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8/30/2013
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Chapter 01
Lecture Outline
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without
notes.
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
planet Earth
mushroom on northern
forest floor
male peacock
displaying feathershumans in a city
giant sequoia
Masai giraffes
monarch butterfly
feeding on nectar
(sequoia): © Robert Glusic/Getty RF; (mushroom): © IT Stock/Age Fotostock RF; (peacock): © Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF; (humans): © Heath
Korvola/UpperCut Images/Getty RF; (giraffes): © Dr. Sylvia S. Mader; (butterfly): © Creatas/PunchStock RF; (Earth): © Ingram Publishing/Alamy RF
Figure 1.1
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1.1 The Characteristics of Life
• Life exists almost everywhere on Earth.
• Earth possesses a great variety of diverse life forms.
• All living things have certain characteristics
in common.
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The Characteristics of Living
Organisms
• Are organized
• Acquire materials and energy
• Reproduce
• Respond to stimuli
• Are homeostatic
• Grow and develop
• Have the capacity to adapt
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Organisms organized
in a hierarchy of levels
• A cell is the smallest unit of life.
• A tissue is a group of
similar cells that perform a particular function.
• Several tissues join
together to form an organ.
• Organs work together to form an organ system.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
nerve cellplant cell
nerve tissue
tree
Organisms
Organ Systems
organ system
Organs
Tissues
Cells
human
leaf tissues
Atoms
Molecules
leaf brain
DNA molecule
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• Organisms need external material and
energy sources to maintain their organization and carry on life’s activities.
• Energy is the capacity to do work.
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Organisms Reproduce
• Life arises from life.
• Genes are units of information within an
individual’s DNA.
• Reproduction is the process by which an organism makes more of itself.
• DNA which directs cellular functions is duplicated prior to an organism
reproducing.
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Organisms Respond to Stimuli
• Organisms respond to external stimuli by
moving toward or away from the stimuli.
• Organisms use a variety of mechanisms
for movement in response to stimuli.
• Movement of an organism constitutes a
large part of its behavior.
• Behavior is directed toward avoiding
injury, acquiring food or mating.
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Organisms are Homeostatic
• Homeostasis (“staying the same”) refers
to the requirement that organisms maintain a relatively constant internal environment.
• For example, human body temperature
fluctuates slightly throughout the day.
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• Growth – increase in size or number of cells
• Development – changes that take place
from conception to death
Figure 1.4
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Organisms Have the Capacity
to Adapt• During the nearly 4 billion years that life
has been on Earth, the environment has constantly changed.
• Some individuals of a species may be better fit in a new environment.
• Adaptations are features that make
individual organisms better suited to the new environment.
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Organisms Have the Capacity
to Adapt• Individuals better adapted to their
environment tend to produce more offspring.
• Natural Selection is the differential
reproductive success of adapted individual.
– Results in changes of characteristics of a
population over time
• Evolution the change in frequency of traits in populations and species.
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1.2 The Classification of
Organisms• Living organisms are assigned to groups
based upon their similarities.
• Systematics is the discipline of identifying
and classifying organisms.
• Each organism is classified in a domain,
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
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Domains
• Domains are the largest classification
category.
• Organisms are assigned to 1 of 3 domains
based on biochemical and genetic evidence:
domain Archea, domain Bacteria, or domain Eukarya.
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Domains
• Domains Archea and Bacteria include
unicellular prokaryotic cells.
– Cells that lack a true nucleus
• Domain Eukarya include eukaryotic cells.
– Cells with a true nucleus
– Genes found in the DNA within the nucleus
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Domain Archaea
• Archaea live in extreme
environments.
– Too little O2, too salty, too hot, or too acidic for most other organisms
Figure 1.5a
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
DOMAIN ARCHAEA
Methanosarcina mazei
a. Archaea are capable of living in extreme environments.1.6 µm
© Ralph Robinson/Visuals Unlimited
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Domain Bacteria
• Bacteria are found almost everywhere on
the planet Earth.
• Some are present within humans.
• Some bacteria cause
disease but many are beneficial.
Figure 1.5b
DOMAIN BACTERIA
b. Bacteria are found nearly everywhere.
Escherichia coli
1.5 µm
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© A.B. Dowsett/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
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Kingdoms
• Eukaryotes (Domain Eukarya) are further categorized into one of four Kingdoms
– Kingdom Protista – may be several kingdoms
– Kingdom Fungi
– Kingdom Plantae
– Kingdom Animalia
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Representative Organisms
black bread mold yeast mushroom bracket fungus
sea star earthworm finch raccoon
moss fern pine tree
paramecium euglenoid slime mold dinoflagellate
Kingdom Organization Type of Nutrition
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Absorb food
Ingest food
c. Eukaryotes are divided into four kingdoms.
DOMAIN EUKARYA
Complex single cell,
some multicellular
Some unicellular,
most multicellular
filamentous formswith specialized
complex cells
Multicellular form
with specialized
complex cells
Multicellular form
with specialized
complex cells
Absorb,
photosynthesize,
or ingest food
Photosynthesize
food
nonwoody
flowering plant
Protozoans,
algae, water molds,
and slime molds
Molds, yeasts,
and mushrooms
Mosses, ferns,
nonwoody and
woody floweringplants
Invertebrates,
fishes, reptiles,
amphibians, birds,and mammals
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 1.5c
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Representative Organisms
black bread mold yeast mushroom bracket fungus
sea star earthworm finch raccoon
moss fern pine tree
paramecium euglenoid slime mold dinoflagellate
Kingdom Organization Type of Nutrition
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Absorb food
Ingest food
Methanosarcina mazei
1.6 µµµµm 1.5 µµµµm
DOMAIN BACTERIA
Escherichia coli
a. Archaea are capable of living in extreme environments. b. Bacteria are found nearly everywhere.
c. Eukaryotes are divided into four kingdoms.
DOMAIN ARCHAEA
DOMAIN EUKARYA
Complex single cell,
some multicellular
Some unicellular,
most multicellular
filamentous formswith specialized
complex cells
Multicellular form
with specialized
complex cells
Multicellular form
with specialized
complex cells
Absorb,
photosynthesize,
or ingest food
Photosynthesize
food
nonwoody
flowering plant
Protozoans,
algae, water molds,
and slime molds
Molds, yeasts,
and mushrooms
Mosses, ferns,
nonwoody and
woody floweringplants
Invertebrates,
fishes, reptiles,
amphibians, birds,and mammals
(bacteria): © A.B. Dowsett/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (archaean): © Ralph Robinson/Visuals Unlimited
Figure 1.5
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Categories of Classification
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species Least inclusive
Most inclusive
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Categories of Classification
• Systematics helps biologists better
understand the variety of life on Earth.
• Organisms are classified according to their
presumed evolutionary relationships.
• Systematists now perform experiments
that may result in changes in the current
classification system.
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Categories of Classification
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Scientific Names
• Taxonomy is the assignment of a
binomial to each species.
• Binomial (two name)
– Genus name, species name
– Genus capitalized, both words in italics
–Examples:
»Homo sapiens
»Pisum sativum
»Felis domesticus
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1.3 The Organization of the
Biosphere
• Biosphere– The zone of air, land, and water at the surface
of the Earth where living organisms are found
• Population
– All the members of a species within a particular area
• Community
– All the different populations in the same area
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The Organization of the
Biosphere• Ecosystem
– Community interact among themselves & with the physical environment (soil, atmosphere,
etc.)
– Characteristics
• Chemical cycling – chemicals move from one species to another
• Energy flow – energy flows from the sun, through plants, through the food chain
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heat
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chemical cycling
heat
heat
heat
heat
heat
Energy flow
WASTE MATERIAL,DEATH,AND DECOMPOSITION
solarenergy
Figure 1.6
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Ecosystems
• Climate largely determines where different ecosystems are found around the globe.
• The two most biologically diverse ecosystems—
tropical rain forests and coral reefs—occur where solar energy is most abundant.
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
detritus
phytoplankton
corals
sponges
white shark
bar jack
queen angelfish
parrotfish
surgeonfish
sea grass
great
barracuda
attached
algae
green
moray
yellowtail
snapper
Spanish
hogfish
yellow
jack
sea
star
Bermuda
chub
yellowtail
damselfish
foureye
butterfly fish
sea
urchin
zooplankton
spiny
lobster
Figure 1.7
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The Human Species
• The human species tends to modify existing
ecosystems for its own purposes.
• Tropical rain forests and coral reefs are
severely threatened as global human population increases.
• Humans depend on healthy ecosystems for
food, medicine, and raw materials.
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Biodiversity
• Encompasses
– Total number of species
– The variability in their genes
– The ecosystems in which they live
• As many as 5-30 million species exist on
Earth.
• Human activities cause the extinction of
about 400 species per day.
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1.4 The Process of Science
• Biology is the scientific study of life.
• Biologists—and all scientists—generally
test hypotheses using the scientific method.
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Observation
Hypothesis
Experiment/Observations
New observationsare made, and previous
data are studied.
Input from various sourcesis used to formulate a
testable statement.
The hypothesis istested by experiment
or further observations.
Many experiments andobservations support a
theory.
Scientific Theory
Conclusion
The results are analyzed,and the hypothesis issupported or rejected.
© Photo by Ron Nichols, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service
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Observation
• Scientists tend to be curious about nature
and how the world works.
• Natural phenomena may be better
understood by observing and studying them.
• Scientist use their senses to make
observations.
• They can extend their abilities by using
instruments.
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Hypothesis
• Inductive reasoning occurs when one
uses creative thinking to combine isolated facts into a cohesive whole.
– A scientist states a hypothesis, a tentative
explanation for the natural event.
– It is presented as a falsifiable statement.
– Personal experiences may influence their hypothesis.
– Hypotheses should be testable.
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Experiment/Further Observations
• To determine how to test a hypothesis,
scientists use deductive reasoning
– Involves “if, then” logic
• For example, a scientist might reason, if
organisms are composed of cells, then
examination of an organism should reveal cells.
• One can also imply that the scientist has made a prediction.
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Experiment/Further
Observations• To test their hypothesis, scientists conduct
experiments.
• Experimental design is the manner in
which a scientist intends to conduct an experiment.
• Experimenter should ensure that testing is
specific and the results will be meaningful.
• A control should be included in the
experiment.
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Experiment/Further
Observations
• Scientists often use a model, a representation of an actual subject.
• For example:
– Computer modeling to study climate changes
– Mice to perform cancer research
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Data
• Data represent the results of an experiment.
– Should be observable and objective
– Should not be subjective or opinion-based
• Mathematical data is displayed as table and/or graph.
• Statistical data is used to rule out that results were due to chance.
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Conclusion
• A conclusion is the analysis of the data to
determine if the hypothesis can be supported or not.
• The conclusion from one experiment may be used to form a hypothesis for another
experiment.
• If the results do not support the hypothesis, then it may be used to formulate an
alternate hypothesis.
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Scientific Theory
• Scientific theories are concepts that join
together well-supported and related hypotheses.
• In science, a theory is supported by a broad range of observations, experiments, and
data.
– Examples: cell , homeostasis, gene, ecosystem, and evolution
• The theory of evolution is the unifying
concept of biology.
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A Controlled Study
• Experiments in controlled studies have two
types of groups:
• Control Group – receives no treatment
• Experimental Group – receives treatment
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Factor of the experiment
being tested
Response Variable
(Dependent Variable)
Result or change that occurs
due to the experimental variable
Experimental Variable
(Independent Variable)
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A Controlled Study
• Experimental background:
– nitrogen fertilizers increase crop yields in the
short term;
– continued use can cause pollution, as well as alter soil properties;
– altered soil properties lead to reduced crop
yields;
– one solution is to leave the land unplanted for several years.
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A Controlled Study
• Experimental background:
– An alternate to nitrogen fertilizers is to use legumes, such as peas or beans.
– These plants allow the growth of bacteria on their root nodules.
– These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to a form usable to plants.
– These legume crops can be rotated with cereal crops to increase yield.
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The Experiment
• HYPOTHESIS: A pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation will cause winter wheat production to
increase, as well as, or better than, nitrogen fertilizer.
• PREDICTION: Wheat production (biomass) following the growth of pigeon peas will surpass
wheat biomass following nitrogen fertilizer treatment.
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The Experiment
• Control Pots
– Winter wheat with no nitrogen fertilizer or legume preplanting
• Test Pots– Winter wheat in soil treated with nitrogen fertilizer
(45kg/ha)
– Winter wheat in soil treated with nitrogen fertilizer (90kg/ha)
– Pigeon pea plants tilled into soil and then winter wheat planted
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90 kg of nitrogen/ha Pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation
Control pot
no fertilization treatment
Test pot
45 kg of nitrogen/ha
a. Control pot and three
types of test pots
Test pot Test pot
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Courtesy Jim Bidlack
Figure 1.10a
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The Experiment
• All other conditions were kept the same in
all pots.
– Exposed to same environmental conditions
– Watered equally
• The following spring, wheat plants were
dried and weighed.
• Biomass was determined.
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
b. Results
20
10
5
0year 1 year 2 year 3
= no fertilization treatment
= 45 kg of nitrogen/ha
Control Pots
= 90 kg of nitrogen/ha
= Pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation
Wh
eat B
iom
ass (
gra
ms/p
ot)
15Test Pots
Figure 1.10b
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90 kg of nitrogen/ha Pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation
Control pot
no fertilization treatment
Test pot
45 kg of nitrogen/ha
b. Results
20
10
5
0year 1 year 2 year 3
= no fertilization treatment
= 45 kg of nitrogen/ha
Control Pots
= 90 kg of nitrogen/ha
= Pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation
Wh
ea
t B
iom
as
s (
gra
ms
/po
t)
15
a. Control pot and three
types of test pots
Test pot Test pot
Test Pots
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Courtesy Jim Bidlack
Figure 1.10
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The Experiment
• The results after one year:– Wheat biomass was higher in test pots than control
pots.
– Pots with 45kg/ha of fertilizer had only slighter higher biomass.
– Pots with 90kg/ha of fertilizer had nearly twice the biomass as control.
– Pots with pigeon pea plants tilled into soil and then winter wheat planted did not have a biomass greater than control pots.
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Continuing The Experiment
• The Results after Two Years:
– Conclusion: The hypothesis was supported.
– At the end of two years, the yield of winter
wheat following a pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation was better than for the other type pots.
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Continuing The Experiment
• The Results after Three Years:
– Winter wheat biomass decreased in both the control pots and pots treated with nitrogen
fertilizer.
– Pots with fertilizer still had more wheat biomass than control pots.
– Wheat biomass increased almost fourfold in pots pea/wheat rotation.
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Ecological Importance of Study
• The use of legumes long-term was more
effective in wheat biomass production than the use of nitrogen fertilizer.
• This study represents a form of organic gardening which not only increased yield,
but also reduced pollution.
• Organic farming may benefit farmers and the environment.
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1.5 Science and Social
Responsibility
• Technology is the application of knowledge for a practical purpose.
• Technology has both benefits and drawbacks
• Ethical and moral issues surrounding the use of technology must be decided by everyone.
– Responsibility for how to use scientific technology must reside with people from all walks of life, not with scientists alone.
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