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1INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Rolf Härdter
International Potash Institute, c/o K+S KALI GmbH, Bertha-von-Suttner-Str.7, 34131 Kassel,
Germany. Fax: +49 561 9301 1416, E-mail: rolf.haerdter@kali-gmbh.com
Thomas Fairhurst
Potash & Phosphate Institute/Potash & Phosphate Institute of Canada – East & Southeast
Asia Programs, 126 Watten Estate Road, Singapore 287599. E-mail: tfairhurst@eseap.org
BACKGROUND
The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) has nowbeen established on about 5.5 M ha of landin Southeast Asia. Due to its large demandfor nutrients and the size of the area planted,the crop is now one of the largest consumersof mineral fertilizer nutrients in Southeast Asia.Because of its geological nature, SoutheastAsia is able to supply almost all i tsrequirements for nitrogen (N), by utilizingabundant deposits of natural gas tomanufacture N fertilizers, but most of itsrequirements for phosphorus (P), and all itspotassium (K) requirements as well as part ofits requirement for magnesium (Mg) fertilizersmust be imported.
The use of mineral fertilizer nutrients inSoutheast Asia increased from about 250,000M t NPK fertilizer nutrients in 1980 to morethan 1,500,000 M t in 2000. The oil palmaccounts for a large part of the increase innutrient consumption. Only a small proportionof total nutrient uptake is exported in palm andkernel oils, the economic products of oil palm,and thus there is considerable scope torecycle nutrients contained in crop residuesor provide nutrients to other cropping systemsin the form of compost manufactured frompalm oil mill effluent (POME) and empty fruitbunches (EFB) (Redshaw, this volume).
Much knowledge and know-how hasaccumulated over the past thirty years throughthe work of research and developmentdepartments in the leading plantation housesas well as practical planters. Our aim inupdating this bulletin (Ng, 1972; von Uexküll
and Fairhurst, 1991) is to provide scientists,advisers, consultants, managers and growerswith ‘state of the art’ knowledge on issuesrelating to nutrient management in oil palm.
VEGETABLE OIL SUPPLY AND
DEMAND
Growth in world population and economicdevelopment are two factors that drive theincreasing global demand for vegetable oils.Per capita consumption of oils and fats issmaller than levels recommended by the Foodand Agriculture Organization in manydeveloping countries (Figure 1) wherepopulation growth and increasing incomes willresult in further growth in the demand forvegetable oils in the 21st century.
Nevertheless, the supply of oils and fatsto the world’s increasing population hasimproved continuously over the past twentyyears. Almost all of the growth in productionhas been contributed by vegetable oils whilstthe production of animal oils and fats hasstagnated during the same period (Figure 2).
Between 1994 and 2001 the production ofpalm and kernel oil increased by 63% and54% respectively: a larger increase than forany other vegetable oil (Table 1). The annualrate of increase in production during thisperiod was greater for oil palm (>7%)compared with soybean (6%). Palm andkernel oils represent almost 28% of totalvegetable oil production and are well-positioned to become the largest sources ofvegetable oil in the 21st century (Table 1).
-
2 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
Figure 1. Vegetable oil supply in selected countries in Asia in 2002 (FAO, 2002).
China
Cambodia
India
Indonesia
Laos
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Thailand
Viet Nam
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Supply (kg capita-1 year-1)
Figure 2. Global production of vegetable oils and animal fats (Oil World Annual 1998, 1999,
2000, 2001; Oil World Weekly, 2002).
1994 1996 1998 20000
20
40
60
80
100
120
Production (,000 M t)
Year
Vegetable
Animal
-
3INTRODUCTION
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-
4 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
AREA EXPANSION AND
PRODUCTIVITY
The cultivated oil palm originated from WestAfrica, but Southeast Asia has now becomethe largest producer of palm oil (Table 2). Themost significant increases in production duringthe past seven years have occurred inMalaysia (8.5% per annum) and Indonesia(16.9% per annum) which together account formore than 80% of world production (Table 2).
In spite of large rates of growth in produc-tion in some countries in Latin America, thearea planted is small compared to SoutheastAsia, and the position of Malaysia as theworld-market leader in palm oil is only likelyto be challenged by Indonesia in the nearfuture. Indonesia’s palm oil productiondoubled in only seven years from 1994 to2001 (Table 2), which may be explained bythe country’s favorable climatic and soilconditions and the large reserves of suitableland that were available for oil palmdevelopment during this period.
Most of the area planted in Southeast Asiacan be found concentrated in a band between10º N and 10º S of the equator due to the crop’sparticular climatic requirements (Figure 3). Oilpalm is cultivated successfully beyond theseagroecological boundaries in Thailand, wherethe major production constraint is low andpoorly distributed rainfall (Paramananthan, thisvolume). The largest centres of production,however, are located in Peninsular Malaysia,and the islands of Sumatra, Borneo and PapuaNew Guinea.
Whilst palm oil prices have shown acontinuous decline in real terms over the pastthirty years (Fry, 2002) the recent largeexpansion in palm oil production is partlyexplained by the favorable prices forvegetable oil during the 1990s (Figure 4).When presented in real prices, however, palmoil prices have been in continuous declinesince 1950 (Figure 5). Perhaps the mostimportant reason for the rapid expansion ofoil palm and its strong position among othervegetable oil crops is found in thecharacteristics of the plant itself. Oil palm hasan unsurpassed ability to intercept andtransform solar energy into vegetable oil and
in this respect can truly be considered a ‘giftof nature’ (Breure, this volume). This becomesevident when current vegetable oil productionand the planted area of major vegetable oilcrops is compared.
Soybean, oil palm, oil seed rape andsunflower together account for about 81% ofthe world’s vegetable oil, and occupy about87 M ha. Oil palm contributes 33% of totalvegetable oil production but occupies only 8%(6.6 M ha) of the total area planted to thesefour crops (Figure 6). By contrast, soybeanproduces 35% of the world’s vegetable oil butaccounts for 63% (55 M ha) of the land plantedto vegetable oil crops. Thus, oil palm usesland more efficiently than any of the othervegetable oil crops. Even at present averageoil yields in Southeast Asia of 3.3 t ha-1, oilpalm exceeds present yields of other majoroil crops and requires only 0.3 ha to produce1 t oil, compared to oil seed rape (0.75 ha),sunflower (1.57 ha) and soybean (2.17 ha)(Figure 7).
Breeders have continuously improvedyield potential of oil palm by using selectedsuperior dura and pisifera parents to producetenera palms in conventional breedingprograms, and tissue culture to multiplyindividual elite palms to produce ‘clonal palms’(Ng et al., this volume) (Table 3).
It seems unlikely that yields of more than 11t oil ha-1 will be achieved in large scalecommercial plantations (Breure, this volume) butwell-managed plantations using conventionalmodern planting materials have achieved oilyields of 6.0–6.5 t ha-1, and yields of >14 t oilha-1 have been reached with some small scaleplantings of clonal palms (Ng et al., this volume).Thus, there appears to be tremendous potentialto further increase palm oil production withoutexpanding the area planted.
At current average yields in Malaysia of3.6 t oil ha-1 under present managementpractices, oil palm outperforms the othermajor oil crops with regard to the efficient useof inputs. The input:output ratios for oil seedrape and soybean are about 1:3.0 and 1:2.5respectively, whilst the energy output from oilpalm is 9.5 times the energy inputs requiredfor production (Wood and Corley, 1991).
-
5INTRODUCTION
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6 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
Fig
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-
7INTRODUCTION
Figure 4. Price of crude palm oil (CPO), rapeseed oil and soybean oil (Oil World Annual
1998, 1999, 2000, 2001; Oil World Weekly 2002).
1980 1985 1990 1995 20000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
US$ t-1
Year
Crude palm oil Oil seed rape Soybean
Figure 5. Price development of crude palm oil (CPO) since 1950s and projected until 2010.
The jump in real prices in 1975 is attributed to the first OPEC oil price rise that affected the
price of all commodities (Fry, J., pers. comm.).
B
B
B
BBBB
B
B
B
BB
BB
B
B
BB
BB
BB
B
B
B
B
B
BBB
BB
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BB
BB
B
B
BB
B
B
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 20100
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
Price (US$ t-1)
Year
B Real
Trend
Projection
-
8 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
Table 3. Yield performance of oil palms reported by various planting material producers in
Malaysia (Jalani, 1999; Ng et al., 1999).
lairetamgnitnalPraeYdetnalp
dleiyBFFaht( 1- yr 1- )
otliO)%(hcnub
dleiyliOaht( 1- yr 1- )
ecruoS
)enolc(91KGA 3991 6.64 0.03 0.41 9991,.lategN
D xD x airegiN 1991 1.63 9.13 5.11 9991,inalaJ
D xD x ibmagnaY 1991 8.43 1.13 8.01 0002,imiahuhS&nihC
D xD x ibmagnaY 8891 1.53 0.62 5.9 6991,naT&amrahS
D xD x SORVA 9791 5.43 8.52 9.8 1991,hoT&eeL
D xD x SORVA-YD 9791 3.33 8.52 6.8 1991,hoT&eeL
D xD x SORVA 0791 6.13 2.42 6.7 1991,hoT&eeL
D xD x SORVA 4691 0.13 5.32 3.7 1991,hoT&eeL
D xD x SORVA 8691 1.13 1.22 9.6 1991,hoT&eeL
D xD x PS/CAU/IC 2691 6.22 9.12 9.4 1991,hoT&eeL
Figure 6. Global area planted (M ha) and production (M t) of major vegetable oil crops
(Chan, 2002).
6.6 (8%)
10.7 (12%)
55.4 (63%)
14.6 (17%) 24.5 (33%)
14.5 (20%)25.5 (34%)
9.7 (13%)
Palm oils Rape seed Soybean Sunflower
Area (M ha) Production (M t)
Figure 7. Land area required to
produce 1 t oil and oil yields for major
vegetable oil crops.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Land requirement (ha t-1 oil)
Oil yield (t ha-1)
Oil palm
Canola
Soybean
Sunflower
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9INTRODUCTION
ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF
PRODUCTION
By making optimal use of natural growthfactors (sunlight, moisture) and productioninputs (fertilizers and other agrochemicals)(Goh et al., this volume), the oil palm is theideal crop plant to convert photosyntheticallyactive radiation (PAR) into biomass (Breure,this volume). During this process the cropassimilates large amounts of carbon dioxide(CO
2) from and releases oxygen (O
2) to the
atmosphere. A productive oil palm stand thus‘fixes’ large amounts of carbon (C) (Table 4).
The amount of carbon fixed in the biomassof tropical rainforests, the natural land coverin Southeast Asia, is larger than oil palm dueto the much longer life cycle of tropical forests.However, undisturbed tropical rainforests aregenerally found in a steady state where thereis a balance between the accumulation anddecomposition of above- and below-groundbiomass. Thus, the net fixation of CO
2, which
is caused by incremental biomass production,is larger in a vigorously growing oil palmplantation compared with tropical andtemperate forests (Figure 8). The 6.6 M ha ofoil palm in Southeast Asia may thus make aconsiderable contribution to reducinggreenhouse gases.
When planted together with legume covercrops, the oil palm simulates the rainforestitself by:
� protecting the soil from erosion byproviding permanent groundcover,
� constantly renewing the supply of surfaceorganic matter in recycled crop residuesand litter provided by legume cover plants,and
� maintaining low soil temperatures.
spuorgegA)sraey(
gnidnatSaht(ssamoib 1- )
nobraCaht( 1- )
aeradetnalP01( 3 )ah
dexifnobraclatoT01( 3 )t
3-1 5.41 08.5 9.434 2252.2
8-4 3.04 21.61 6.1601 311.71
31-9 8.07 23.82 0.185 554.61
81-41 4.39 63.73 9.075 723.12
42-91 2.311 82.54 1.664 401.12
52> 5.401 00.14 3.262 357.01
latoT - - 7.6733 472.98
Table 4. Estimated amount of carbon fixed by Malaysian oil palm plantations in 2000 (Chan,
2002).
Figure 8. Net annual biomass production
for tropical rainforest, temperate beech forest
and oil palm (Härdter et al., 1997).
TRF TBF OP0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Biomass (t)
In circulation
Annual increment
-
10 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
When proper management techniques areused the oil palm can be considered a verysustainable cropping system, as evidenced bysome of the plantations in North Sumatra,Indonesia, where four crop cycles have beencompleted without detriment to the naturalresource base.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
Further expansion in the area planted tovegetable oil crops is constrained by therequirement to preserve remaining wildernessland (forest, wetlands) and the scarcity of landnot already occupied by farmers andindigenous people. Thus, as with other crops,there is a need to search for the most efficientmeans of production and high levels ofproductivity, whilst minimizing potentialnegative impacts on the wider environment.Where large yields of oil palm are obtained,land is ‘spared’ for other uses since much moreland is required to produce equivalent amountsof oil from other vegetable oil crops.
Progress in terms of productivity gains inSoutheast Asia over the past two decades hasbeen rather limited. By contrast to most otheragricultural commodities, average yields havemostly stagnated over the past twenty yearsand increased production of palm oil is mainlyaccounted for by expansion in the areaplanted (Figure 9). As mentioned above, thearea under harvest in Malaysia and Indonesiahas increased dramatically over the pasttwenty years, whilst growth in Thailand andPapua New Guinea has only been moderate.In terms of oil yields, however, only Thailandhas achieved a substantial increase inaverage yields whilst yields stagnated inMalaysia and Indonesia and even decreasedin PNG (Figure 9). What are the reasons forthis development? The oil palm industry inThailand, located at the boundary of thefavorable agroecological zone for oil palm (10ºnorth and south of the equator), wascompelled to improve productivity to competewith its neighbors in the south where thepotential yield is greater. The stagnation in
Figure 9. Area harvested and relative yield (1980=100) in four major oil palm producing
conutries in Southeast Asia between 1980 and 2001.
1980 1985 1990 1995 20000.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Area harvested (M ha)
Year
Indonesia Malaysia PNG Thailand
1980 1985 1990 1995 20000
50
100
150
200
Relative yield (%, 1980 = 100)
Year
-
11INTRODUCTION
yields in Malaysia and Indonesia may be dueto expansion into areas with less fertile soils,and the relatively large proportion of youngmature plantations.
Close cooperation is required betweenplanters and their partners in research enddevelopment to improve and broaden theimplementation of existing technologies thathave the potential to increase productivity inthe oil palm industry. Plantation houses mustfocus on developing a working environment inplantations so that high quality graduates canbe attracted, and new entrants must also beprovided with the skills and training requiredto contribute to the development of highlyproductive plantations
Some of the important technical challengesfaced by the oil palm industry include thefollowing:
� Careful land selection based on strictevaluation procedures and regulations,avoiding expansion into marginal land andareas with important ecological functions;
� Use of high quality planting material for theestablishment of new plantations and thereplanting of existing areas;
� Meticulous attention to each detail of fieldmanagement in land preparation, plantingand mature palm upkeep;
� Site-specific and precise nutrientmanagement techniques that ensure themaintenance of soil fertility in the long runand efficient use of costly mineral fertilizers.
If the oil palm is to retain or improve uponits position as a leading source of vegetableoil, greater attention must be given toachieving larger yields by closing the gapbetween potential and currently attainedyields (Fairhurst et al., this volume) (see Table3).
Environmentalists have created a powerfullobby against oil palm, claiming that the cropcontributes to rainforest destruction and thealienation of indigenous people from theirland. It is therefore timely for the industry toprovide more evidence that the oil palm canindeed contribute to the world’s growingdemand for vegetable oil with high levels ofproductivity on already establishedplantations. The oil palm has also the potentialto contribute indirectly to conservation effortsby sparing wilderness land for other uses. Atthe same time, whether grown bysmallholders or in plantations, the oil palm canprovide gainful and secure employment toindigenous people eager to removethemselves from the poor living conditions soprevalent in the islands of Sumatra andBorneo.
-
12 Härdter, R. and Fairhurst, T.
REFERENCES
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FAO (2002) Fertilizer Use by Crop. IFA, IFDC,IPI, PPI, Rome, Italy, 45p.
Fry, J. (2002) The competitive position of palmoil in the global oil market. In: InternationalOil Palm Conference and Exhibition. IOPRI,Bali, Indonesia, 8–12 July 2002, 15p.
Härdter, R., Woo, Y.C. and Ooi, S.H. (1997)Intensive plantation cropping, a source ofsustainable food and energy production inthe tropical rain forest areas in southeastAsia. Forest Ecology and Management, 93,93–102.
Jalani, B.S. (1999) Research and developmentof oil palm towards the next millennium. In:Jatmika, A., Bangun, D., Asmono, D.,Sutarta, E.S., Pamin, K., Guritno, P.,Prawirosukarto, S., Wahyono, T., Herawan,T., Hutomo, T., Darmosarkoro, W.,Adiwiganda, Y.T. and Poeloengan, Z. (eds.)International Oil Palm Conference.
Commodity of the Past, Today, and the
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1998. IOPRI/GAPKI, pp.93–109.
Lee, C.H. and Toh, P.Y. (1991) Yieldperformance of Golden Hope OPRS D x Pplanting materials. The Planter, 67, 317-324.
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Ng, S.K. (1972) The Oil Palm, Its Culture,Manuring and Utilisation. InternationalPotash Institute, Basel, Switzerland, 142p.
Ng, S.K., Ooi, S.H. and Leng, K.Y. (1999)Potassium dynamics in the nutrition andfertilizer management for the oil palm(Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) in the 21stcentury. In: Johnston, A.E. (ed.) Essentialrole of potassium in diverse cropping
systems. Montpellier, France, 20-26 August
1998. International Potash Institute, Basel,Switzerland, pp.87–97.
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