“ travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry, and narrow-mindedness. ” --- mark twain
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“Travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry, and narrow-mindedness.”--- Mark Twain
“Few people are capable of expressing with equanimity opinions which differ from the prejudices of their social environment” --- Albert Einstein
“He flattered himself on being a man without any prejudices; and this pretension itself is a very great prejudice” --- Anatole France
“Prejudice is a great time saver. You can form opinions without having to get the facts” --- E. B. White
Prejudices are rarely overcome by argument; not being founded in reason they cannot be destroyed by logic” --- Tryon Edwards
Prejudice Quotes
Stereotypes (Generalized beliefs about the
characteristics of a group – good or bad)
Prejudice(Dislike based on faulty and inflexible
generalizations; either felt or expressed. It may be directed toward a group as a whole or toward individuals because of
their group membership)
Discrimination (Different treatment of people based on
their membership of a group)
Prejudice and Discrimination
Types (just about anything):
• Sex
• Race
• Age
• Religion
• Attractiveness (and height & weight)
• Accent
• Hair color
• Sexual orientation
• Social economic status (e.g., money)
• Disability
• Nationality
Development of Prejudice
• Socialization (e.g., parents, peers, media)
• Relative status and competition (e.g., for resources)
• Social identity theory (e.g., In versus Out-Groups)
• Cognitive processes (e.g., information processing, decision making) (e.g., Negative behavior = more memorable, influential; Minority status = distinctive)
Institutional Prejudice
What is it?
Gender Discrimination Examples & Institutional Prejudice
• Voting rights (Granted in 1920) link
• Jury service (not until S.C. Case in 1975 that service could not be confined to men)
• Access to athletics (title ix in 1972)
• EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT (ERA) link
[Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the united states or by any state on account of sex]
• Title VII of the Civil Rights Act [sex introduced to defeat the bill]
• Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) [focus on maternity leave]
• Medical insurance coverage (e.g., birth control, examinations)
• Sexual harassment (1986 supreme court case; damage and liability limitations)
Circa 1983
~ Some Attitudes Towards Women Scale Items ~
• The initiation of dating should come mostly from a man.
• Intoxication among women is worse that intoxication among men.
• The satisfaction of a husband’s sexual desire is a fundamental obligation of every wife.
• Women should be as free to initiate marriage as men.
• The intellectual leadership of a community should largely be in the hands of men.
• Swearing and obscenity is more repulsive in the speech of a woman than a man.
• Women should worry less about their rights and more about becoming good wives and mothers.
• A wife should make every effort to minimize irritation and inconvenience in the male head of the family.
Measurement of Attitudes
_____ Most old people get set in their ways and are unable to change
_____ It is foolish to claim that wisdom gets better with old age
_____ Most old people tend to let their homes become shabby and unattractive
_____ Most old people spend too much time prying into the affairs of others and giving unsought advice
_____ Most old people should be more concerned with their personal appearance; they’re too untidy
_____ If old people expect to be liked, their first step is to try to get rid of their irritating faults
_____ Old people have too much power in business and politics
_____ Most old people make me feel ill at ease
1 (Highly Disagree) to 7 (Highly Agree)
G-rated Films (Family Films)
• Males outnumber females 3 to 1 (In G,, PG, PG-13, R-rated: 2.7 to 1 males or 73%)• TV for children 11 and under: males 2x more prevalent
• 83% of the narrators are male
• 85.5% of characters are White, 4.8% are Black, and 9.7 from other ethnic backgrounds (e.g., Hispanic, Asian)
• Females are almost four times as likely as males to be shown in sexy attire (In G, PG, PG-13), R-rated: females 5x more likely to be shown in revealing attire and 3x more likely to be shown with a thin figure)• Animation versus live action: females more likely to have small waists (37% vs. 6.9) and unrealistic body type (22.7% vs. 1.2%)
• From 2006 to 2009 not one female character was depicted in G-rated family films in the field of medical science, as a business leader, in the law, or in politics.
• 80.5% of all working characters are male and 19.5% are female, which is a contrast to real-world statistics of women comprising 50% of the workforce
• Only 7% of directors, 13% of writers, and 20% of producers are female
Figures based on studies conducted by Dr. Stacy Smith, Ph.D. at the USC Annenberg School for Communication & Journalism (Gender stereotypes: An analysis of popular films and TV; 2008)
Presentation of Females in the Media
Why so important? 2011 Kaiser Family Foundation: In US, those from ages 8-18 consume an average of 7,5 hours of entertainment media daily. 71% have TVs in bedroom
Stacey Smith et al. recently analyzed 11,927 speaking roles on prime-time television programs aired in spring 2012, children's TV shows aired in 2011 and family films (rated G, PG, or PG-13) released between 2006 and 2011.
More on Females in the Media
44.3 percent of females were gainfully employed -- compared with 54.5 percent of males.
Women across the board were more likely to be shown wearing sexy attire
Male-female ratio in STEM fields was 14.25 to 1 in family films and 5.4 to 1 on prime time TV.
Percentages of speaking female characters in each media form: Women made up 28.3 percent of characters in family films, 30.8 percent of characters in children's shows, and 38.9 percent of characters on prime time television. In over, 1000 top grossing fills (2002-2012, 4.4% directors were female)
Females are more likely than males to be depicted in a stereotypical light (caregivers, romantically involved, lacking employment) Females are far less likely to be shown in films as holding clout and powerful positions in political (e.g., Senators, Representatives), financial (e.g., CEO), or legal (SC Justices) arenas.
Commercials in Prime Time (speaking roles)
White 83.3%
Black 12.4%
Asian 2.3%
Latino 1.0%
Native American .4%
Source: Mastro & Stern (2003) Representations of race in television commercials: A content analysis of prime-time advertising. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media
WHO is NOT on TV?
WHO IS on Prime Time TV?
Television Images (cont.)
• The Elderly
• Hispanics
• Young, Attractive, Financially Successful
U.S Census 2010: U.S. Hispanic population surged 43%, rising to 50.5 million in 2010 from 35.3 million in 2000. Latinos constitute 16% of the nation's total population of 308.7 million
• Introduction of competition (e.g., baseball, football, tug-of-war)
Result ---
• Open hostility to out-group members
• Greater in-group solidarity
Sherif’s Robbers Cave (Boys Camp) Study
Sherif (cont.)
~ Group Development ~
• Leaders selected
• Nicknames chosen
• Division of labor established
• Norms emerged
• Sanctions developed
Ineffective solution ---
• Increased social contact between group members (boys fought and argued more)
Other common practices used in society: • Presentation of accurate/favorable information
about the other group
• Bring leaders together
• Attend religious services
Sherif (cont.)
Solution --
Work on common goals; everyone has to work together (e.g., break in water main, car problems, $ for movie)
Allport
Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination
Key Factors
• Support of Authority
• Equal Status Contact
• Work on Common Goals
(e.g., Sherif’s work and cooperative classrooms)
Jigsaw Classroom[For specific steps see:
http://www.jigsaw.org/steps.htm]
Process: Each person is given information to present to the group that is valuable to find a solution to a given problem
Timeframe ---
45 minutes, 3 times/week
For example Eleanor Roosevelt: (1) Her childhood, (2) Her family life with FDR and their children, (3) Her life after FDR contracted polio, (4) Her work in the White House as First Lady, and (5) Her life and work after FDRs death
Jigsaw Classroom Results
• Increased liking for classmates
• Increased self-esteem
• Increased liking for school
• Decreased negative ethnic stereotypes
• Higher scores on standardized tests
• Greater participation in school activities
• Greater ability to role-take (empathize with others)
• Different attributions for success & failure (i.e., more external attributions for failures of others; avoidance of fundamental attribution error)
Additional Jigsaw Classroom Results
30 photos of women rated in terms of attractiveness (5-point scale)
Support feminist movementDo not support feminist
movement
Results ---
• Less attractive females perceived as feminist• No differences between males & females • No effect of rater’s own attitudes regarding women's liberation
Procedure -- Place 15 pictures into each pile
Female Attractiveness and Support for the Feminist Movement
Gender
Female Male
Regular Fast Regular Fast
Unattractive
Attractive
Rated on various factors (e.g., ability, integrity, likeability)
• Key is perception of levels of femininity. If highly feminine, not seen as very capable.
Female Attractiveness and Corporate Success
X
Summary:
Reasons for the success of a rapidly rising attractive female:
• Less due to ability and effort
• Perception of “femininity” is key (not attractiveness per se)
Rate traits of typical males
Rate traits of typical females
Rate traits of successful leaders
(managers)
Male traits seen as similar to leadership traits
Female Traits and Leadership
Males higher ratings on “Dominant-Aggressive” characteristics – e.g., competitive, need for power, aggressive, assertive (especially by male raters)
Females higher ratings on “Social Humanitarian” characteristics -- e.g., sympathetic, desire for friendship, helpful (especially by female raters)
Company CEO Company CEOGENERAL MOTORS Mary Barra
2014AVON Sherilyn McCoy
2012
HEWLETT-PACKARD Meg Whitman 2011
SEMPRA ENERGY Debra Reed 2011
IBM Virginia Rometty2012
GUARDIAN LIFE Deanna Mulligan2011
PEPSICO Indra Nooyi 2006
CAMPBELL SOUP Denise Morrison2011
A.D.M Patricia Woertz2006
MYLAN Heather Bresch2012
LOCKHEED MARTIN Marillyn Hewson2013
INGREDION Ilene Gordon2009
DUPONT Ellen Kullman2009
CH2M HILL Jacqueline Hinman 2014
MONDELEZ Irene Rosenfeld2006
GRAYBAR ELECTRIC Kathleen Mazzarella 2012
GENERAL DYNAMICS Phebe Nokakovic2013
GANNETT Gracia Martore2011
TJX Carol Meyrowitz2007
FRONTIER COMM. Maggie Wilderotter 2006
XEROX Ursula Burns 2009 YAHOO Marissa Meyer2012
DUKE ENERGY Lynn Good 2013
Female CEOs of Fortune 500 Companies?
2011 = 12; 2012 = 1823 (Link)
• In 2006, 23% of university presidents were female. In 2011, that figure climbed to a bit over 26%
• Women hold 24% of full professorships in the United States
Female Representation in Academics
Women in the US Senate (N = 20; 2013)
Barbara Mikilski
Dianne Feinstein
Barbara Boxer
Debbie Stabenow
Maria Cantwell
Parry Murray Susan Collins
Mary Landrieu
Lisa Murkowski
Amy Klobuchar
Jeanne Shaheen
Kirsten Gillibrand
Kelly Ayotte
Claire McCaskill
Kay Hagan
Tammy Bladwin
Deb Fischer Heidi Heitkamp
Mazie Hirono Elizabeth Warren
Lower/Single House Upper House/Senate
Rank
C0untry Total # Women
% Women Total # Wome
n
% Women
1 RW 80 39 48.8
2 SWE 349 165 47.3
3 Costa Rica
57 22 38.6
4 Finland 200 76 38.0
5 Norway 169 64 37.9
6 Denmark
179 66 36.9
7 Nether-lands
150 55 36.7 75 22 29.3
8 Cuba 609 219 36.0
67 USA 435 79 18.2 100 20 20.0
Female Representation in Politics
Country Leader
Germany Chancellor Angela Merkel
Liberia President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf
Argentina President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchne
Bangledesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Wajed
Iceland Prime Minister Jóhanna Sigurdardóttir
Lithuania President Dalia Grybauskaite
Costa Rica President Laura Chinchilla
Trinidad and Tobago Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar
Australia Prime Minister Julia Gillard
Slovakia Prime Minister Iveta Radicová
Brazil President Dilma Rousseff
Mali Prime Minister Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé
Kosovo President Atifete Jahjaga
Thailand Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra (Recently removed from office)
Denmark Prime Minister Helle Thorning-Schmidt
Switzerland President Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf
Jamaica Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller
Source: http://www.filibustercartoons.com/charts_rest_female-leaders.php
Current Female Heads of State Worldwide
Female Heads of State
Source: http://articles.businessinsider.com/2012-03-01/news/31112559_1_female-president-female-head-female-political-leaders
Females as CEOs --- increase in stock price
But, it depends on industry
Price goes up higher if female CEO is head of female-dominated business, otherwise small decrease in stock price (Cooke & Glass, 2011)
Survey of over 60,000 direct reports
No gender preference for one’s own boss
“Ideal” boss:
54% -- No Preference
13% -- Female Preference
33% -- Male Preference
Gender and Leadership: Recent Findings
• Small but significant preference for opposite-sex bosses• Increased preference for stereotypical female leader characteristics (sensitive, supportive) vs. direct, forceful. Study by Elesser & Lever (2011)
More Recent Findings
Analyzed 99 data sets from 58 journal publications, 30 unpublished dissertations or theses, five books and six other sources (e.g., white papers)
86% of the samples from studies conducted in the United States or Canada
From: Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., Walker, L. S. & David J. Woehr, D. J. (2014) Gender and Perceptions of Leadership Effectiveness: A Meta-Analysis of Contextual Moderators. Journal of Applied Psychology
Basic Results ---
• Ratings by others indicated that women were perceived as more effective leaders than men in middle management, business and education organizations
• Women were viewed as more effective in senior-level management positions
• Men rate themselves as significantly more effective than women rate themselves
31. If a Lord of the Confederacy should become seriously ill and be thought near death, the women who are heirs of his title shall go to his house and lift his crown of deer antlers, the emblem of his Lordship, and place them at one side. If the Creator spares him and he rises from his bed of sickness he may rise with the antlers on his brow.
44. The lineal descent of the people of the Five Nations shall run in the female line. Women shall be considered the progenitors of the Nation. They shall own the land and the soil. Men and women shall follow the status of the mother.
45. The women heirs of the Confederated Lordship titles shall be called Royaneh (Noble) for all time to come.
46. The women of the Forty Eight (now fifty) Royaneh families shall be the heirs of the Authorized Names for all time to come.
47. If the female heirs of a Confederate Lord's title become extinct, the title right shall be given by the Lords of the Confederacy to the sister family whom they shall elect and that family shall hold the name and transmit it to their (female) heirs, but they shall not appoint any of their sons as a candidate for a title until all the eligible men of the former family shall have died or otherwise have become ineligible.
90. When the Five Nations' Council declares war any Lord of the Confederacy may enlist with the warriors by temporarily renouncing his sacred Lordship title which he holds through the election of his women relatives. The title then reverts to them and they may bestow it upon another temporarily until the war is over when the Lord, if living, may resume his title and seat in the Council.
94. The men of every clan of the Five Nations shall have a Council Fire ever burning in readiness for a council of the clan. When it seems necessary for a council to be held to discuss the welfare of the clans, then the men may gather about the fire. This council shall have the same rights as the council of the women.
Constitution of the Iroquois Nations: The Great Binding Law
Shoving incident (during a debate)
Black shoves white person = 75% defined it as act of violence
White shoves black person = 17% defined it as act of violence
Study 1: Whites interviewed black applicants
• More distance (less overall immediacy)
• Shorter interview length
• Blacks had more speech errorsStudy 2: White interviewers treated White applicants in an immediate manner (the way Whites were treated in first study) or non-immediate (as Blacks were treated in 1st study) Non-immediate applicants performed poorly (more speech errors) and were rated less highly
Prejudice and Behavior (Race Discrimination)
From: Word, C. O., Zanna, M. P., & Cooper, J. (1974). The nonverbal mediation of self-fulfilling prophecies in interracial interaction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 109-120.
Effect of Name on Resumes and Interview Rates
Resume Quality
Name type Low High
“White” sounding
name
“Black” sounding
name
50% less chance of being invited for an interview versus “Whites”
with high qualifications
From: Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination. The American Economic Review, 991-1013.
Age and Job Performance
Widespread belief that performance decreases with age
Little evidence of this decline ---
• Meta-analysis found that older workers are equal to younger individuals on objective performance measures but scored lower on subjective, supervisor ratings
• Evidence that older employees are more responsible, productive, and have less turnover
• Organization with all employees over 50had 18% greater profits, 16% less turnover, 40% less absenteeism, and 60% less inventory los (theft?) versus similar companies with younger workers
QUALIFICATIONS
LOW AVERAGE HIGH
YOUNG
OLD
Age and Interview Questions
Asked easier questions than those who were younger
From: Rupp, D. E., Vodanovich, S. J., & Crede, M. (2006). Age bias in the workplace: The impact of ageism and causal attributions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 1337–1364.
*** Also, part of this was due to rater ageism and viewing older people’s errors are due to stable factors
Effect of Labels
Army recruits
Randomly assigned labels
Low
Average
High• This group had better performance scores on various measures
• Also viewed their leaders as more effective
> > > Self-fulfilling prophecy at work (leaders spent more time with the “high” expectation group)
~ Social Identity Theory ~[In-Group Bias]
They tendency to link one’s self-concept and self esteem with the status and/or behavior of groups
Also, people tend to reward members of ingroups (e.g., Minimal Group Paradigm) ---
Self-esteem
Basking in Reflected Glory ---
Favorite Football Team wins --- “We”; More likely to wear team t-shirt
Favorite Football Team loses --- “They”
In-group Out-group
• Liking, spend time with leader
• Challenging, visible jobs
• Better memory for good behavior
• Treated warmly
• Performance evaluations
• Allocation of rewards
Selection to the in-group
1) Ability
2) Responsibility
3) Trust
• Less desirable jobs
• Less time spent with supervisor
• Treated formally
• Lower performance evaluations
• Less rewards
Perceived similarity
In and Out-Groups Bias
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