a lmostentirelyindevelopedcountries.By2000,therewere400citieswithpopulationsofmore
than1millionaroundtheworld,threequartersofwhichwereindevelopingcountries(UN,2005).
By2030,theglobalpopulationwillstandat9billion,andtheglobalurbanpopulationwill
accountforupto60percentofthisgure(ibid).Almostallpopulationgrowthinthenext30
yearswilltakeplaceinurbanseings.Toputthisshiintoperspective,therewillbealmosttwice
asmanypeoplelivingincities2030astherewerepeoplelivingontheplanetin1970. Mostofthisurbangrowthwillbeinsmallandmedium-sizedcitiesratherthanmega-cities,
withabouthalfoftheworldsurbanpopulationresidingincitiesof500,000peopleorfewer.
(UNHABITAT,2009)eseteemingcitieswillaccountforupto90percentofallglobal
economicactivity(UN,2005)
Intermsofsheernumbers,Asiawillcontinuetohousethelargestnumberofpeopleinitstowns
andcities.Africa,althoughtheleasturbanisedcontinenttoday,willbecomehometo1.2billion
urbandwellersby2050,withasignicantyouthmajority(ibid).
Urbanisationisasocialphenomenonandaphysicaltransformationoflandscapesthathasbeendescribedasoneofthemostpowerful,irreversible,andvisibleanthropogenicforcesonEarth(IHDP,2005).Itmaywellamounttothemostsignicantchangeinhumancivilisationsincethecomingofagriculture.etotalurbanpopulation,whichstoodatjust10percentoftheglobalpopulationatthestartofthe20thcentury,hasinthepastfewyearsreachedanunprecedented50percent(UN,2005).ismuch-reportedeventhasbeen
describedasanirreversibletippingpoint(CraneandKinzig,2005)-thethresholdofanewurbanmillennium(UNFPA,2007).Muchoftheavailabledataindicatesthaturbanisationwillcontinueatascaleandspeedthatredenesourrelationshipwitheachotherandwiththeplanet.(IHDP,2005).
1. Introduction
Were not
in the eld anymoreAdapting humanitarian efforts to
an urban world
27TH ALNAP
MEETING
CHENNAI , INDIABackground Paper
Figure 1: Urban and rural populations, 19502050 (UN Department o Economic and Social Afairs (UNDESA), 2010)
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Itiswellestablishedthatcitiescanbemuchmoreecientandeectivethanruralseings(Ravallion
etal,2007;ALNAP,2009).Itcanbemorestraightforwardtoprovidebasicneeds,aswellassocial
andculturalservicesforpeoplelivingclosertogetherinseingswithmoredevelopedinfrastructures
(WorldBank,2010).However,urbanisationisfarfrombeinganunalloyedgood.Ascitiesgrow,
populationdensityanddiversityalsoincrease.Humanvulnerabilityandstressesontheenvironment
andnaturalresourcesaretypicallyheightened.Asthishappens,thecostofmeetingbasicneedsinevitablyincreases(ibid).
Perhapsthegrimmestmanifestationofurbanisationistheriseofslumsandinformalselements,
housingaround1billionpeopleglobally,.isgureiscurrentlygrowingbyanestimated25million
peopleperyearandisprojectedtodoubleby2030(UNHABITAT,2009).
Whilesuchdatasendsapowerfulmessageaboutthescaleandpaceofurbanchange,workingout
specicsocial,politicalandeconomicimplicationsisnoteasy.ereisagreatdealofmisreporting
andmisunderstandingofsuchhigh-leveldataandprojectionsaboutwhattheymeasure,whatthey
meanandhowtheyshouldbeinterpreted(Cohen,2004).
Urbanplannersworkingalmost40yearsagodevelopedthetermwickedproblemswithspecic
referencetothecomplexityofurbandevelopmentissues.Inparticular,theyfoundthaturban
problemswerehardtosolvebecauseofincomplete,contradictory,andchangingrequirementsthat
areoendiculttorecognise.eeorttosolveoneaspectofawickedproblemwillfrequently
revealorcreateotherproblems(RiellandWeber,2003).Ifanything,thechallengesofurbanisation
haveincreasedinbothscopeandcomplexitysincethattime.In2005,urbansustainabilityand
vulnerabilitywereidentiedbytheMillenniumEcosystemAssessmentasareaswheresignicant
knowledgegapsexistandpersist.1Itisperhapsunsurprisingthaturbanisationisincreasinglyrecognisedasoneofthemostimportantchallengesofthe21stcentury.
Urbanisationpresentsamajorsetofchallengesfortheinternationalhumanitariansector(ALNAP,
2009;DEC,2011,Saerthwaite,2007).Ontheonehand,thereisanobviousissueofagrowing
urbancaseload,drivenbyacombinationoffactorsincludinggrowthinpopulationnumbersandrisk
levels(REF).Onewidelycitedtextonurbanvulnerabilitypublishedalmost10yearsagofoundthat
urbanareasindevelopingcountrieswerefacingdramaticallyescalatingdisasterrisks(Pelling,2003),
andtherehasbeenlileevidencesincetocontradictthisassessment(IFRC,2010).
epaernofurbanvulnerabilityhasfollowedsomegeneraltrends,whichcanbesummarisedas
follows:agrowingurbanpopulationisbeingincreasinglyanddisproportionatelyexposedtomore
hazardsandriskswhethermeteorological,geophysical,socio-economicorpolitical(Cohen,2003).
Povertyandinequalitymeanthatthesepopulationsarebecomingincreasinglyvulnerable.Disasters
andcriseshighlightthisvulnerability.einternationalcommunitymayengage,butwithhighly
varyingdegreesofsuccess.Rapidbutpoorlycoordinatedresponsesoenleadtoanincreaseinlong-
termurbanvulnerability,albeitinverycontext-specicways.Meanwhilethewindowofopportunity
fortakingpreventativeactionagainstfuturecrisesisdismayinglynarrow(seeCaseStudy1onSao
Pauloformoredetailonhowthisplaysoutinaparticularcontext).
27TH ALNAP MEETING CHENNAI, INDIA 17-18 JANUARY 2012 Background Paper
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1.McGranahanetal.2005
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Inparallel,theruralassumptionsthatunderpinhumanitarianaiddeliveryhaveprovedremarkably
resilient.Someobservers,includingDavidSandersonofOxfordBrookes,havelinkedthistothelarge-
scaleandlargelyruralfamineresponsesofthe20thcentury(Sanderson,2000;IASC,2010).Withthe
growthinurbancrises,however,thereisanincreasingmismatchbetweenthelong-heldassumptions
andthenewurbanreality.Asoneexpertdri lynotedduringthepreparationofthisbackgroundpaper,werenotintheeldanymore.2
Asaresult,weareincreasinglyseeinganumberofseriousproblemsinhowmajoragenciesthinkabout
anddeliverhumanitarianaid.erearealsoseriousproblemsintherelatedfunctionsofdisasterrisk
reduction(DRR)anddisasterpreparedness.WhilemanyofthefailuresoftheaidresponsetotheHaiti
earthquakein2010werealltoofamiliartolong-termobservers(DEC,2011;GroupeURD,2011),
therewerealsonumerousissuesresultingfromtheuniqueurbanseingofPort-au-Prince.eseranged
fromrelativelybasicissuessuchasthelogisticsofpuingupemergencysheltersorlatrinesonconcrete
insteadofinsoil,tohowtoengageeectivelywithmunicipalauthorities,legalcodesandstructures,and
urbancivilsociety.eurbancontextprovedthatmanyhumanitarianstandardoperatingprocedures
werediculttoimplementatbestandirrelevantatworst(DEC,2011).
islackofoperationalprogressbeliestheaentionthathasbeenpaidtotheissueovertheyears.ere
areanumberofinitiativescurrentlyunderwaywhichseektoaddressthechallengesofhumanitarian
actioninapredominatelyurbanworld(seeBox1).Urbandisasterinitiativesarenotnewanumber
wereinplace10yearsago.Buttheydonot(attimeofwriting,atleast)seemtohavehadthenecessary
inuenceonhowthesectorgoesaboutitswork.Asinmanyothercontexts,thegapsbetweenpolicy
dialogue,academicdebatesandoperationalrealitiesareconsiderable.
2010sawthelaunchofanimportantnewUNISDRcampaignonresilientcities,towhich58cities
havesignedupatthetimeofwriting(UNISDR,2011).ButthendingsoftheFihAsiaPacicUrban
ForuminJune2011weresobering.eforumposedthequestion:Complexurbandisastersarewe
ready?eanswerfromexpertsinJapan,ChinaandBangladeshrepresentingthespectrumfromhigh
tolow-incomecountrieswas:no,notyet.Acommonchallengeidentiedbytheparticipantswastheinstitutionalcomplacencythatsetsinaerseveralyearsofnotfacingaparticularkindofdisaster:relevant
expenditurebudgetsgetcut,leavingpopulationsatheightenedrisk(Alertnet,2011).
27TH ALNAP MEETING CHENNAI, INDIA 17-18 JANUARY 2012 Background Paper
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Box 1: Initiatives to address urban disaster-related issues
TheInter-AgencyStandingCommittee(IASC)projectonurbanhumanitarianism
UnitedNationsEducational,ScienticandCulturalOrganisations(UNESCO)initiativeonurbanbiospheres
TheMillenniumEcosystemAssessment
WorldBanksCitiesAllianceandCitiesinTransition
InternationalHumanDimensionsProgramme(IHDP)urbanisationscienceproject
Diversitasscienceplanonurbanisation
InternationalUnionfortheScienticStudyofPopulation(IUSSP)UrbanisationsandHealthWorkingGroup
USNationalAcademiesPanelonUrbanPopulationDynamicsandRoundtableonScienceandTechnologyforSustainabilitysTaskForce onRapidUrbanisation
UNInternationalStrategyforDisasterReductions(UNISDR)Asiadisasterriskreductionnetwork
EffortswithinspecicagenciesInternationalFederationofRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties(IFRC),OxfamGB,WorldVision
2.DavidSanderson,PersonalCommunication,August2011
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AstheUNISDRcampaignstatementnotes,improvementsinurbandisasterresponsecannotbe
achievedatmunicipallevelsalone(UNISDR,2011).echallengeofurbandisastersrequiressustained,
coherentandstrategiceortfromacrossnationalandinternationalcommunities.Todate,however,such
aneorthasbeennoticeablepredominatelybyitsabsence.elessonsemerginginparticularfromthe
internationalresponsetotheHaitiearthquakehaveservedassomethingofawake-upcall.
Againstthisbackground,the27thALNAPMeetingpresentsatimelyandappropriateplatformfor
discussionofthisvitalissue.Itoersanopportunitytomovetowardsaroadmapforthehumanitarian
systemasawhole.ALNAPsmeetingsarenowwidelyacknowledgedasakeyplatformforall
internationalagenciestocometogetherandforgenewsharedagendasforreectionandaction.
Inrecentyears,themeshaveincludedmediarelations,impactassessments,innovationsandmost
recentlycollaborationwithnationalactors.esemeetingshavehadconsiderableinuence,bringing
keyissuesintosharedstrategicfocusandgivingshapeandmomentumtonumerousnewinitiatives.
isBackgroundPaperwillsetoutthekeyideasunderpinningurbanisation,urbanvulnerability
andurbanresponses,drawingonasynthesisofthelatestresearchandpractice.Itwillthenoutline
aseriesofstrategicandoperationalquestionsfacedbytheinternationalhumanitarianandDRR
communitiesinrespondingtoandpreparingfordisasters.Discussionofthesechallengesandways
tonavigatethemwillformthebasisoftheALNAP27thMeetinginChennai(seeAppendix1forthe
keyquestionstobeaddressedattheconference).
27TH ALNAP MEETING CHENNAI, INDIA 17-18 JANUARY 2012 Background Paper
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Case Study 1: A typical urban disaster scenario Sao Paulo oods January 2011
SaoPauloisthelargesturbanagglomerationinBrazilandtheforemostindustrialcenterinSouthAmerica.Butuntilthe1880s,SaoPaulowasaminorcommercialcenter.In1890,whenRiodeJaneirohadapopulationofmorethanhalfamillion,thepopulationofSaoPaulo
wasonly65,000.Widespreadcoffeecultivationbroughtsuddenprosperitytotheregionandtransformeditfromanisolatedfrontiertoa
vibranteconomicregion.Bytheearly1900s,manufacturingbecameestablishedinSaoPauloandthepopulationgrewto240,000,duein
largeparttoamassiveinuxofimmigrantsfromvariouspartsofEurope.By1950,SaoPaulohadbecomethechiefmanufacturingcenter
ofBrazil.Today,theSaoPauloMetropolitanAreaaccountsforabouthalfofBrazilstotalindustrialoutput.
Notsurprisinglyperhaps,SaoPaulofacesmanyenvironmentalandecologicalproblemsassociatedwithrapidindustrializationand
populationgrowth.Morethan50percentofthepopulationlivesinsubstandardhousingandmanyresidentsdonothaveaccess
tocleanwaterorsanitationservices.Airandnoisepollution,crime,overcrowding,andtrafccongestionareallpervasiveproblems.
Moreover,despiterapideconomicgrowth,thelocaleconomyhasonlybeenabletoabsorbafractionofthegrowinglabourforcesothat
unemploymentandunderemploymentremainpersistentproblems.PoorperformanceoftheBrazilianeconomyduringthe1990scoupled
withthedevaluationoftherealinJanuary1998furtherexacerbatedweaknessesinthelocaleconomy(extractfromCohen,2003).
ThevulnerabilityofSaoPaulotodisasterswasdramaticallyhighlightedinJanuary2011,whentorrentialrainfallledseveralriverstoburst
theirbanksandcausedashoodsacrossthesouthofthecountry.SaoPaulowastheworsthitcity,withmanyroadsleftimpassableand
partsofthecitysubmerged.Mudslidesinthesprawlingfavelas,positionedonthehighinclinesaroundthecity,displacedlargenumbers
ofthepopulation,andkilledalmost500peoplearoundthecountry.Althoughtherewasntaninternationalappeal,somesupporttothe
responsewasprovidedbyUSAIDandothers.
Expertsblamedinadequatedrainage,whichhadfailedtokeeppacewiththerapidgrowthofthecity.Resourceswerepromisedinthe
immediateaftermathforimprovementsduringthere-building.Therewasawidelyacknowledgedneed,expressedespeciallyforcefullyby
Braziliancivilsociety,forimprovementstobemadeinacomprehensiveandequitablemanneriffuturedisastersaretobeprevented.
Althoughitisjustonecase,theSaoPaulostoryisanincreasinglycommononearoundtheworld.
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ekeyquestionsareasfollows:
Wha are urban disasers?Whatexactlydowemeanandunderstandwhenwesayurban
disasters?Howdourbandisasterseingsdierfromothercontextsinwhichhumanitarianwork
takesplace?
What is the nature of urban vulnerability?Howcanwebeerunderstanditsnature,form
anddynamics?
Wha are he challenges o urban disaser responses and how should hey be me?
Whatcanwesayaboutresponsesinurbanseings,andthechallengestheyface?
Wha do we need o do diferenly in urban disaser risk reducion?Whatareexisting
practicesandhowcanthesebeimproved?
How does urban developmen policy suppor or hinder humaniarian efors?How
candevelopmentpolicyandpracticetakeaccountofurbanvulnerability,riskanddisasters?
efollowingsectionssetoutsomeofthelatestideasandresearcharoundthevekeygaps,drawing
onliteratureandaseriesofkeyinformantinterviews.
ResearchdoneinpreparationfortheALNAPmeetinghasledtotheidenticationofanumberofquestionsthatneedtobeaddressedwithregardtodisastersandcrisesinurbancontexts.esequestionscanbeseenasrelatingtogapsinhumanitarianknowledgeandpractice.However,thisshouldnotbetakentomeanthatthereisnoknowledgeofhowthesemightbeaddressed.Rather,thereareanumberofindividualsand
groupsworkinginthesystemwhohaveakeensenseoftheseissuesandwaystonavigatethem.ButthelessonsfromurbanresponsessuchasHaitisuggestthat,aswithmanyotherareasofknowledgeinthesystem(ALNAP,2002;ALNAP,2004)3ourcollectiveunderstandingispatchy,informalandlargelytacit.Asaresult,institutionalresponsesarenotsucientlywelladaptedtothesecontexts.ishasbecomemoreapparentwiththeincreasedincidenceofurbandisasters.
3.1 From the urban-rural divide to the urban-rural continuumPerhapsthemostsignicantchallengeinunderstandingurbandisastersistoestablishwhaturbanactuallymeans(Cohen,
2003).Despitenumerousreports(includingthosecitedintheintroduction)thattheworldisbecomingmoreandmoreurbaninnature,thedenitionofurbanitselfisambiguousanddependentoncontext(FreyandZimmer,2001).4Deningthebasic
termsurbanandruralinauniversalwayisthesubjectofongoingdebate(Cohen,2003).
Whatisincreasinglyclearisthatasimplisticeither/orcategorisationisunhelpfulanddoesnotmatchtherealityofhowhuman
selementsareevolving.
2. Adapting to an urban world: ve key questions
3. What are urban disasters?
27TH ALNAP MEETING CHENNAI, INDIA 17-18 JANUARY 2012 Background Paper
53.SeepreviousALNAPstudiesonorganisationallearningandeld-levellearningformoredetails.4.UNdata,whichisthebasisofmanyoftheprojections,isreliantonnationalstatistics.Dierentcountriesdeneurbanpopulationsinverydierentways.InAngolaandEthiopia,forexample,upuntilrelativelyrecently,anylocalitywithmorethan2,000inhabitantswasautomaticallyclassiedasurban.Inothercountries,suchasBenin,thegureishigher.InsomecountriessuchasBangladeshorPakistan,urbanselementsarethosewithacertainkindofadministrativeorbureaucraticstructure(Cohen,2003).
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AstheBriengstudyBeyondRural-Urban:KeepingupwithChangingRealities(IFPRI,2005)notes:
The labels urban and rural fall far short of capturing the
dynamism and diversity of reality. Conjuring up visions of
crowded cities and isolated countryside, they suggest separateworlds and ways of living. They mask the many ways urban and
rural overlap and intertwine, as well as the variety of livelihood
strategies within urban or rural areas. (IFPRI, 2005)
esamestudynotesthatitwouldbebeertoimagineadiversesetofconditionsplacedona
continuumfromtheveryruralatoneend(forexample,smallhamletsinthehighlandsofEthiopia)to
theveryurbanattheother(mega-citiessuchasDhakaandtheirsprawlingperipheries),withvillages,
smalltowns,regionalcentresandmedium-sizedcitiesinbetween.
e2009WorldDevelopmentReport(WorldBank,2009),whichfocusedoneconomicgeography,
representedtheshiasfollows:
Underpinningthecontinuumareissuesofdiversity,densityanddynamics.esefactorshavebeen
describedasdistinguishingruralfromurbancontexts,andcanbeobservedinawholeswatheof
dierenttrendsandphenomena.eseincludepopulationsizeanddensity,mobility,economic
factorssuchaslivelihoodstrategiesandinfrastructure,keysocialindicatorssuchasservicedeliverysystems,andenvironmentalfactors(ALNAP,2009).
OneusefulwayofcapturingtheseinacomprehensivefashionistheSTEEPframeworkusedinrisk
managementandstrategicfutureswork,whichunderpinssomeoftheworkoftheHumanitarian
FuturesProgramme(HFP,2008).eSTEEPapproachenablesustothinkaboutaparticular
situationintermsofSocial,Technological,Economic,EnvironmentalandPoliticalfactors.Box
2illustrateshowthismightbeappliedtolargeurbancontextsi.e.thelargecitiesendofthe
continuum.
Figure 2: Beyond Rural and Urban rom World Development Report 2009
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eoldeither/ormodel enewcontinuum
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Asthisverypreliminarydocument-basedanalysisindicates,itisnotsimplythaturbansocietiesare
morediverse,moredynamic,ordenserthattheirruralcomparators.Itisthat,intheextreme,largeurban
centrescanbeallthreeofthesethingssimultaneously.eimportanceofeachofthesethreefactors,
andhowtheyplayoutindierentsocial,technological,economic,environmentalandpoliticalcontexts,
variesconsiderablyfromcitytocityandregiontoregion(ResilienceAlliance,2007).
27TH ALNAP MEETING CHENNAI, INDIA 17-18 JANUARY 2012 Background Paper
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Box 2: STEEP Analysis of Large Cities
Diversity Dynamics Density
Social Socialdiversitycanbe
intermsofethnicity,
class,gender,sexuality,
culture,religion,ageanddisability.
Challengesforservice
deliverytomeetthese
differentneeds.
Urbanpopulationsare
verymobile,bothona
day-to-dayandlonger-
termbasis.
Dynamicsofsocial
interactionare
complexandchange
rapidly.
Therearemanymorekindsof
groupslivingtogetherinclose
proximity.
Culturalconictsitswithinand
alongsideculturalintegration.
Technological Manymoreforms
ofinfrastructureand
technology.
Manydifferentlevels
oftechnological
development
simultaneously.
Technologicalchange
israpidandposesrisks
andopportunities.
Infrastructureisunderconsiderable
pressuresfrompopulationgrowth.
Urbansprawlsmakefora
dangerouslyhighdensityofland
usewhichincreasesvulnerability
torisks.
Economic Greaterrangeof
economicactorsfrom
large multinationals to
smallbusinesses.
Thereisconsiderable
diversityinwealthand
incomethevery
wealthyandverypoor
oftenlivinginclose
proximity.
Globalisationmakes
citiesmorevulnerable
toshocksandstresses.
Trajectoriesof
growthandrecession
canberapidand
unpredictable.
Economicclustersoccurfor
example,ofsimilarkindsof
businesses.
Manymoreformsoflivelihoodsco-
existandareinterdependent.
Environmental Manykindsofland
useformacomplex
tapestry.
Ecologicalstresses
areconsiderable,and
naturaldisasterscanhaveveryrapideffects
Pollutionandwasteareperennial
issueswhichresultinriskofhealth
epidemicsetc.
Greaterlevelsofdegradation.
Political Institutionsarediverse,
both formal and
informal,toserve
different needs and
constituents.
Urbaninhabitantscan
havediversepolitical
statuscitizens,
internallydisplaced
persons(IDPs),
unofcialrefugeesetc.
Politicalchangecan
beveryrapidand
turbulent,orthe
politicalsituationcan
beveryentrenched
and resilient to
reforms
Greaterdensityofformalpolitical
mechanisms.
Representationisanissuedueto
sheernumberofgroupsanduidity
ofurbanidentities.
Greaterpotentialfor
marginalisation.
Issuessuchaslandrightsare
especiallychallengingtotackle.
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Whatisclearisthattheparticularmixoffactorscontributingtoagivenurbancontextcarrieswide-
rangingimplicationsforpoliciesandpractices.isaectsallkindsofactorsoperatinginurbancontexts,
fromgovernmentstobusinessesandcivilsociety(ALNAP,2009),whethertheyworkinhealth,
educationorplanning.Organisationsthatfocusondisasterresponseandmanagementarenoexception
tothis(Saerthwaite,2007).
Attheveryleast,thediversity,dynamicsanddensityofurbancontextsreinforcedemandsfordisaster
managementandhumanitarianaidtomoveawayfromacookiecuermodel5andinsteadto
activelytakeamorerenedandnuancedapproachtocrises.Tosomeextent,thismeansdelivering
onthosechangesthathavelongbeencalledfortopaymoreaentiontocontext,toworkwithlocal
stakeholders,tolearnandmanageknowledge,tobemoreaccountable,tobemoreinnovative.
Inthemostchallengingurbancontexts,thesehoped-forchangeswillnotbenice-to-have
considerations,butrathermust-haverequirements.Buttherearealsomorechallengesposedbythe
threefactorsofdiversity,dynamicsanddensity,whichwilltestpoliciesandprocessesalike.
esechallengesmeanthathumanitarianagencieswillneedtoworkhardtodevelopamoredetailed
understandingofurbanlivelihoodsandvulnerabilities.Section4looksatthisinmoredetail.
erearechallengestotypesofresponse.Forexample,manyofthestrategicandoperationalapproaches
usedinhumanitarianaiddeliveryarechallengedbyurbancontexts.Implementingaidinlinewith
humanitarianprinciplesrequiresagoodunderstandingofthecrisis-aectedpopulation.Buturban
contextsposeconsiderablechallengestostandarddata-gatheringmethods,especiallyininformal
selements.Techniques,fromneedsassessmentstotargeting,monitoringandevaluationareverydicultindynamicanddiversecontexts.Operationaldeliveryalsofacesmajorchallenges.Someofthese
areconsistentwiththosefacinganyformofservicedeliveryeortinhighlydenseanddiverseurban
contexts.Butothersareuniquetodisasterresponse:forexample,manyofthepracticalkitsdelivered
throughaidmaysimplynotbeconguredtoworkinurbanenvironmentsaswasseenwiththelatrines
thatcouldnotbeinstalledintheconcreteseingofPort-au-Prince.Section5looksattheseissuesin
moredetail.
Disasterriskreduction(DRR)needstobebeerconguredtotheurbanenvironment.Inparticular,the
unpredictablenatureofurbanvulnerabilitymeansthateortsmayneedtobebroaderinscope,andtakeasystemicapproachtounderstandinghowdierentkindsofrisksandvulnerabilitiesmightcompound
eachother.Section6looksatthechallengeofurbanDRRinmoredetail,focusingonsomeofthekey
lessonsfromtheliteratureandtheongoingUNISDRcampaign.
Finally,theseissuesdonotmerelyconcerndisaster-relatedeorts.Vulnerabilityandexclusionare
developmentissuesasmuchastheyarehumanitarian,andthereisavitalneedforurbandevelopment
policytotakeaccountoftheseissues.Section7looksattheseissuesinbrief.
27TH ALNAP MEETING CHENNAI, INDIA 17-18 JANUARY 2012 Background Paper
85.FromcommentmadebyPeterWalkerduringaplenarysessionoftheWorldHumanitarianStudiesConference,Groningen,theNetherlands,7February2009.
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Itisalmostaclichtopointoutthatwhilecitiespromisegreatpotentialforgrowthandinnovation,theyarealsositesofextremepoverty,inequality,unemployment,exclusionandviolence.Asof2008,estimateswerethatonethirdofallurbanresidentswerepoor,representingaquarterofalltheworldspoor(Ravallion,Chenand
Sangraula,2007).isamountstoapproximately290millionpeopleinurbanareasindevelopingcountrieslivingbelowthepovertylineofUS$1perdayin2002.IftheUS$2perdaygureisused,thegurerisesdramaticallyto750millionpeople.Withcontinuedurbanisation,thenumbersofurbanpoorarepredictedtorise,makingpovertyincreasinglyanurbanphenomenon(ibid).
4. What is the nature o urban vulnerability?
oughtheurbanpoorarediverseacrossregions,countriesandevenwithincities,theytendtoface
anumberofcommondeprivationswhichaecttheirdailylife.Intheextreme,thesedeprivationscan
amounttoanongoingchronichumanitarianemergencywitness,forexample,theconditionsof
HaitiansbeforetheearthquakeofJanuary2010(DEC,2011).
emainissuesraisedintheliteratureincludethefollowing(WorldBank,2008):
limitedaccesstoincomeandemployment
inadequateandinsecurelivingconditions
poorinfrastructureandservices
vulnerabilitytoriskssuchasnaturaldisasters,environmentalhazardsandhealthrisks
particularlyassociatedwithlivinginslums
spatialissueswhichinhibitmobilityandtransport
inequalitycloselylinkedtoproblemsofexclusion.
erearealsoanumberofnegativeside-eects,orexternalities,ofurbanisation,suchastracproblems,
theriseofgangs,andinadequateinstitutionalandgovernancesystems(UNHABITAT,2009).
Itishardlyunsurprisingthatthosepopulationsthathavethehighestlevelsofurbanvulnerability
arethosewholiveininformalselementsorslums.erearenowaround1billionpeopleliving
inpovertyinurbanslums,facingextremelevelsofvulnerabilityonadailybasis(UNHABITAT).
eirconditionsarediverse,butsomecommonpaernscanbeidentied.
Highdependenceonfoodproducedoutsidecitiesmakeurbanresidentsvulnerabletodroughts,
ooding,andotherextremeweatherevents.eurbanpoorarethemostvulnerable.Foodand
AgricultureOrganization(FAO)studiesinurbanareasshowthata10percentriseinthepriceof
astaplecanhurttheboom20percentoftheincomedistributionthemost.
360millionpeopleliveincitiesinlowelevationcoastalzonesandarevulnerabletosea-levelrises.
Stormsurgesandrisingtidescoulddamageurbaninfrastructureandtheprovisionofservices.
Around1billionurbandwellersliveinpoorquality,overcrowdedhousinginslumsor
informalselementsthatlackadequateprovisionforpipedwaterandmostotherformsof
infrastructure. Citiesareparticularlyvulnerableduetothehighconcentrationofpeopleandeconomicassets,
andinmanycases,theirhazard-pronelocationincoastalareas,alongrivers,andinseismiczones.
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Box3providesthreespecicexamplesdrawnfromthe2010RedCrossWorldDisastersReport
(IFRC,2010).
Inmanylowandmiddle-incomecountrieswhicharethevastmajorityofthoseappealingforinternational
humanitarianaidthenegativeimplicationsofrapidurbanisationcanoutweighthepositives.Urban
growthindevelopingcountriesisfrequentlyhaphazardandoverwhelming,farexceedingthesecities
capacitytoplanadequatelyandcontroldevelopment.Suchuncontrolledurbanisationfeedsthegrowthof
slums,reinforcespoverty,anddiminishescitiesabilitytodealwithdisasters.
AsaChineseocialattheAsiaPacicUrbanForuminJune2011noted,duringrapidurbanisation,
manycriticalinfrastructureandinstitutionalarrangementsareignoredinfavourofotherpriorities(Alertnet,2011).Asthe1999/2000WorldDevelopmentReportnotedofAfricancities:[they]arenot
servingasenginesofgrowthandstructuraltransformation.Insteadtheyarepartofthecauseandamajor
symptomoftheeconomicandsocialcrisesthathaveenvelopedthecontinent(WorldBank,2000).
Aswellashigherlevelsofvulnerability,thisillustratesthatthereisalsogreaterdiversityinthedriversof
vulnerability,andagreaterdegreeofinter-dependenceinthefactorsthatcreatevulnerability(Pelling,
2003).
Risksareespeciallyhighinlowandmiddle-incomecountrieswhereathirdtoonehalfofthe
populationincitieslivesinslums.Peopleintheseandotherlow-incomeneighbourhoods
aremadeevenmorevulnerablebyovercrowdedlivingconditions,thelackofadequate
infrastructureandservices,unsafehousing,inadequatenutritionandpoorhealth.
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Box 3: Three examples of urban vulnerability
InBangladeshs capital, Dhaka,almost30percentofthe14millionpeopleliveinslumsalongthewatersedge,exposingthemto
severeoodrisks.Moreover,theStanford-basedearthquakedisasterriskindexlistsDhakaasoneofthe20mostvulnerable
citiesintheworldtoearthquakes.
Mumbai in Indiaisthefourthlargestcityintheworldwith20millionpeople,ofwhomsome6.7millionareslumdwellers
(WorldHealthOrganization).Mumbaiisoneofthetop10mostvulnerablecitiesintermsofoods,stormsandearthquakes
andisthemostvulnerablecityintheworldintermsoftotalpopulationexposedtocoastaloodhazard.LikemanyofAsiascoastal
mega-cities,mostofMumbaiislessthanametreabovesea-level.Moreover,italsoliesonanearthquakefault-line.Withthecity
accountingforalmost40percentofIndiastaxrevenue,UNHABITATnotesthatanyseriouscatastropheherecouldhavedrastic
economicconsequencesfortheentirecountry.
In Jakarta, Indonesia,40percentofthelandareaisbelowsea-level.Asaresult,its10millioninhabitantsareatriskofash
oods,particularlyalongthe13riversystemsthatpassthroughthecity.Jakartaalsohasamoderateriskofearthquakesdue
tothecountryslocationalongtheIndo-Asiasubductionzone.Thehighpopulationdensity,averaging14,000peoplepersquare
kilometre,asignicantportionofwhomareslum-dwellers,increasesthepotentialofadisastertocauseseriousharm.
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eexampleofBaidoa,SomaliaisprovidedinCaseStudy2,andillustratesthemulti-facetednature
ofurbanvulnerability.isisaninterestingexamplebecause,asatown,itsitsaroundhalfwayalong
ontherural-urbancontinuumpresentedinSection3.AresponsethatassumesthatBaidoaisapurely
ruralcontextislikelytobestymiedbytheissuesarisingfromthediversity,dynamicsanddensityofthe
context.
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Common forms of urban vulnerability
Social Thesocialcontextincitiesmaybecharacterisedbycrime,fragmentationand
othersocialproblemswhichwillreducetheabilityofhouseholdstosupportone
anotherinordertofurthertheirlivelihoodstrategies.
Inaddition,poormenandwomenmaybeexcludedfromlivelihoodopportunitiesduetodifferencessuchascultureorethnicitywhichresultintheirexclusionfrom
socialnetworks.
Technological Urbanresidentslivingonillegallyoccupiedlandorininformallowcostrental
housinglacklegaltenurerights.Assuch,theyexperiencepoorhousingqualityand
facethethreatofsummaryeviction.
Theurbanpoormaybeespeciallyvulnerabletotechnologicalhazardssuchasres,
emissions,etc.
Economic Thoseininformalemploymentgenerallylacklabourrights.Theyare
thereforesusceptibletosuddenunemployment,andthedangersaccruingto
unprotectedworkingconditions(longhours,poorpay,insanitaryorunsafe
conditions).
Freegoodsandservices,suchascommonland,cleanwaterandfuel,arerarein
cities.Mostofthebasiclivingneedsofurbanresidentsmustbepaidforincash
makingtheurbanpoorparticularlyvulnerabletomarketvagariessuchasination,
andtheremovalofgovernmentsubsidies.Dependenceonthecasheconomy
frequentlymeansthatpoorhouseholdsarevulnerabletodebt(especiallywhere
theycannotrelyoninformalorsocialnetworksforloans).Borrowing,normallyat
usuriousrates,mayleadtolong-termindebtednesswithdisastrousresultssuchas
bondedchildlabour.
Environmental Poorlivingenvironmentsoftenendangerthelivesandhealthoftheurbanpoor,
especiallywheretheyareforcedtoliveandworkinmarginalareasthroughlackof
cheapalternatives.Thiscreatesfurthervulnerability,asillhealthunderminesoneofthechiefassetsoftheurbanpoortheirlabour(Satterthwaite,1997).
Linkedtohousingrights,thoseresidentsundertakingurbanagriculturemayalso
lacklegaltenure,andrisklosingtheirlandandcrops.
Political Manyresidentswilllacklegalregistration,maybedisenfranchised,excludedfrom
politicaldecision-makingand,inaddition,maysufferfrompoliceharassmentand
bureaucracy(Wratten,1995).
Note:ExtractedandadaptedfromMeikle,S.,Ramasut,T.andJ.Walker(2001)SustainableUrbanLivelihoods:Conceptsandimplicationsforpolicy.hp://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/35/1/wp112.pdf
Box 4: A STEEP view on urban vulnerabiliy
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Case Study 2: Urban vulnerability in Baidoa, Somalia
BaidoaisthecapitalcityoftheBayregion,whichislocatedincentralsouthernSomalia.ThetownofBaidoaissituated245kmwestofMogadishu
and240kmsoutheastoftheEthiopianborder.Baidoahasanestimatedpopulationof59,110people.However,populationguresregularly
uctuateduetofrequentshiftsinIDPnumbers.BaidoaisanessentialpartoftheSorghumBelt,oftenreferredtoasSomaliasbreadbasket.
SituatedintheBaysAgro-pastoralHighPotentialLivelihoodZone,itservesasanagriculturalandlivestocktradecentrewithstrongeconomic
linkstoneighbouringruralandurbancentres(Mogadishu,Merka,Qoryoley,BarderaandBeledHawa).Italsoconductstradeactivitieswiththe
EthiopiancitiesofDolowandQalaafe,andtheKenyantownofGarissa.
ThemaineconomicactivitiesinBaidoaincludebusiness(small,mediumandlarge-scale),casuallabour,self-employment,andlivestockand
agriculturaltrade.AnothernotableaspectistheregularlabourmigrationfromBaidoatothetownsofBossaso,Galkayo,Garoweandfurther
northtoYemenandtheArabianGulf.
Generally,thekeydrivingfactorsofBaidoaseconomyincludecropandlivestockproduction,thepresenceoftheTFG(TransitionalFederal
Government),nancialcontributionsfrominternationalorganisations,includingtheUNandotherNGOs,andremittancesfromthediaspora.
Baidoadistricthasexperiencedperiodicunrestsincethe1991falloftheSiadBarreregime.Regularinter-clanghtinghasgreatlyimpactedthe
livelihoodsofthelocalpopulation.Inaddition,duringmuchofthe1990s,heavyghtingandfrequentchangesofcontrolbetweentheSNA
(SomaliNationalAlliance)andtheRRA(RahanweyneResistanceArmy)alsoaddedtothesufferingofBaidoasmostvulnerablegroups.
AftertheRRAsrecaptureofBaidoainJune1999,asignicantnumberofpeoplewhoweredisplacedtootherpartsoftheBay,Banadir,Lower
ShabelleandGedoregions,returnedandlivelihoodandgeneralsecurityimprovedinBaidoa.However,recentinstabilitycausedbyfrequentshifts
ingovernmentcontrolhasonceagainleftBaidoaspopulationvulnerable.TheremovaloftheUnionofIslamicCourtsandthere-installation
oftheTFGin2006,followingtheBattleofBaidoa,meantthatBaidoatemporarilybecametheseatofSomaliasinterimgovernment.This
madeBaidoaatargetforIslamistmilitantsandledtothestationingofEthiopiantroopswithinBaidoaasprotectionagainstattacks.Theensuing
violenceleftmanydeadandforcedhundredstoeethetown.TheTFGreturnedtoMogadishuin2007,andalthoughBaidoahasseensome
improvementintermsofsecurityanditseconomy,ithasyettofullyrecoverfromtheeffectsoftheviolence.Successiverainfailure,recurrent
drought,recentinationandpoornutritionhavealsomadethislivelihoodhighlysusceptibletohumanitariancrisis.
Analysisoftheurbanvulnerabilityidentiedthefollowingrisksfacedbyallincomegroups:
Security:civilinsecurityaffectsallwealthgroups,causingdisplacement,lossoflifeandpropertyandahighrateofunemployment.
Ination:theaverageexchangerateduringthestudyyearwas14,500SomaliShillingsperUS$and[inMay2008]stoodat
35,000SoShperUS$(anincreaseofmorethan140percent).Thiswillsignicantlyreducethepurchasingpowerofpoorand
lower-middlewealthgroups.Severeexchangeratedepreciationshaveincreasedthecostsofimportedfoodandnon-fooditems.
Ifdepreciationscontinue,poorerhouseholdswillsuffermost,particularlyiftheirwagesandprotsdonotrisetocompensate
forsuchdevaluation.
Drought (failure of the rainy season):cropproductionisadrivingeconomicfactorinBaidoa.Cropfailureduetodroughtwill
signicantlyreducefoodandincomeaccessforpoorergroups.Incomefromagriculturallabourandthecerealtradewillalso
decline.Cerealpriceswillincreaseresultinginpoorergroupsnotmeetingrequiredenergyneeds.
Water shortages:forthemajorityofthepeopleinBaidoa,themainwatersourceisshallowwells,whicharefreetoaccess.
Duringperiodsofpoorrain,thereareextremewatershortages,whichraisewatercosts.
Unemployment:jobopportunitiesweregenerallymanageableduringthereferenceyearduetorelativestability.However,there
iscurrentlyahighprobabilityofunemploymentduetoincreasinginsecurityandreducedtradeactivities.
Increased cereal prices:duringthereferenceyear,cerealpriceswerelowduetoabumpercerealharvestinthe06/07season.
However,recentpoorlocalcerealproduction,combinedwithhighcerealdemandfromotherpartsofthecountry,hascaused
cerealpricestoincrease.Cerealstocksalsodepletedearlierthanexpected,whichfurtherreducedcerealavailabilitywithinthe
SorghumBelt.
Disease (e.g. AWD (acute water diarrhoea) and malaria):diseasecauseshighchildmortalityrates.Riskofexposureishigher
duringdryseasonswhenwatershortagesforcethelocalpopulationstousedirtywater.Theabsenceofmosquitonetsalso
increasestheriskofmalaria.
Other risk factorsmentionedbykeyinformantsincludelimitedtradeactivities,adeclineinthetermsoftradeandaninuxofIDPs.
Extractedfromwww.fsnau.org/downloads/Baidoa-Urban-Baseline-Analysis-Report.pdf
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5. What are the challenges o urban disaster responses and howshould they be met?
efactorsofdiversity,dynamicsanddensitymeanthaturbandisasterscanhavesomecommoncharacteristics:
Highpopulationdensitymeansthatmorepeoplemaybekilledandinjuredwithinasmallspace,but
diversityofapopulationwillmaketheirneedshighlydierentiated.
edensephysicalnatureofcitiesmeansthattherewillbemoredamagedinfrastructuretocontend
withbuildings,roads,businessareas,sewers.
edynamicsofchangemeanthattherewillbebothagreatersenseofcollapsewhenadisasterhits,
butalsofasterratesofrecovery,supportedbydiverseeconomicstructures.
ediversityanddensityofpoliticalinstitutionsmeansthatthereisaneedforbeerandmore
nuancedengagement.
eWorldBanks2010publicationNaural hazards-unnaural disasersalsoarguesthatincreasing
andinterconnectedriskswithinrapidlyurbanisingtownsandcitiesareagame-changerintermsof
humanitarianresponse.ArecentDisastersEmergencyCommiee(DEC)evaluationoftheHaiti
response(DEC,2011)providesfurtherinsights:
[agenciesneedto]learnnewrulesofthegameinurbanpost-disasterresponse.Issuesofcomplexity,
rangeofactors,space,theimportanceofcommerceandtrade,services,infrastructureandsheer
concentrationsofpeoplerequireaconsiderationofhowtooperatecomparedtoruralcontexts.
e10keylessonsfromtheDECevaluationareworthseingoutindetail(seeBox5).
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Box 5: Lessons from DEC agencies in Haiti
This2010evaluationisoneofanumberthatfocusontheurbannatureofdisastercontexts.The10lessonsonrespondingtourban
disastersidentiedbythereportareasfollows:
1. Workwithandthroughmunicipalitieswhereverpossible.
2. Findanduseneighbourhoodnetworksandcapacities.
3. Workwiththelocalprivatesectoranddontcompeteunfairly.
4. Focusonlong-termhomes,notshort-termshelter.
5. Keeppeopleinorclosetotheirneighbourhoods,ifsafe.
6. Assumeskillsandresourcescanbefoundlocally.
7. Assumefast-changingenvironmentsandhaveanexitstrategy.
8. Usecashtostimulatemarkets.
9. Usetherighttoolsforworkingwithcomplexsetsofstakeholders.
10. Preparenowforthenextbigurbandisaster.
5.1 The scale o the challengeenatureofurbancontextsandurbanvulnerabilitiescarrymanyimplicationsforhumanitarianeorts.Becausecitiesarehometolargepopulationslivinginhighdensitiesandoeninimpoverishedconditions,thepotentialimpactofemergenciescanbehugeintermsoflossoflifeandeconomicassets.However,citiesalsogenerallyprovideahigher,albeitvariable,levelofhumanandinstitutionalresourcesthatmaybedrawnuponforthedeliveryofemergencyresponsesandlonger-termresilience.
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ereisaclearneedtoadaptexistinginternationalresponsemechanismsandprocessesinorder
thattheyaremorerelevanttourbancontexts.isincludesresponsemobilisation,planning,needs
assessments,targeting,monitoringandevaluation.Perhapsmostimportantly,thehumanitarianresponse
toolboxmayneedtoberadicallyre-thoughtinwaysthatwillprovechallengingforoperationalagencies
anddonorsalike(ALNAP,2009).
WorkbyGroupeURD6ontheHaitiresponseidentiedthathumanitarianandreconstructionaid
needstobebeeradaptedtothespeciccharacteristicsofurbancontexts.isincludespracticalissues
suchasworkingthroughexistingneighbourhoodsratherthancreatingcampsandarticialsites.Ata
morestrategiclevel,thehumanitarianresponseneedstomovefromasystemthattargetsindividualsand
householdstoonethattargetscommunitiesinanurbanenvironmentwiththeaimofcomplementing
andstrengtheningpublicservices(GroupeURD,2011).
eIASCstrategyforurbanhumanitarianism(IASC,2010)setsoutsomeofthespecicissues,
drawingonacross-countryreview.Inparticular,itidentiedmoreeortrequiredinthefollowingareas:
anticipation,preparedness,andurbansurgecapacity
workingwithnewpartners
anewurbananalyticalandoperationaltoolkit
newapproachestoperformanceandaccountability.
erestofthissectiondrawsextensivelyfromtheIASCwork,withreferencestoothermaterialwhererelevant.
Anticipation and preparedness or response
escaleandoenunpredictablelocationofurban-basedhumanitariandisastersunderscorestheneed
forpreparedness,riskmanagementandcontingencyplanningtobedevelopedforat-riskurbanareas.A
growingbodyofevidencepointstothebenecialimpactsofpreparednessintermsofloweredoverall
costsofreliefassistance,reducedlossoflifeandlivelihoods,greateruseofsafertechniques,engagement
withlocalcapacitiesandresilience,andenhancedcapacitytorebuildandrecoverfaster(IASC,2010).
ToquotetheIASCstrategydirectly:
Recent experience in the aftermath of floods in Manila demonstrates
that joint implementation plans with host governments and service
providers, including the private sector, are most effective if forged
prior to an emergency. This is because agencies are reluctant to
take the time required to plan when confronted with an emergency
and instead resort to pre-established (pre-emergency) ways of
doing business. These strategies need to recognise that the host
government must lead, or at the very least coordinate, an emergency
response (IASC, 2010).
5.2 Addressing the response challenge: Key Lessons rom the IASC urban strategy
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6.hp://haitiinnovation.org/en/2011/01/29/beyond-emergency-relief-haiti-groupe-urd
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iscanbeproblematic,however,inplaceswheregovernmentisweak,asinthecaseofurbanHaitiaer
the2010earthquake.
Keymeasuressuggestedinclude:
euseoflocalriskandvulnerabilityanalysesandearlywarningcapacities,includingmapping communityhotspots(moreonthisinSection6).
Strengtheningcontingencyplanningandpartnership-buildinginadvanceofanurbancrisis,
includingcommunityresiliencemechanismswithgenderandyouthsensitivity.
Improvedpre-positioningofemergencystocksoffood,temporaryshelter,andhealthproviders;
preparinglogisticschainsandestablishingpro-formacontractswithlocalproviders.
Deningrolesandresponsibilitiesofdierentactorsandmappingcapacities.
Strengtheningcitizensecurity,communitypolicingandmonitoringrolesbycivilsociety
organisations(CSOs).
Workinginpartnershiptobuildthecapacityofpartnernationalandlocalgovernmentsin
responsesandpreparedness.Stakeholdersinthesepartnershipsshouldinclude:hostnationaland
localgovernments,disasterresponseagencies,civildefenceorganisations,emergencyresponse
services(e.g.reservices),nationalNGOs,civilsociety(neighbourhoodcommunity-based
organisations(CBOs))andbusinessactorsinurbanareas.
ereisaparticularneedtoprepareformoremega-disasterslikeHaiti,Pakistan,Japanwhichhavethe
potentialtodramaticallyaectlargenumbersofapopulation,shapingbothshort-termvulnerabilityand
long-termdevelopment.Suchdisasterswillneedcollaborativepreparationeortsacrossthewholeof
theinternationalcommunity,includingdevelopment,diplomaticandmilitaryeorts(HFP,2008).
Anotherkeyformofpreparednessisinrelationtointernalcapacities.Humanitarianagenciesneedto
adaptandupgradetheskillsbaseoftheirstatoaddressurban-basedchallenges(IASC,2010).Recent
emergencieshaveservedtormlyunderlinethisissue.
Working with new partners
Whileapartnershipapproachhasbecomeanincreasinglyimportantcomponentofthedevelopment
strategiesadoptedsincethe1990s,disasterresponseisstilllaggingsomewaybehind(ALNAP,2005).
eneedtocollaboratebeerwithnationalandlocalactorsremainsamajorissue,highlightedin
successiveevaluations(forexample,theTECevaluationandtheHaitievaluations),butwithseeminglylileornoprogress.Asonepaperputsit:
Perhaps the biggest challenge for humanitarian actors and also a
major opportunity is to develop ways of working with the existing
institutional framework of municipal and civil society organisations
which exists in most towns and cities in the developing world...
(Zetter and Deikun, 2007)
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Insteadofsuchpartnershipsbeingseenasanice-to-have(ALNAP,2005),inurbancontextsthey
shouldbeseenasfundamentaltoenablinganeectiveresponse.Inparticular,localandnationalactors
haveknowledgeofthehazardsandvulnerabilitiesofbeneciarycommunitiesandofinstitutional
resourcestocomplementdeliveryofassistancebyinternationalactors.eyalsopossesscommunity
outreachcapacitytoengagethemostvulnerablebeneciaries.
ereisgrowingrecognitionofthepotentialroleoftheprivatesector,orpublic-privatepartnerships
(PPPs),forthedeliveryofurbaninfrastructureandhousing.ereisaneedtoconsiderthedegreeto
whichtheprivatesectorcanplayabenecialrole,frompreparednesstoresponseandrecovery.
RecentcomplexemergenciesandnaturaldisastersinPakistan,HaitiandKyrgyzstandemonstratethe
importanceofcommunitiesandhostfamiliesinsavingliveswhentheysupportaectedpopulations.
eycanbecriticaltobuildingresilienceofcommunitiesandinprovisionofessentialservices.Findings
fromrepeatedevaluationsindicatethatpuingcommunitiesatthecoreofanintegratedresponseyields
higherimpacts.
Countrycasestudies7conductedbytheIASCTaskForcehaveshownthathumanitarianassistance
ismoreeectivewhenclearandeectivestrategiesformulti-stakeholderpartnershipsaredeveloped
beforeacrisishits,orfailingthat,asearlyaspossibleaerwards.
Acentralfocusofsuchstrategieswillbetodeterminehowmuchoftheresponsecanbeprovided
byexternalassistanceandinseingclearindicatorsforexitstrategies,i.e.thepointatwhichexternal
agenciesshouldleavetoallowlocalandnationalactorstotakeovertherecoveryprocess(DEC,2011).
ismeanshavingaclearandcollectivesenseofwhatsuccesslookslikeforaneectiveresponse.8
Adapt and develop new urban analytical and operational toolkits
eIASCassessmentofthehumanitariantools,approachesandguidelinesusedbymemberagencies
andothersfoundthatthevastmajorityweredevelopedforpredominantuseinruralseings.While
sometoolsarealreadybeingadapted,experiencesuggeststhatthisisnotenough,andthatnewtoolswill
alsobeneeded.
eseincludeagreaterrangeofrapidassessmenttools,urbanindicatorsforneedassessments,urban
marketassessmenttools,urbanlivelihoodassessmenttoolsandurban-specicassessmenttoolsforeachofthekeysectorsofresponse(foodsecurity,shelter,WASH,healthandprotection).Oneofthe
majorgapsidentiedbytheIASCwastheneedforastandardisedurbanvulnerabilityandresilience
assessmenttodeneandmapthevulnerabilitiesandresilienceofdierenturbangroupsandhowthey
mightbeaectedbychangingstressesandshocks,apointwhichispickedupinthenextsection.
ereisalsoarangeofareaswherehumanitarianpracticeswillneedbothradicalandincremental
improvements.Targetedinnovationprocesseswillhelpidentify,testandscaleupnewideasand
processesacrossallofthekeysectorsofhumanitarianresponse(SeeBox6).
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7.IASCTaskForceonMeetingHumanitarianChallengesinUrbanAreasCaseStudiesforNairobi/Eldoret,ManilaandHaiti,May-June,20108.DavidSanderson,PersonalCommunication,August2011
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Adapt humanitarian evaluation and accountability approaches
Giventhevitalimportanceoflocalandnationalcapacitiesindisasterresponse,itisimportanttoidentify
andcommunicateclear,accountablerolesfortheinternationalsysteminwaysthataresupportiveof
localfunctions.isneedstobedoneattheoutsetofaresponse,throughtraining,secondmentsand
technicalsupport.ereisalsoscopetobuildsuchworkintopreparednesseorts.Urbandisaster
responseposesparticularchallengesforaccountabilitytodisaster-aectedpeople.enatureoflocalpopulationsdemandsamoredynamicapproachtoaccountability.Recentinnovations,especiallyin
communicationtechnologies,looktoplayacentralroleinsucheortsinthefuture.
enatureandscopeofurbanresponsemeansthatstandardexpostevaluationsmaynotalwaysbe
sucienttoaddresslearningandaccountabilityneeds.Inparticular,theremayneedtobeabeer
developedmenuofevaluativeoptions.Attheveryleast,thisshouldincludenewapproachestourban
real-timeevaluations,moreparticipatoryandinclusiveformsofmulti-stakeholderevaluation,and
context-specicwaysofdealingwithimpactassessmentindynamicanduidenvironments.
Ontheevaluationside,thisneedstobeunderpinnedwithmorerealistictheoriesofchangeemployed
fromtheoutsetofaprogrammeorintervention.Agencieswillneedtoworkhardtothinkthroughhow
dierentinterventionsmightwork,andtheyneedtorevisitthisonaregularbasissoastoenablethe
necessaryadaptationstotakeplace.Asaresult,urbanresponsesmayrequirethebalanceofevaluation
investmenttobemoretiltedtowardformativeapproaches.Ontheprogrammemanagementside,this
meansbeingopentoprogrammesthatenduplookingverydierenttotheoriginalproposals.
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Box 6: Sector-specic innovations needed for urban response
Shelter:Thereisaneedtoimplementbettertransitionalshelterprocesses,i.e.notjustshedsbutactivitiesthatinvolvepeople,
makeuseofrentalmarkets,etc.Urbanplanningalsoneedstobere-thoughttotakeaccountoflandtenureandpropertyrights
issues.Approachesformoreeffectiveurbanrubbleremovalanddisposalneedtobedeveloped,whichwillhavebenetsin
freeinguplandfortransitionalorpermanentshelterconstruction.
WASH:Promisingapproachesincludede-sludgingtechnologies,pre-identiedwastedisposallandlls,upgradingschoolsanitary
facilitiesandcommunity-ledtotalsanitation.
Food aid:Thisneedstoconsiderthechallengesoffoodpreparation,distributionandurban-basedagriculturalproductionin
limitedandverycrowdedurbanneighbourhoodsaswellasnavigatingsecurityrisksrelatedtostockpilinglargerations.Haiti
demonstratedthatworkingwithpre-existingfoodvendorswasaneffectiveapproachformeetingsomeimmediatefoodneeds.
Livelihoods:Humanitariansshouldscaleupexistinginnovativetools,suchasmicronanceandsmallbusinesssuppor t,andmore
effectivelytargettheseinurbanareas,includingthroughstrengthenedpartnershipswithlocalcommunitiesandtheprivate
sector.Newtoolsareneededforenhancednaturalresourcesmanagementandadaptationtodifferinglivelihoodcontextsin
urbanareas.
Use of technology forbettercommunicationofissuesandofresources,e.g.theuseofmobilephonestosendcashtransfersand
tocommunicatesimplemessages.
Protection:Thesecurityandprotectionneedsofaffectedpopulationsdiffersignicantlybetweenruralandurbansettings.
InnovativeapproacheshavebeendevelopedbytheprotectionclustersinNairobiandBogotatoprovideprotectionagainst
needsforincreasingnumbersofrefugeesandIDPswhomigratetocities.UNHCRhasalsodevelopedanewurbanrefugeepolicy
(IASC,2010).
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6. What do we need to do diferently in urban disaster riskreduction?
Aswellasresponse,disasterriskreductionalsoneedstobeconsideredthroughtheurbanlens.erearea
numberofkeydriversofchangeandthreattocitiesonglobal,regionalandlocallevels.DRReortsneedtobefocusedonmakingbothinternationalandnationalactorsmoresensitivetothesedrivers.eliteratureindicatestheneedforeortsinthreedistinctareas.
Development o a global Urban DRR assessment methodology
Atagloballevel,thereisneedtodevelopusefultypologiesofcitiesandtheirvulnerabilityprolesas
calledforintheIASCstrategycoveredearlier.OneinterestingdevelopmentinthisregardistheWorld
BanksGlobalFundforDisasterReductionandRecoveryandsupporttothedevelopmentofamulti-
hazardUrbanDisasterRiskIndex(UDRI).UDRIisatoolwhichprovidesabaselineagainstwhichrisks
canbemappedandagainstwhichprogresstowardsresiliencecanbemeasuredovertimeandinrelation
toothercities.eplanisforUDRItobecomeagloballyacceptedstandardinassessingandmonitoring
disasterrisksandcapacitiesforresilienceincitiesaroundtheworld(GFDRR,2010).
eUDRIbuildsonmappingandidentifyingthefollowingaspectsofurbanrisk:
hazards(bothslow-andrapid-onsetevents,e.g.earthquake,volcaniceruption,tsunami,typhoon,
precipitation-basedooding,landslide,sea-levelrise,temperatureincreases,andchanging
precipitationpaerns)
exposure(intermsofpotentialdamageandlossoflife,infrastructure,andeconomicassets)
adaptivecapacity(e.g.nationalandlocalpoliciesandinstitutions,abilitytoraisenancesfromlocal sources,technicalcapacity/linkstotechnicalinstitutes,contingencyplanning).
AnUDRIpilotiscurrentlyunderwayacrossvecitiesintheNingboregionofChina,withafurtherfour
citiesinIndonesiaandailandtofollow.esepilotswillhelprenethemethodologybycomparing
citiesacrosscountriesaswellaswithincountries.
ereisscopeforusingsuchatooltodevelopaglobalurbandisasterhotspotsmap,whichcanhelp
shapepreparednesswork.ismapwillneedtobeforward-looking,anticipatingratesofgrowthofcities
andconcurrentincreasesinvulnerability.eURDIworkalsoaimstosynthesiseexistingdata,andshouldbeausefultestofwhatcanbedoneusingexistingdataandinformation.
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Mainstreaming urban issues into DRR eforts
erearemanyeortsgoingoninspeciccitiesaroundtheworld,includingthefollowing:
UNISDRhasestablishedtworegionaltaskforcesforUrbanRiskReduction(oneinLatinAmerica
andtheCaribbeanandtheotherinAsiaPacic).etaskforcesarealreadyplayingakeyrolein termsofcoordinatingurbanDRReortsandprovidingguidanceandstructuretothemultitude
of regionalinitiatives.isledtotheResilientCitiescampaignof201011,mentionedearlier
(UNISDR,2011).UNDPhasprojectsonurbanDRRinKathmandu,Manila,Amman,Aqaba,
Kermanandothers,andsupportsregionalinitiatives.eGlobalFacilityforDisasterReductionand
Recovery(GFDRR)hasfundedprojectsinurbanDRRinManilaandQuito.
eRegionalStrengtheningandDisasterRiskReductioninMajorCitiesintheAndean
CommunitiesrunbyUNDPhasfocusedonriskreductioneortsforthecapitalcitiesofve
Andeancountries(Bolivia,Ecuador,Venezuela,PeruandColombia).
ereisalsoalotofworkunderwayonstrategiesforclimateresilientcities,ledbydierentregional
consortia,forexampletheRockefellerFoundationsAsianCitiesClimateChangeResilienceNetwork.
Nationalgovernmentshaverecogniseddisasterrisksintheircitiesandhaveinitiatedriskassessment,
preparednessandinsomecases,mitigationprograms.Turkey,Jordan,Indonesia,thePhilippines,
India,Uzbekistan,EcuadorandColombiaallhaveactivenationalurbanDRRprograms.
MunicipalandlocalgovernmentsareincreasinglyengagedwithDRReortsduetothegrowing
awarenessoftherisksofnaturalandman-madehazards.Citiesthathavedevelopedacomprehensive
understandingoftheirexposuretohazardsandhavetakenstepstoimprovetheircapabilitiesto
respondandreducedisasterrisksinclude:Istanbul,Bogota,Tehran,LaPaz,KathmanduandMumbai.
AspartoftheResilientCitiescampaign,UNISDRprovidesthefollowing10-pointchecklistforurbanDRR:
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Box 7: Key lessons for urban DRR
1. Putinplaceorganisationsandcoordinationtounderstandandreducedisasterrisk,basedonparticipationofcitizengroupsand
civilsociety.Buildlocalalliances.Ensurethatalldepartmentsunderstandtheirroleindisasterriskreductionandpreparedness.
2. Assignabudgetfordisasterriskreductionandprovideincentivesforhomeowners,low-incomefamilies,communities,
businessesandthepublicsectortoinvestinreducingtheriskstheyface.
3. Maintainup-to-datedataonhazardsandvulnerabilities,prepareriskassessmentsandusetheseasthebasisforurban
developmentplansanddecisions.Ensurethatthisinformationandtheplansforyourcitysresiliencearereadilyavailabletothe
publicandfullydiscussedwiththem.
4. Investinandmaintaincriticalinfrastructurethatreducesrisk,suchasooddrainage,adjustedwhereneededtocopewith
climatechange.
5. Assessthesafetyofallschoolsandhealthfacilitiesandupgradetheseasnecessary.
6. Applyandenforcerealistic,risk-compliantbuildingregulationsandland-useplanningprinciples.Identifysafelandforlow-
incomecitizensanddevelopupgradingofinformalsettlements,whereverfeasible.
7. Ensureeducationprogrammesandtrainingondisasterriskreductionareinplaceinschoolsandlocalcommunities.
8. Protectecosystemsandnaturalbufferstomitigateoods,stormsurgesandotherhazardstowhichyourcitymaybevulnerable.
Adapttoclimatechangebybuildingongoodriskreductionpractices.
9. Installearlywarningsystemsandemergencymanagementcapacitiesinyourcityandholdregularpublicpreparednessdrills.
10.Afteranydisaster,ensurethattheneedsofthesurvivorsareplacedatthecentreofreconstructionwithsupportforthem andtheircommunityorganisationstodesignandhelpimplementresponses,includingrebuildinghomesandlivelihoods
(UNISDR,2010).
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Integrating DRR into development eforts
WorkbyMarkPellingandBenWisner(2009)presentsdetailedcasestudiesofurbanDRRfromsix
dierentcountries.Eachcasestudyincludesspecicbackgroundinformationonurbanisationprocesses,
ahistoryofdisastersinagivencityandananalysisofprocessesthatleadtotheaccumulationofrisks.
InthecaseofAccra,Ghana,everydaydisasterrisksassociatedwithmultipleenvironmentalhealth
inadequaciesinpoorneighbourhoodsaredescribed,andvariousrecommendationsaremadeto
improvepublichealthandaccesstobasicservices.
IntheSouthAfricancasestudyonthecityofCapeTown,15yearsofconsolidateddataoneveryday
rerisksininformalselementsarediscussed.
InthecasestudyonunplannedselementsinDarEsSalaam,Tanzania,variousdisasterrisks,
processescausingthemandmeasurestakenbydierentstakeholdersareidentied.
Inanumberofthesecasestudies,theauthorsndthatDRRneedstobeintegratedwithdevelopment
andurbanplanning.esameconclusionhasbeenreachedbytheorganisationscollaboratingto
enhanceDRRinMumbai,India,asillustratedinCaseStudy3.
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Case Study 3: Mumbai DRR programme
Extract from Sinha and Adarsh, 1997:
Likemostmajorurbancentresinourcountry,Mumbaihasgrowntremendouslyinthelastfewdecadesduetounabatedmigration
fromthesmallertownsandruralareas.Asaresult,thecityhasdevelopedinahaphazardfashionwithlittleconsiderationforproper
town-planningnorms.Thishasresultedinmostareasofthecitylackingbasiccivicamenities.Infact,almost50percentofMumbai
populationlivesininformalhouses(oftenillegalandofverypoorquality)inslums.Eveninthenon-slumareas,thebasicamenitiesmay
belackingandthestructuresmaybeofpoorquality.Anylong-termdisruptionofnormalcyinthiscitymayhaveextremelyadverseconsequencesfortheentirenation.Thereis,consequently,aneedtobepreparedagainstallpossiblenaturalandman-madedisasters
thatarelikelytooccurinMumbai.Forthispurpose,itisessentialtohaverealisticunderstandingoftheconsequencesoflikelydamagein
Mumbaiduetodifferentdisasters.Thiswillpermitrationalplanningofmitigationeffortsinordertominimizeeffectsofthesedisasters.
(SinhaandAdarsh,1997)
Inthepastfewyears,theGovernmentofMaharashtra(GoM),theMunicipalCorporationofGreaterMumbai(MCGM),theIndian
InstituteofTechnology(IIT),theEarthquakeandMegacitiesInitiative(EMI)andtheEarthquakeDisasterMitigationResearchCenter
ofJapan(EdM-NIED)collaboratedtoidentifytherangeofhazardsthathaveimpactedorcouldpotentiallyimpactthecityofMumbai.
Theseincludedoods,whichhavethepotentialtoparalysethecity,earthquakes,resandindustrialaccidents,nuclearhazards,terrorist
attacks,andothers.
Anumberoffactorsareseenascontributingtoheightenedvulnerabilitiesandrisksinthecity,includingthefactthatMumbaiisan
islandcitywithgenerallypoortransportnetworks,poorbuildingdesignandconstructionpractices,changinguseofbuildingswithout
retro-ttingorstrengthening,lackofback-upsystemsforwatersupply,inadequatesewerage,weakinfrastructure,vulnerabilitytopower
failures,extensivereclamationofcoastalareas,existenceofhazardousindustries,highpopulationdensityincommercialareasandslums,
andimproperandinadequategarbagecollectionanddisposal.
Consistentwiththenationalapproach,MumbaisDisasterManagementPlanreferstoitsgoalsofmitigationstrategyas:
tosubstantiallyincreasepublicawarenessofdisasterrisksothatthepublicdemandssafercommunitiesinwhichtoliveandwork
tosignicantlyreducetherisksoflossoflife,injuries,economiccosts,anddestructionofnaturalandculturalresourcesthatresult
fromdisasters.
Followingonfromthis,alldistrictshaveundertakenaninventoryofexistingresourcestoidentifygapsandneeds,toimprovepreparednessandresponsecapabilitytofuturedisasters.District-levelDisasterManagementCommitteeshavebeenestablishedto
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7. How can urban development and humanitarianeforts be mutually supportive?
AlthoughnottheprimaryfocusoftheALNAPmeeting,itisalsoimportanttohighlighttherolethatdevelopmentactorsmustplayinenhancingurbanresilience.elatestthinkingfromtheWorldBankonurbandevelopmentstrategies(WorldBank,2009)andothersrecommendsthatdevelopingcountriestakeathree-prongedapproachtourbanisation,eachelementofwhichhastangiblerelevancefortheissuescoveredalreadyinthisBackgroundPaper.
Designnationalandmunicipalpoliciesandinstitutionsthatanticipateurbanisationandmaximise resilience.Atthenationallevelthisincludesmacro-economicpolicyframeworksthatpromotetrade
andcapitalows,nationalframeworksforlandandlabourmarkets,andsoundinter-governmental
scalsystemswhichinuencehowcitiesmanagetheirnancesanddevelopment(ibid).
Ensurethatappropriatemechanismsareinplacetofacilitatenational,regionalandlocalpolicy
coordinationanddecision-makingforresilientdevelopment.Countriesmoresuccessfulin
managingtheurbantransitionhavereliedondedicatedcommissions,forumsandothersuch
networkedinstitutionalarrangementsthatlinkalllevelsofgovernmentandpolicy-makerswith
urbanplanninginstitutions,universities,NGOsandtheprivatesector.Ifthisapproachistowork, itisespeciallyimportantthatitisgroundedinsounddatacollectionandanalysissystemsandin
robustmeansofdesigningandtestingdierentresilienceapproaches(ibid).
Establishclosercollaborationacrossalltiersofgovernmentandtheinternationalcommunity.
Urbanisationisnotexclusivelyachallengeforcities.Tobeeective,developingcountrieswill
needecient,multi-tieredcoordinationmechanismstosupportpolicyformulationandcoordinated
interventionsbetweennational,regionalandlocalgovernmentsandtheinternationalsystemof
actors.Newtechnologieshaveaconsiderableroletoplayhere(ibid).
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reviewthethreatsofvariousdisasters,assessvulnerabilityofthedistrict,evaluatepreparedness,andconsidersuggestionsforimproving
thedistrictdisastermanagementplan.
Theadministrativestructuredealswithplanning,coordinationandawarenessissues.Thishasbeenonthebasisofanintegratedmulti-
hazarddisasterplanthatisaccompaniedbyresourcesmaps,anticipatoryresponsestrategiesandthecreationofexpertgroupson
differentkindsofdisasterstoprovideadviceandexpertisetoresponseeffortswhentheydohappen.
Effectivecoordinationamongallinvolvedagenciesforeffectiveresponsehasbeenoneofthemajorconcernsintheprocess.
Communicationsandawarenessraisingarekey,andhaveincludedanumberofcampaignstosensitiseandembedconceptsabout
disastersandriskreductionamongkeyactors,fromeducationalestablishments(schools,colleges,universities),teachersbodies,through
togovernmentalorganisationstoNGOsandcommunity-basedorganisations.
Extractedandadaptedfromwww.emi.pdc.org/cities/CP-Mumbai-09-05.pdf
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Researchdoneondonoreortsinurbandevelopmentsuggestssomeclearshisinthinkinginthe
internationaldonorcommunityonengagementatthemunicipallevel(Milbert2004).Duringthe1990s,
urbanprojectswereoennegotiatedatthenationallevelwithminimalengagementoflocalgovernment
institutions.Sincethen,severaldonorcountrieshaveengagedinlong-termpartnershipswithlocal
governmentsandhavebeenincreasingsupportforinternationalandlocalNGOsengagedinurbanareas.Suchinterventionsrecognisethekeyroleofmunicipalandlocalauthoritiesandcivilsociety(Milbert
2004).
Perhapsthemostsignicantnewareaindevelopmentpolicyhasbeenthegrowingaentionpaidto
ideasofresilience.isnewbigideahashadseveraltriggers,fromworkonclimatechange,todealing
withglobalcrisesinfoodandnance,throughtoworkonsocialprotectionandDRR.Itisincreasingly
seenasasharedframeworkforbridgingthegapsbetweenpreviouslydisparateareasofinternational
aid.erelevanceforurbancrisesisspelledoutintheUKGovernmentsHumanitarianEmergency
ResponseReview(HERR):9theneedtomakeresilienceacentralelementofourworkrequiresusto
analyseglobal,regional,nationalandlocalresourcestressandmakesureourinvestmentsdonotincrease
vulnerability.iswillrequireastepchangeinDFIDsdevelopmentwork(DFID,2011).
Attheveryleast,strengtheningurbanresiliencerequiresthecoherentapplicationofawiderangeof
strategieswhichreducethevulnerabilityofthosemostatrisktoshocksandstresses,andwhichenable
moreadaptiveresponsestoshocksandstresseswhentheydooccur.
ismeansthaturbandisastersarenotseenpurelyasaresponsibilityofhumanitarianagencies,butthat
suchresponsibilityextendsacrosstheaidsystemandthewholeinternationalcommunity.
9.hp://www.dd.gov.uk/Documents/publications1/HERR.pdf
8. Towards urban humanitarianism: a challenge or learningand leadership
Itshouldbeapparentthatthesevequestionsarefarfromtrivialissuesfortheinternationalhumanitariancommunity.However,manyoftheintervieweesinvolvedintheresearchforthisBackgroundPaperwereclearthatthesefundamentalissueswillneedtobeaddressedinasustainedway,atthelevelofbothpolicyandpractice,ifwewanttoseeimprovedhumanitarianactioninurbancontexts.
econceptsandpracticesthatneedtobeembracedforeectivelyworkingwithurbandisasters
presentaconsiderableadaptationchallengetotheinternationalcommunity.evegapsoutlined
abovearenotbeingaddressedsucientlywellorwiththenecessarysenseofurgency.Partofthereason
isthattherearemanyothergame-changingissuesonthetableforhumanitariananddevelopmentaid,
ofwhichurbanisationisjustone.
However,iftheevidencethatisemergingiscorrect,andiftheevaluationsofresponsestoHaitiand
otherurbancrisesareaccurate,thenurbanisationmaywellbeagame-changerforthehumanitarian
communityonaparwithclimatechange.
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Addressingthesegapswillrequirealotofthingstobeputinplace,astheyhavemanydierentdimensions.
Buttwooverarchingchallengesstandoutasmostimportant,giventhecurrentstateofthesystemsresponse.
eseareespeciallyrelevantfortheALNAPmembershipandmandate.
First,amorecollectivelearningagendatoaddressthesegaps,mobilisingtheresourcesacrossthesystemasawhole,ismuchneeded.isneedstobebothtechnical,addressingissuesofdata,accuracyandtrends;
butalsohuman,addressingtraining,operationalguidance,andsoon.Suchalearningagendawouldalso
needtotakeaccountoftheinherentlycomplexnatureofurbancontexts.Oneinterestingideaisforthe
establishmentofaglobalurbandisasterobservatorytosupportresearch,developmentandcapacity
strengthening;suchamechanismwouldneedtobefundedcollectivelybythekeyactorsinthesystem,and
supportedbyexistingmechanisms.
esecondchallengeisinstitutionalandpoliticalinnature.Specically,thereisasignicantleadershipgap
thatneedstobeaddressed,tohelpputurbanissuesrmlyonthetable,andtoensurethatthenecessary
adjustmentsarechampionedthroughoutthesystem.Moreover,theimplicationsforbuildingurbanresilience
spantheentireinternationalcommunityaswellasnationalauthorities.Urbandisastersposeacollective
actionchallengeofthekindthehumanitariansystemhasprovedparticularlybadattacklinginthepast.
Whileitishearteningtoseegrowingeortstotakethisissueforward,urbanisationstillneedsmoreurgent
andstrategicaentionacrossallagencies,networksandcoalitionsinthesector.Mobilisationofleadersof
internationalandnationalbodiesmaybeonewayofdoingthisperhapswiththekindofhigh-levelforum
thatwasestablishedforthefoodpricecrisisin2008,chairedbyahigh-prolegure.
eDECreportonHaitiwarnedthatwecanexpectthreetoveurbanmega-disastersinthenext10yearsalone.Andyet,asnotedbyCareInternationalsPresidentHelenGayle,internationalagencieshave
singularlyfailedtoco-evolvewithurbanisationasquicklyasithashappened.10iscontinuedlackof
strategicandoperationaladaptationisserious.Failuretoaddressthegapsoutlinedherethreatenstomake
urbandisastersyetanotherareawheretheinternationalsystemfailedtomeetexpectationsandwhereit
failedtodeliveronitsgoalsofmobilisingproportionate,equitable,andaboveallrelevantresponsestomajor
disastersandcrises.11
Key questions or conerence participants to consider ahead o the meeting
Howcanwedevelopasharedunderstandingofurbancontextsinwaysthatarerelevanttohumanitarian
action?
Howdoestheurbancontextchallengeourunderstandingofvulnerability?
Whatisdierentaboutthehumanitarianresponseinanurbanenvironment?Whatarethechallenges
andpossibilities?
WhatpracticalexamplesarethereofbringingurbanissuestobearonDRR,preparednessandresponse?
Whatshouldournextstepsbecollectively,andasindividualorganisations?
Whatcommitmentsareneeded/possiblefromacrosstheinternationalcommunity?
10.hp://www.irinnews.org/IndepthMain.aspx?InDepthID=63&ReportID=7402111.hp://www.fmreview.org/urban-displacement/FMR34/05-07.pdf
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isBackgroundPaperbeneedgreatlyfromcommentsandfeedbackfromJoshHarris,ManuGupta,
PaulKnoxClarke,JohnMitchell,DavidSanderson,KevinSavageandKimScriven,
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