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TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
0
Bilingual/Bi-Annual Pashto English Research Journal
Issue No. 6 Volume No. 3
TAKATOO
July- December 2011
Department of Pashto, University of Balochistan, Quetta
ISSN: 2075-5929
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
1
Bilingual/Bi-Annual Pashto/ English Research Journal
Issue No. 6 Volume No. 3
TAKATOO
July- December 2011
Chief Editor: Dr. Naseebullah Seemab
Editor: Javed Iqbal Iqbal
Department of Pashto University of Balochistan, Quetta
ISSN: 2075-5929
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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Department of Pashto University of Balochistan, Quetta.
ISSN: 2075-5929
Chief Editor: Dr. Naseebullah Seemab
Editor: Javed Iqbal Iqbal
Co-Editors:
Faizullah Panezai
Qari Abdul Rehman
Barkat Shah Kakar
Composer: Hafiz Rehmat Niazi
Editorial Board
1. Abdul Karim Baryalai, Writer and Intellectual, Barwary
Road, Faisal Town Street No.6, Quetta
2. Prof. Dr.Pervaiz Mahjoor Kheshkay, Department of
Pashto University of Peshawar.
3. Dr. Abdul Raziq Palwal, Kandahar, Afghanistan
4. Dr. Dawood Azami, Program Manager, British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), London
5. Dr.Nasrullah Wazir, Assistant Professor Department of
Pashto, University of Balochistan, Quetta
6. Abdul Ghafoor Lewal, President Regional Study Centre
Kabul, Afghanistan
7. Dr. Feroz Qaiser, Director, English Language Centre,
University of Balochistan, Quetta
8. Dr.Khushal Rohee, Germany
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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Dear authors, co-authors and readers it is to share with great
pleasure that the Department of Pashto, University of Balochistan,
Quetta is publishing the Bilingual/Bi-Annual Pashto/English
Research Journal "TAKATOO" since January, 2009. The
Department has regularly published four issues within due time,
and has fulfilled all the pre-requisites, on the basis of which the
Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC) has recognized
the Research Journal "TAKATOO" vide letter No. DD/SS&H
/JOOR/ 2011/ 112 dated 24th
August, 2011.
No part of the material published in this journal be copied,
reproduced or printed with out the prior permission of the Editor.
Disclaimer:
Authors of the published material have their independent
perspective, agreement of the journal is not necessary to be the
same.
Subscription Rate:
Domestic Rs. 150/-
Outside Pakistan US $ 07
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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Guidelines for Contributors
The prime objective of the Research Journal "TAKATOO" is to
provide a forum for the scholars engaged in the research of Pashto
language and literature. The scholars and researchers are invited to
send their research papers both in English and Pashto on Pashto
language, literature, history, art and culture. The research paper
must be typed on A-4 size paper having Abstract in English
comprising not more than 150 words. Manuscript should be
between 3000- 7000 words (including end notes and references).
Quotations from foreign texts must be translated in the body of the
paper, and accompanied by the original in the endnotes. The
author‟s name, e-mail and mailing addresses and institutional
affiliation should appear on a separate title page. Two hard coppies
and a soft copy, of the research paper may please be sent to the
Editor.
Paper in English must be in accordance with the MLA / APA style.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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List of contributors:
1. Dr. Nasrullah Wazir Assistant Professor, Department of
Pashto, UoB, Quetta
Dr. Usman Tobawal Assistant Professor, Pakistan
Studies Centre, UoB, Quetta
2. Dr. Zubair Hasrat Associate Professor, Government
Post Graduate College, Mardan
3. Dr. Izhar Ullah Izhar Assistant Professor, Islamia College
University Peshawar
Javed Iqbal Iqbal Lecturer, Department of Pashto
UoB, Quetta
4. Dr. Hanif Khalil Assistant Professor, (NIPS) Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad
5. Dr. Abdullah Jan Abid Head, Department of Pakistani
Languages, Allama Iqbal Open
University, Islamabad
Muhammad Sheeraz Ph.D. scholar, Department of English,
International Islamic University,
Islamabad
6. Dr. Naseebullah Seemab Assistant Professor, Department of
Pashto, UoB, Quetta.
Dr. Javed Khalil Assistant Professor, Pashto
Academy, University of Peshawar
7. Dr. Ali Khell Daryab Chairman, Department of Pashto
University of Malakand
8. Wazir Shadan Assistant Professor, Govt. Post
Graduate College Kohat
9. Dr. Abdul Ali Achakzai Chairperson, Department of Islamic
Studies, UoB, Quetta
Hafiz Rehmat Niazi M.Phil Scholar, Department of
Pashto, UoB, Quetta
10. Muhib Wazir, Lecturer, Government Degree
College Miransha North Waziristan
11. Barkat Shah Kakar Lecturer, Department of Pashto,
UoB, Quetta
12. Noor-ul-Habib Nisar Ph.D. Scholar, Department of
Pashto, University of Peshawar
3. Karim Amir, Lecturer, Government Degree
College, Loralai
14. Dr. Aneeta Azam University Model School, University of Peshawar
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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Contents
S..No. Researcher Title Page
1 Dr. Izhar Ullah Izhar
Javed Iqbal Iqbal
Literary and lingual relations of Urdu
and Pashto language
8
2 Dr. Hanif Khalil
Tribal Life of the Pashtoons as depicted
in Pashto Tappa
Dr. Hanif Khalil
14
3 Dr. Abdullah Jan Abid,
Muhammad Sheeraz
Pashto Polite Expressions for Face-
saving on Face book
25
4 Barkat Shah Kakar The pursuit of Pashtoon image in the
Orientalists Discourse
34
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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Literary and lingual relations of Urdu and Pashto language
Dr. Izhar Ullah Izhar
Javed Iqbal Iqbal
Abstract: The authors of this paper investigates the correlation of Pashto and
Urdu existing in the same region. Although researchers believe that both belong
to diverse families yet their impact on one another can not be denied.
This paper traces not only the primordial signs of Pashto in the writings of Urdu
scholars but also the primitive indications of Urdu in the classic literature of
Pashto, such as in the poetry of Khushal Khan Khattak and Rehman Baba. They
quote Khair ul Bayan too which had been composed in four languages, one of
which was Urdu.
They believe that writers of Khyber Pashtoonkhwa played pivotal role in
promoting Urdu in Pashto dominant region besides penetrating it into Pashto
language. They are of the view that establishment of new states in India such as
Rohilkhand, odh, Rajput and Maloh , by Pashtoon warriors also provided a
chance to infiltrate Pashto expressions in Urdu language.
Language is an effective means of communicating and expressing human
experiences, feelings and emotions. That‟s why it travels along the social
changes in the world. The distances and gaps shortens very rapidly, the
languages also come closer with the same ratio. As a result they leave
prosodic, cultural and psychological influences on one another. Various
languages that are spoken in different areas some times come closer for
some peculiar purposes and show relaxation for comprehensiveness and
understanding. The reason is that various languages spoken in one region
cannot exist without accepting co-influence. It can be said in the context of
lingual relation of Urdu and Pashto that both the languages are the preserver
of common civilization and culture. In the flash back of their development
there seems a single belief and an idea. As both the languages are of one
region so there is perfect harmony in their words, pronunciation and style.
Dr. Javed Badshah explains this conception in a wider sense and says
“If the languages of the world are divided into various branches with their
proper names but still after research and minute study one can reach at a
point at which their he will find phonological or meaningful harmony. Sir
William Johns claims that Sanskrit, Latin and Greek are branches of one
Assistant Professor, Islamia College University, Peshawar
Lecturer, Department of Pashto, University of Balochistan
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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language. Mr. Wans Kennedy has listed some 900 words from Sanskrit
language in his book (Asia and the European Languages). He says that these
words are now in the Greek language. Although this book is written in 1868
but still the formation and changes of words takes centuries. So Urdu and
Pashto are not free from this criterion”. (1)
Keeping in view the relative importance of civilization and language the
importance of the given extract cannot be ignored. Pashto is not only
language but it also introduces a civilization, that is the reason that
whenever and where ever Pashto language intermixes with any other
language than it also leaves its civilization and cultural impacts on the
language. Thus we can say that when Pashto intermixes with local language
as the topic under discussion is the lingual relations of Pashto and Urdu so
irrelevant details are avoided here.
Although Farigh Bukhari in his book “Adbiyat-e-Sarhad” says that Urdu has
taken its origin from Pashto language. He gives the example of Hindhko
language that is spoken in Peshawar and in its outskirts. Further he says that
Hindhko is the original form of Urdu language but the recent research on
languages does not accept such claims and needs authentic source for such
claims and it is also fact that the story of the origin of the Urdu language is
in the real sense the story of its development stages. However it cannot be
ignored that the literary asset of the Pashto language was used in the
structure of urdu language as a result urdu language strengthened and
developed.
In this context the following extract is important “the foreigners when
entered in Pakistan through southern and northern passes, then the Pashto
speakers took their side in the conquest of Hindustan. In this struggle some
of them died while other settled in the conquered areas and some came back.
This continued for centuries so the tribe of Pashtoons spread in Hindustan.
As a result of give and take policy it influenced other languages and vice
versa. And wherever they established their own states and governments such
as Dakhan, UP, Rohil Khand, Odh, Rajput, Maloh and Tahyawor of Gujrat
and it was possible for these various cultures and languages not to be
influenced by other”(2)
However the influence of Urdu and Pashto was not only through wars but
also through creative literature. The Pashtoons scholars and poets not only
wrote Urdu poetry and prose but the verbosity was also making the
influence possible. Further the Urdu translation of Pashto poetry was also
strengthening the interlingual influences. Semilarly strong and constant
communication between Pashtoon tribes and Urdu speaking community
have diversified linguistic canvas of both languages. As the speakers of
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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both languages were Muslims so the religious harmony was also bringing
them together which further strengthed the interlingual influences . Farigh
Raza writes:-
“Pashtoon is an old nation and its language and literature is also old. Its
history is also centuries old”(3)
Up till now, the oldest Urdu script in Pashto land is “Tafseer-e-hindi” it is
present in the Central Record Office Peshawar. It is missing first pages so
we cannot say about the author and the first edition. According to the
experts the age of paper, calligraphy and the style of writing clearly
indicates that this manuscript is about 600 years old. Owing to this it is the
first Tafseer of the Holy Quran and the ever first written book in Urdu
language. The written material testifies that it is written by a Pashtoon
religious scholar. The style and wording also gives proofs of Pashtunisim.
Another important reference is of Khair-ul-Bayan of Pir Roshan the author
has written the book in Arabic, Persian, Pashto and Hindi(Urdu) languages.
These four scripts are in British Library London. He has written it in 1521.
We can find the relative overlap of urdu and Pashto in the poetry of Rahman
Baba and Khushal Khan Khattak.
3
(There is no need of using knife as that work has been done by your
eyebrow)
4
.The creative works of Khushal khan and Rehman Baba are important in this
respect. Although it is their primary experience in Urdu but here the relative
development of Urdu and Pashto remain stagnant when Urdu language is
passing through cultural changes. We also find the Pashto Urdu relationship
in this era emerges in the research field. It is also found that two languages
not only help each other but also naturally absorb each other. Urdu language
some times becomes the national language of Pakistan but in the united
Hindustan both languages provide enough proofs of harmony and unity. In
this connection the research material is in abundance in Khyber
Pakhtoonkhwa. Sometimes we see lapses in the Urdu Pashto inter
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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relationship but Raza Hamdani and Farigh Bulhari have kept this struggle
alive.
There are some books like “Pashtoono kay Roman, Pashto Shaeri,
Pashtoono kay Rasmo Rivaj, Pashto Adab, Razmiy Dastanay, Char Baita,
Pashto Afsanay and Adbiyat Sarhad through which they have traced the
relative overlapping of Urdu and Pashto. They have also translated these
Pashto literary works into Urdu without damaging the flavor and essence of
Pashto language.
This not only shows the interrelationship of both the languages through
various ages but also shows their mutual influence on each other.
There is list of words provided by Raza Hamdani that show the
phonological resemblance of Urdu and Pashto.
Persian Awesta Sinskrit Pashto Urdu
ہ
ڑ
)5ں
There are various examples of words resembling each other through which
we can guess the lingual relation of Urdu and Pashto. In reality these
resemblance occurred due to cultural and civilizational harmony that is the
reason a speaker of two languages can easily grasp the words and meaning
of both languages.
But the mutual translations of book of both the languages are really
remarkable. Through this source a large number of literary people of Urdu
and Pashto have shown excellence. The following extract will provide some
clues. ”the land of Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa is not only the land of brave
people but it is also a place of art where one can find imperishable imprints
of art and culture”(7).
It is not an emotional approach but this extract indicates that it has been
written in Urdu about the topic of Pashto literature and the psychology of
Pashtoons. Second example in this regard is that
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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“In Pashto language Char Baita is an old genre in its vast range we can find
nearly all aspects of life. If this genre is complied then we can find cultural,
religious, political, social and historical information about Khyber
Pakhtoonkhwa.(8) Now to deal with the question that how Urdu spread in
Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa and the effect of Urdu on Pashtoon writers? In this
connection Raza Hamdani writes.
“In NWFP(KPK) the journey of Urdu language is not short but it is based on
centuries and is traced back to Dakkan age and Qutab Shah age”(9).
Although the inter relation between Urdu and Pashto is very much old yet
the above extract was given only to emphasize it so that one may not refute
it.
Urdu language is getting strength and energy from Pashtoon writers and on
the other hand the transformation of Pashto literature into urdu literature
provides life and zest to Urdu language.
In this way the development of Urdu language and literature left its
influence directly on Pashto literature. For solid proof we need comparative
study of both literatures.
The poem “Will” of Khushal Khan Khattak translated by Allama Iqbal and
particularly the poem “Mihrab Gul Afghan Kay Afkar” that has also been
written by Allam Iqbal testify that Urdu and Pashto have traveled the same
track.
From the very beginning there has always been rise and fall in this
interrelation of both languages. On one side it has become the source of
increasing vocabulary for both Urdu and Pashto and on the other it provides
proof of perfect harmony. Today this pace of unity and harmony of both the
languages has become very much fast. Now we shall see that in future that
kind of new development occur in this connection.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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References:
1. Javed Bad Shah, Dr., Urdu kay faroogh may Deeney Madaris ka hisaa, (unpublished)
Seminar library Islamia college University Peshawar P-17
2. Ibid P-19
3. Raza Hamdani, Faregh Bukhari, Pashto Shaeri, Injamn Taraqi Urdu Pakistan, 1966 P-119
4. Ibid P-221
5. Ibid P-227
6. Raza Hamdani, Adbeyate Sarhad (Pashto Adab), Nayaa Maktaba Mahala Khudad Peshawar
1953, P-16
7. Raza Hamdani, Razmeya Dastanay, Qumee Adara Lok Versa Islamabad 1981 P-5
8. Raza Hamdani, char Biata, Lok Versay kaa Qumee Adaraa Islamabad, June 1978 P-7
9. Mah Nama Aahang Karachi 1-15 March 1986, P-20
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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Tribal Life of the Pashtoons as depicted in Pashto Tappa
Dr. Hanif Khalil
Abstract: Pashto Tappa is the most fluent and popular genre of Pashto folk
poetry that reflects several stages of the Pashtoon tribal life. The shortest genre
of only two lines of short meter Tappa has reflected the whole life structure of the
Pashtoon in very expressive and communicated way. In this paper the author has
tried to search out the different dimensions of the Pashtoon tribal life is depicted
in Pashto Tappa. He quoted a few Tappas to throw light on the socio cultural
aspects of the Pashtoons. He also discussed some regional versions of the Pashto
Tappa and its regional identity. As a whole the paper deals with Pashtoon tribal
life and its peculiarity.
Tappa is a literary genre. Literature generally depicts the social life of a
nation. Literature depicts psychology, religion, politics, economic and
other important aspects of a nation. Literature is a manifestation of culture
of a particular nation or generation. Tappa is a literary genre of Pashto
language. Before discussing this genre of Pashto language we have to take
into consideration different theories of literature. Then it will be observed
that how much this genre is related to the culture of Pashtoon people and
under what literary theory it may be discussed. It is also important that the
word “literature” is a theory and a number of critics have discussed it.
These critics generally before discussing any genre of literature have put
the question that what literature is? Renowned intellectual Sheldon Pulock
answer to this question as:
“What should be problematic, however, at least from the vantage point of
contemporary theory, is claiming to know and define “literary.” There are
good reasons for arguing – many have argued this for the past two decades
or more – that anything can be literature; that the term needs to be
understood pragmatically rather than ontologically, as pointing to ways
certain texts are used rather than defining what those texts inherently and
essentially are." (1)
It is evident that literature is a theory and different intellectual, have given
different definitions and explanations to this theory. Literally any written
thing is literature. However literature includes and means those written
material in which imagination has focal position. However there are
certain intellectuals who are of the view that literature is a theory which
Assistant Professor NIPS, Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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cannot be explained completely. However in literature different literary
theories are explained and text is examined. We can say about different
theories related to literature as,
“One of the fundamental questions for literary theory is “what is
literature?”, though many contemporary theorists and literary scholars
believe either that “literature” cannot be defined or that it can refer to any
use of language. Specific theories are distinguished not only by their
methods and conclusions, but even by how they define a “text.” For some
scholars of literature, “texts” comprises little more than “books belonging
to the Western literary canon/” But the principles and methods of literary
theory have been applied to non-fiction, popular fiction, film, historical
documents, law, advertising, etc, in the related field of cultural studies. In
fact, some scholars within cultural studies treat cultural events, like
fashion or football riots, as “texts” to be interpreted. By this measure,
literary theory can be thought of as the general theory of interpretation.
Since theorists of literature often draw on a very heterogeneous tradition
of Continental philosophy and the philosophy of language, any
classification of their approaches is only an approximation. There are
many “schools” or types of literary theory, which take different
approaches to understanding texts. Most theorists, even among those listed
below, combine methods from more than one of these approaches (for
instance, the deconstructive approach of Paul de Man drew on a long
tradition of close reading pioneered by the New Critics, and de Man was
trained in the European hermeneutic tradition). Broad schools of theory
that have historically been important include the New Criticism,
formalism, Russian formalism, and structuralism, post-structuralism,
Marxism, feminism and French feminism, religious critics, post-
colonialism, new historicism, reader-response criticism, and
psychoanalytic criticism.' (2)
"Listed below are some of the most commonly identified schools of
literary theory, along with their major authors. In many cases, such as
those of the historian and philosopher Michel Foucault and the
anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss, the authors were not primarily literary
critics, but their work has been broadly influential in literary theory.
Aestheticism – often associated with Romanticism a philosophy
defining aesthetic value as the primary goal in understanding literature.
This includes both literary critics who have tried to understand and/or
identify aesthetic values and those like Oscar Wilde who have stressed art for
art‟s sake.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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o Oscar Wilde, Walter Pater, Harold Bloom
American pragmatism and other American approaches
o Harold Bloom, Stanley Fish, Richard Rorty Cultural studies - emphasizes the role of literature in everyday life
o Raymond Williams, Dick Hebdinge, and Stuart Hall
(British Cultural Studies); Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno; Michel
de Certeau; also Paul Gilroy, John Guillory
Comparative Literature - confronts literatures from different
languages, nations, cultures and disciplines to each other” (3)
If we want to examine Pashto Tappa under the above theories we
conclude that Pashto Tappa can be discussed under theory of Cultural
Studies. However other related theories for instance Comparative
Literature, Gender Studies and Historical Studies may also be given due
consideration. Because where Pashto Tappa has affinity to Punjabi
Maheya on one hand so it may be viewed in the light of Comparative
Literature Theory and on other hand generally Tappa sang from women
side therefore we may also need recourse to Theory of Gender Studies.
Similarly Pashto Tappa has its own historical background and Historical
Studies Theory has to be given consideration while discussing Pashto
Tappa. But generally Tappa, and cultural may be discussed in the light of
cultural studies theory. Because Tappa is a folk literature and folk
literature is the representation of culture. Pashto folk poetry comprises of
Tappa Charbitha, Nimkai, Loba, Ghagoona Ghaarey and songs. These
are different genres of folk poetry.
Pashto folk poetry is true representative of Pashtoon Culture. Among all
the folk genres “Tappa” is the most fluent natural and effective in
reflecting the norms and traditions of Pashtoon society. Tappa is the
shortest, most comprehensive and most attractive form of folk poetry.
Pashto language is proud of it because this genre is rare to be found in
world literature anywhere in any language especially in oriental languages.
However, the Maheya in Punjabi language is very similar to that of
“Tappa” and a lot of verses also exist on the name of Tappa in Punjabi
language which is the true copy of Pashto Tappa. This peculiar genre has
a format of two lines, the first one of nine syllables and the second one is
of thirteen syllables.
In historical perspective Tappa is the oldest and most popular genre of
Pashto folk poetry. According to prominent orientalist Jens Enevoldson,
the theme and structure of Pashto Tappa has very closed resemblance to
the Aryan virtues and code of life. He narrates,
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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“The tribal code is the old Aryan code of honour, which one
may find in force in the early stages of all Indo European
peoples. Take the old Scandinavian sages and change
geographical and personal names and you have an epic tribal
history of Pakhtoons, particularly in the Tappas, which are
mostly composed by women. We find descriptions of ideal
manhood and the virtues, honour, bravery, justice, which the
young girls would look for in her beloved or the old Aryan
virtues”. (4)
Pashto Tappa is closely related to Pashtoon Women. We can say that:
"There is a peculiarity that most of Tappas had been sung by
women, which reflects the women Psychology in very natural
and original shape, but a number of Tappas had been composed
and sung by men too. Actually Tappa is the genre of Pashto
folk poetry which every Pashtoon not only compose but also
sings. Very often in his own personal tune adjusted to
circumstances, without fear of ridicule but the greater part of
thousands of Tappas in current use are made by the women.
Being essentially emotional expressions the dealing with most
common and the most celebrated of human relationships, that
between lover and beloved. A related favorite theme of Tappa
is that of separation not only the lover from the beloved but
also of a friend from his friends, of a man from his country and
his family.” (5)
Tappa is the real folk genre which represents the Pashtoon Culture and in
true form. In the New Encyclopedia Brittanica, it is mentioned that:
“It is the only form of folk poetry which is very impressive and
effective in highlighting the culture of Pashtoons. It is the song,
sung in the time of grief and on the occasion of marriage. In
music it is sung with the traditional Pashto musical instruments
“Rabab” and “Mangay” (6)
In short we can say that Tappa is a reflective mirror of the romances,
patriotism, freedom loving nature, kinship relations and other norms and
traditions of Pashtoons. We can see the real picture of social life, religious
rituals, economical development, trade and journeys, hospitality, wars and
resistance, jewelry, dress, music, foods and so many other things which
are the elements of culture and civilization of Pakhtoon society.
Tribal Life and Regional Tappas
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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Pakhtoons, for a length of time, remained in tribal area. They lived in hilly
and isolated regions from the beginning. However, due to invasions and
economics reasons they went down to urban area. Most of them left their
original area for economic reason and trade. But their collective structure
of life has been generally tribal and rural. And they observe their customs
in their urban life. By the way the oldest and greatest civilization of the
world social life structure remained unchanged. Ali Gohar, a Pakhtoon
writer, describes the tribal life and fundamental customs of Pakhtoon from
historical point of view. He writes,
"Among such nations are the Pukhtoon communities that live
across the Durand Line (International frontier) in Pakistan and
Afghanistan. They have many tribes, sub tribes, clans and areas
where they live. They are the inhabitants of high mountains, plain
areas and even the deserts. The customs and traditions of each
tribe, at a thirty-mile distance from another tribe, are slightly
different from each other but the basic themes of codes remain the
same. They have a verbal code of life called Pukhtoonwali.
Pukhtoonwali consists of a number of different concepts and
among the most famous are Badal (revenge) Milmastya
(hospitality), Jirga (elders committees), Nanawati (Sancturary)
Nang (Honour), Peghoor (challenging someone with shame),
Lakhkar (volunteer force), Chagha (announce and taking abrupt
action in case of emergency), Ashar Gobal (community
participation), Hujra (community center), Tega (a ceasefire
symbol), Toor (Shame), Tarboorwali (first cousin rivalry).These
people have preserved their traditions throughout the years through
verbal teaching where the young learn from he elders in the Hujra
or at home. They learn not only verbally but also by doing. It was
not only important for the youngsters to learn the practices but also
to adopt them in their daily lives. Any deviation from these
practices is not only an act of shame for an individual but also for
the whole tribe. The tribe then must commit to everlasting enmities
or pays the price through other means like Swara (giving away a
female child for reconciliation), khunbaha (blood money) or other
traditional practices of restitution. The common azizwali (the
Pukhtoon code of life) is a method to prevent an individual from
acting against the social rules as it is considered an act of
humiliation not only for the individual but also for the clan, tribe
ad nation. Those who call themselves Pukhtoon use Pukhto as a
language, a code of life and an identity for themselves. During
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
19
their discussions they haunt each that the other has no Pukhto,
which means that they are not following the Pukhtoon code of life.
It is an insult against a member of another nation if they challenge
that you have no English French etc. With other nations who are
not part of the Pukhtoon community there is a different type of
identity for themselves. If other nations believe in “we vs. them”
here in the Pukhtoon community they resolve their issues by
identifying “I Vs. you.” A tribal chief, an elder, a religious leader,
a father will also start with the issue that “I told you this but you
violated it. If I am not here, then you are nothing.” This means that
the privileges that you have are because of me and if I am no more
then you will also lose. "(7)
Alongwith this historical background of Pakhtoon tribal life their cultural
background is also much cleared. These cultural values are particular to
Pakhtoon society, which are prevalent in this society for centuries. These
cultural values of Pakhtoon can also be termed as tribal values. Musharaf
Khan gives account of the major point of these tribal values in the
following words,
"No society can survive without having its own code of conduct.
The tribal society is having its own code of conduct, covering all
the aspects of the social behavior. These codes are not meant for
sending the guilty to jail or gallows but are meant for a
compromise among the disputing parties. In most serious cases the
major punishment which could be awarded would be burning the
house, confiscating the property and sending the person or persons
to exile to the area of some other tribe on permanent basis. The
punishment of killing is strictly forbidden except in very rare cases
where the sub tribe as a whole is demanding the shooting of the
killer who is available in the close vicinity. The theft, dacoit or
adultery are very rare for, in such cases shoot at site is allowed.
The executive and judicial powers are exercised by the Jirga on
case to case basis. For any conflict a fresh Jirga is constituted with
equal number of members nominated by each disputing part.All
these codes are unwritten, coming down generation and are
acceptable to all. The only crime, which carries no punishment, is
killing of a father by a son or a son by a father or a father or an
unmarried brother by a brother. This is so because there would be
no one to take revenge except the killer himself. Such crime is very
rare in practice as the killer would become weak, armless and up-
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
20
protected, would be looked down upon by people. As such he
would be passing very miserable days for the rest of his life. In the
tribal society family is not confined to father, wife and children. It
is spread over all the relatives of the hill an on the paternal side
like uncle, brothers, sons, nephews, nephew sons, and so on, for as
long as they accept the enmity jointly and share their firing at the
common enemy, who could be any member of another family
whose any member has killed a person of this family. There is no
distinction between the killer and the innocent, in so for as taking
the Badal (revenge) is concerned but the victim must belong to the
same joint family. The larger the family, the stronger it would be
and would stay stronger while dealing with other. The profit and
loss has to be shared equally by such family."(8)
Pakhto Tappa on one hand presents the sketch of those customs and tribal
life and on the other hand certain particular regions their culture and
geography has also been mentioned in it, which we can call as the sketch
of Pakhtoon Tribal Life. Besides this Pakhto Tappa of certain tribal area
has (the dialect) the effects of their particular accent. For instance the
accent of people of Peshawar valley is called Peshawari accent. Mostly
Tappas of Pakhto language are in this accent. But there are certain Tappas
which have the effect of its particular area. For instance Kakar and
Achakzai, Bolochistan, sing Tappa in their particular accent. Similarly
region in Pakhtoonkhwa tribes like dialect, Khattak, Bannuchy, Afridi and
Shinwaris etc sing these Tappas in their particular dialect. Here few
Tappas will be presented which has reference to particular area and tribal
areas and their speciality. In a Tappa a girl mentions nose ring (Pezwan)
for her decoration and says that jeweler of Peshawar are not expert in nose
ring (pezwan) making and that best nose ring are made in Kurram Agency.
She says,
9
Translation:
Original pezwaan has been prepared in Kurram Agency. O jeweler of
Peshawar your hands mey be broken so that you can not prepare an
original pezwaan.
This Tappa is very famous in Bannu district of N.W.F.P. (Khyber
Pakhtoonkhwa) and I have taken it from the people of Bannu orally.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
21
Swat and Bunir tribal area of Pakhtoon have their own traditional life style
and customs. In a Tappa reference has been made towards the beauty and
charm of Swat.
01
Translation:
Swat is like beautiful garden to which princess from far-flung area come
for enjoyment.
This Tappa is familiar in Peshawar too but I have received it from the
people of Malakand Agency.
Bunair is known for the tomb of renowned spiritual person “Peer Baba” to
which people go and pray for their relief. To reach there, one has to pass
through a hilly area of Malindary. In a Tappa reference has been made to
this regional effect.
00
Translation:
Your face is like pilgrim of Peer Baba tomb and I climbed the peak of
Malindary exhausted.
This Tappa is also received from the people of Malakand Agency.
In a Tappa reference has been made to the seasons, environment and
beauty of Peshawar and Kabul as;
01
Translation:
Peshawar and Kabul both are like paradise but I have to leave Kabul.
Although this Tappa is related to the people of Kabul but I have quoted it
from the people of Peshawar orally.
Similarly there was a Godar in District Mardan known as Jalala the signs
are still there. This Godar is mentioned in a lot of Pakhto Tappa. The
Godar was famous for the fable that its water was sweet and delicious and
girls from the surrounding areas used to take water to their house in
pitchers. The godar has been mentioned in the following words:
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
22
02
Translation:
Jalala’s water is sweet and girls are filling their pitchers of this water.
This Tappa is mostly sung by the people of Peshawar some other areas of
N.W.F. P (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa).
Indus River is known as Abbaseen in Pakhtoon region. Besides this
Jalala, Abbaseen has also been mentioned in Pakhto Tappa and with this
reference has been made to Pakhto values in same Tappa. A Tappa is here
for reference:
03
Translation:
I don‟t need your education and your books may drown in Abbaseen.
This is a famous Tappa of Peshawar valley.
Pakhto Tappa not only displays or demonstrates the social and cultural
values of certain areas but also their accent and dialect. They sing these
Tappas in their own local dialect with their particular accent. Pakhto
language has two main dialects one is Qandhari and the other is Peshawari
or Yousafzai dialect. Qandhari is mostly used in Afghanistan and
Balochistan and Peshawari or Yousafzai dialect is mostly used in
Peshawar valley and its surrounding. People of Peshawar speak the
standard Pakhto language and most of the Tappas are in this dialect. But
people from Afghanistan and Balochistan sing Tappas in their typical
Qandhari dialect. Few Tappas are mentioned here for instance:
04
Translation:
It is good to happen that you have been injured for which I will walk with
pride with chin up.
I have received this Tappa from my friend Javed Iqbal a lecturer of Pashto
in Balochistan University.
In this Tappa “sha swa” and “zakhmee swey” are words from Qandhari
dialect which will be pronounce as “kha shwa” and “zakhmee shwey” in
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
23
Yousafzai dialect and both pronunciation represent their particular tribes
and folk.
05
The Tappa has been narrated by Javed Iqbal in Quetta.
In This Tappa also, “yaad say”, nor see” and “aor see” words represent
Qandhari dialect. They will be “yaad shay”, “nor shee” and “aor shee” in
Peshawari dialect.
Similarly people from Peshawar valley sing Tappa in Peshawari dialect.
However people of certain Southern region, e.g. Marwat, Bunuchi, and
Khattak also demonstrate Qandhari accent and sing Tappa in their
regional dialects. Besides these the people of Pakistan at Afghanistan
boarder, e.g. Shinwari, Afridi and Mohmand generally present Qandhari
dialect and sing Tappa in this dialect. However occasionally Afridis and
Mohmands talk in Peshawari dialect and sing Tappa in this dialect. On
this pretext we can conclude that Pakhto Tappa not only demonstrates
different cultural, life and regional customs of all Pakhtoon regions but
also their regional and particular dialects and accents. That is why Pakhto
Tappa has a beautiful varieties due to its demonstration of cultural,
customs and usages and other aspects of Pakhtoon life.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
24
References
1. Polock, Sheldon, The Language of the Gods in the World of Men,
The University of California press Berkeley, 2007, P-2
2. http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/literary theory – theory, Retrieved on
March, 5 2010
3. Ibid
4. Enoveldson, Jens, Sound the bells, O Moon, Arise and Shine,
Univesity Book Agency Peshawar, (N.D), P-9
5. Pashto Tappa, worldpress.com
6. The New Encyclopaedia Britanica (Macropaeedia) 15th
ed. S.V.
The Concept and Components of Culture by Richard G. Fox, vol: 16c,
1997, P-874
7. Gohar, Ali, Pukhtoon Tradition in Modern Perspective, Just Peace
International, (ND), PP-2, 3
8. Khan, Musharaf, The Role Tribal Pathans in the First Indo-Pak
War After Partition, Pashto Academy University of Peshawar and Lok
virsa Islamabad, 2008, PP-52, 53
9. Tair, Mohammad Nawaz, Tappa Au Zwand (Pashto), (Tappa and
Life), PP-117, 118
10. Ibid, P-120
11. Ibid, P-89
12. Ibid, P-78
13. Ibid, P-113
14. Ibid, P-178
15. Ibid, P-93
16. Ibid, P-99
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
25
Pashto Polite Expressions for Face-saving on Face book Dr. Abdullah Jan Abid
Muhammad Sheeraz*
Abstract: Drawing upon the traditional and postmodern views regarding
politeness studies, the present paper investigates the frequency of the use of
various polite expressions by Pashto speaking face book users. The study
takes into account the various contexts of the choice as well as the age
variation. Two hundred status updates and comments open for public were
selected for the analysis. The data shows that relatively younger Pashto
speaking face book users make a less frequent use of polite expressions while
interacting with their age-fellows. However, the frequency of the polite
expressions is high when the interaction happens between seniors (in terms of
age) and juniors or even between two seniors. The expression of respect
„grana‟ was found to have the highest frequency with 22% of all
occurrences of the politeness expressions, and was followed by
„dera manana‟ with 19% of them. Key Terms: Pashto, Politeness, Face book
1.Theoretical Background
The research in the area of linguistics has helped expand the area, and caused
the development of many related fields such as pragmatics, anthropological
linguistics, sociolinguistics, conversational analysis, etc. These fields, like
many others, have developed certain theories which can be considered as
being traditional due to their faith in the classics of the area. However, during
the recent decades, the influence of the critical theories such as
postmodernism and deconstruction has brought a seismic change that took the
focus away from authority to the lay people‟s perception. But this does not
mean that the traditionalist studies have been totally divorced: they exist, and
have also contributed towards the creation of a theoretical bipolarity in these
fields.
This polarity can also be found in the politeness studies in pragmatics in which
traditional view and postmodern view regarding politeness have led various
Head Department of Pakistani Languages Allama Iqbal Open University
Islamabad * Ph.D. scholar, Department of English International Islamic University
Islamabad
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
26
research ventures into the field (see Terkourafi 2005). The former view also
termed as politeness to acknowledge the existence of Model Persons and their
face as perceived by the theorists such as Grice (1989 [1967]), and reflected and
further developed in the works of Lakoff 1973, Brown and Levinson 1987
[1978], Leech 1983, etc. This view has retained its theoretical appeal and
terminological currency for long and exists even today, though shaken by certain
severe criticisms (Terkourafi 2005). The latter view (also termed as politeness 1),
emphasizes the role of lay people‟s face and perception in the conceptualization
of politeness as studied by Eelen 2001, Mills 2003, Watts 2003, etc. This
postmodern politeness view considers the rapport management to be at the heart
of politeness practices (Terkourafi 2005: 241).
Both the views regarding politeness studies have their potential strengths, some of
which coincide as well (see Terkourafi 2005). These strengths may strategically
be combined and applied for the better results of the future researches in the area.
For instance, both have a common standing that politeness should be analyzed
“on the pragmatic level as a particularized implicature” (Terkourafi 2005: 246).
Secondly, one of the assumptions of the traditional view is that certain norms
exist a priori whereas the postmodern view stresses the lay man‟s perceptions and
choices. This contradiction, if negotiated, may lead to a reconciliation that would
allow a point of departure to be determined for many new politeness studies as
this. If looked closely, it is true that certain politeness norms exist a priori, and
those used in verbal interaction are called as polite expressions. However, their
appropriateness is decided by the common interlocutors‟ perception and choice.
Drawing upon this theoretical negotiation, the present study gives a discussion on
the polite expressions existing a priori in Pashto language, and works out the
frequency with which the Pashto speakers choose them for their verbal
interaction in the form of statuses and comments on face book.
2. Introduction
The present paper investigates the polite behavior in verbal interaction done on
face book. The aim of the paper is to explore the frequency of the various
politeness expressions used by the face book users. Within verbal interaction we
have focused only on isolated utterances considered to be the politeness
expressions rather than on the bigger chunks of cooperative and harmonious
interaction. While studying these isolated expressions, Eelen‟s (2001) concerns
regarding the early researches in politeness were considered and the „hearer‟ was
also taken into account along with the „speaker‟. According to Elen, "(im)politeness
occurs not so much when the speaker produces behaviour but rather when the
hearer evaluates that behaviour [...] the very essence of (im)politeness lies in this
evaluative moment" (Eelen 2001: 109). Some researchers even believe that
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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“…politeness is not behavior per se but an evaluation of behavior” (Sifianou &
Tzanne, 2010). Spencer-Oatey (2005) and Locher (2006) also have the similar
opinion. However, “evaluation is itself a complex concept that can be seen as an
umbrella term that refers to the expression of the speaker's viewpoint, attitude, or
stance toward or feelings about what somebody else has said or done” (Sifianou &
Tzanne, 2010), and also suggests that non-linguistic behavior is also important to
be considered while researching politeness, which, due to the limited scope of the
present paper, has not been taken into account here.
Although the overwhelming majority of the respondents involved in some of the
recent research works have conceptualized “polite behavior as being strictly
nonverbal” (Sifianou & Tzanne, 2010), yet the importance of the verbal polite
expressions, particularly on social networking sites as face book, cannot be
neglected as because of the geographical distancing the non-linguistic behaviors
cannot be expressed properly there. It is also relevant to state here that: “In most of
the studies, the politeness has been conceptualized especially as strategic conflict-
avoidance or as strategic construction of cooperative social interaction (Vilkki, n.d:
323)”, and as the chances of misunderstanding and conflict increase on written
public comments and statuses, therefore the speakers need be more careful with
their verbal politeness strategies.
2.1 Two Key Terms
Pashto: Pashto is an ancient language of Iranian family (see Grierson n.d.; Abid
2006, etc) spoken by a large population especially those living in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan and eastern and southern
regions of Afghanistan.
Face book: The face book is a social networking site which “provides a convenient
environment for the development of discourse communities with its varied
participatory mechanisms. On face book, users create their personal profile page
allowing them to list interests and activities they share with others. They also
belong to a „Network‟ defined primarily by the educational institution with which
they are, or have been, affiliated. Communication with others within face book
takes place via a range of tools including email, discussion boards, uploaded videos
and picture galleries that include a space for comments and a „wall‟ in which users
can exchange messages with nominated friends. Other popular features include
status updates, „poking‟ friends (an ambiguous tool but one of the many phatic uses
of face book) and gift giving (fish, flowers etc.)” (McNeill 2008: 3). The privacy
settings of the site allow the users to decide whether the comment, status or post
they make is meant for a group of friends, all those entered in the friend list, friends
as well as their friends or public i.e. anyone who uses face book.
3. Methodology
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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The first order politeness termed as politeness 1 or postmodern view on
politeness studies (Terkourafi 2005) has been stressed to have the lay man‟s
perceptions and selections of the various ways of politeness (see Watts 2003;
Mills 2003; Sifianou & Tzanne, 2010 etc). The traditional politeness theories
have asserted the existence of certain politeness norms a priori. The present study,
as stated above, negotiates the two views extended by these contending
theoretical groups to supply a comprehensive theoretical framework.
Acknowledging the existence of verbal politeness expressions, the study focuses
how frequently Pashto speaking lay face book users opt for any of these
expressions.
The data for the present study was collected from face book. Two hundred public
statuses and comments of various Pashto speakers were studied for the present
paper. The data consisted of 5230 words. The frequency of the use of these
expressions was worked out. Addresser/addressee‟s age group was particularly
considered as one of the variables. The demographic information given on the
profiles of the users was believed true. All the two hundred comments/statuses
were posted by male face book users from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of
Pakistan with the exception of five comments which were made by female users
from the same province.
4. Results and Discussion
The data shows both the types of politeness expressions i.e. non-linguistic and
linguistic. Among non-linguistic politeness behaviors, accepting various types of
requests such as friend requests, etc, commenting on the statuses in response to
others‟ comments, complimenting pictures, food, etc, clicking “like” as an
acknowledgment/alignment token, etc are conceptualized as politeness in the
comments made by various Pashto speaking face book users. This is in line with
the assertion of Pashto Cultural orientations (2010) which says, “It is polite
to compliment the quality of the food”. However, as the focus of the
present study is the isolated verbal polite expressions, we will discuss them at
length.
Following politeness expressions were used in the comments/statuses
made/updated by Pashto speaking face book users: To pay thanks / gratitude: „Dera manana‟ / „dera dera manana‟ / „yow jehan
manana‟, etc were used as strong polite expressions whereas „manana‟ was used
as a weak or ordinary expressions to show gratefulness. Expressions borrowed
and adapted from Urdu language such as „Dera mehrubani‟ and „mehrubani‟
were also used for politeness in Pashto.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
29
To apologize: „Dera bakhana‟ was used as a strong expression of apology in
Pashto whereas in some instances „bakhana‟ was used alone which may be
interpreted as weak.
To make requests: When an addresser intended to make a request, s/he used the
Urdu expression „mehrubani‟. As the data belonged to the face book discourse of
the Pashto speaking Pakistanis, therefore it seemed influenced by Urdu – the
national language of the country.
To show respectfulness: The expressions of respect for elders were used very
frequently in the face book discourse under study. These expressions are given
below:
Grana (singular) / grano (plural)
Qadar mana (singular) / qadar mano (plural)
khaghle (singular) / khaghlo (plural)
drund (singular) / drano (plural)
To pray: Praying to God for addressee‟s long life, prosperity and happiness also
seems to be an expression of politeness in Pashto. Following expressions were
used in the discourse under study:
Khad ose (Stay happy)
Jawande ose (Stay alive/ Live long)
Abad ose (Stay prosperous)
Gul ose (Live like flowers)
To show intimacy: In Pashto, „lala‟ is an expression for the elder brother. In the
face book discourse under study, this expression was used by some addressees
even though the addressers were not their elder brothers. Hence, this has been
used as one of the politeness expressions in order to show intimacy and affection.
Table 1 given below shows the frequency of the use of various politeness
expressions by Pashto speaking face book users in different contexts. The total
number of occurrences of polite expressions was 108. This means that about 2%
of the total selected Pashto discourse consisted of these polite expressions.
Table: 1
S. no. Politeness Expression Total Number of
Occurrences
Frequency (out of 108)
1 Manana 15 14%
2 Dera manana 20 19%
3 dera dera manana 3 0.27%
4 yow jehan manana 2 0.18%
5 Mehrubani 3 0.27%
6 Dera Mehrubani 5 0.46%
7 Bakhana 5 0.46%
8 Dera bakhana 2 0.18%
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
30
9 Grana 24 22%
10 Qadar mana 4 0.37%
11 Khaghle 2 0.18%
12 Drund 2 0.18%
13 Khad ose 5 0.46%
14 Jawande ose 3 0.27%
15 Abad ose 2 0.18%
16 Gul ose 1 0.09%
17 Lala 10 9%
The table shows that the expression of respect for elders i.e. „grana‟ was used with
highest frequency (22%) of all the isolated polite expression in the data under
study. It is followed in frequency by „dera manana‟ (19%), „manana‟ (14%), and
„lala‟ (9%). Category wise, the most frequently used type of polite expressions are
those of gratefulness with a total percentage of about 35%. The least frequently
used expressions are: „gul ose‟ (0.09%), „abad ose‟ (0.18%), „khaghle‟ (0.18%),
„drund‟ (0.18%), „dera bakhana‟ (0.18%), „yow jehan manana‟ and (0.18%).
In some instances, politeness effect has been enlarged by non-verbal ways like
using similes and, at times, lengthening, upper-casing, or highlighting the verbal
expressions to emphasize them e.g. “Deraaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa Manana,
Hasham Baber”.
Politeness expressions are used with higher frequency on the walls of the senior
(age-wise) people than that on the young ones which also shows that using formal
politeness expressions in frank atmosphere may be considered impolite by many
speakers. However, while interacting on the walls of the seniors, the young users
were found using these politeness expressions even for their age fellows perhaps
because here their indirect „hearers‟ were the seniors as well. On the walls of the
senior and respectable members even the seniors themselves are using the
politeness expressions which helps maintain distance and probably provide a model
to their younger generation. Most of the polite expressions used by seniors were
prayers and words of affection, etc. The pragmatic function of these expressions
here seems formality and distancing.
The three out of the total five comments made by the female users used the
expression of „lala‟ and one used a praying expression.
5.Conclusion
Pashto speaking educated class has been found as the regular face book using
people. They make extended comments on various issues. An average use of
the isolated verbal politeness expressions can be noticed on their face book
walls i.e. about 2% of the interaction.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
31
No visible conflict was found in the discourse consisting of the two hundred
comments/ statuses (5230 words) which shows that the users made an
appropriate use of the politeness expressions for face-saving. It was found that
the the frequency of the use of these expressions varies with the age group of
the „hearer‟. If there is a generation-gap difference of age, then not only the
addresser expresses his/her respectfulness through polite expressions but the
addressee also makes use of these expressions.
It can be safely asserted that Pashto speaking face book users make
appropriate choices of politeness expressions as a strategy of face-saving on
the social networking site.
Finally, it is duly acknowledged that the present study is an introductory
exploration into Pashto politeness, and optimistically hoped that it would
prove a prelude to many scholarly works in the area in future.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
32
References
1. Abid, Abdullah Jan. (2006). Pashto Zuban-o-Adab ki Mukhtasar Tareekh.
Peshawar: University Publishers.
Brown, Penelope and Stephen Levinson. (1987 [1978]). Politeness: Some Universals
in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Eelen, Gino. (2001). Critique of politeness theories. Manchester: St Jerome Press.
2. Grierson, G. A. (n.d.). Linguistic Survey of Pakistan (II). Lahore: Accurate
Printers.
3. Grice, Herbert Paul. (1989 [1967]). Logic and conversation. In Studies in the
Way of Words, 22_40. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Lakoff, Robin. (1973). The logic of politeness; or minding your p‟s and q‟s. In
Papers from the Ninth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, 292_305.
Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
4. Leech, Geoffrey. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. London: Longman.
Locher, Miriam, A. (2006). Polite behaviour within relational work: The discursive
approach to politeness. Multilingua 25(3). 249-267.
5. McNeill, Tony. (2008). Face work in Face book: An analysis of an online
discourse community. Language, culture and communication in online learning.
http://www.education.ed.ac.uk/e-6.
6. .learning/gallery/mcneill_face book.pdf
7. Mills, Sara. (2003). Gender and politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
8. Pashto Cultural orientations. (2010). Defense Language Institute Foreign
Language Center.
9. http://famdliflc.lingnet.org/products/pashto/pu_co/pashto.pdf
Sifianou, Maria, and Angeliki Tzanne. (2010). Conceptualizations of politeness and
impoliteness in Greek. (Report). Retrieved on March 30, 2011 from
10. http://find.galegroup.com/gps/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-
Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=IPS&docId=A24186
1923&source=gale&srcprod=AONE&userGroupName=wash59545&ve
rsion=1.0
11. Spencer-Oatey, Helen. (2005). (Im)politeness, face and perceptions of
rapport: Unpackaging their bases and interrelationships. Journal of Politeness
Research 1(1). 95-119.
12. Terkourafi, Marina, (2005). Beyond the micro-level in politeness research.
Journal of Politeness Research. 1: 237-262.
http://faculty.las.illinois.edu/mt217/Terkourafi_JoPR1%282%29.pdf
13. Vilkki, Liisa. (n.d.). Politeness, Face and Facework: Current Issues. A Man of
Measure: Festschrift in Honour of Fred Karlsson. 322-332.
http://www.linguistics.fi/julkaisut/SKY2006_1/1.4.7.%20VILKKI.pdf
14. Watts, Richard J. (2003). Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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The pursuit of Pashtoon image in the Orientalists Discourse:
Barkat Shah Kakar*
Abstract: The leading educational and research disciplines are considered as an
outgrowth of European colonialism. The learning brigades along with European
colonizers also known as Orientalists have constructed a knowledge base that has
thrived theories and notions regarding the Near Eastern and Far Eastern societies
, cultures, languages, peoples, history and civilizations in general. After the Second
World War (1945), Orientalism was emerged as career that presented contents and
notions written and interpreted by the colonial masters. This paper is going to
* Lecturer Pashto Department University of Balochistan
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
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discuss the construction of Pashtoon‟s identity in the context of European
colonialism. The paper probes the different cadres of Orientalists that, presented
biased sketches of the indigenous Pashtoon and Afghan people they countered in
three wars during the colonial era. It is interesting to note that, even today most of
the notions wrapped in the modern orientalists narratives are backed by evidences
provided the so-called learning brigades of the colonial era. Triangulation of
different narratives indicates that, the Pashtoon image constructed through
colonial/orientalist archives has a connection with the British Empire‟s agendas of
hegemony and domination. Different cohorts of orientalists have presented varied
perspective that evidently reflect the legitimacy if the colonial tools for
subjugation.
The Great Game; Afghans between the Devil and the Deep Sea
The first trade expedition of East India Company was carried in 1604
(Maddani, Husain Ahmedi)[1] that gradually subdued the Indian subcontinent
in the following two centuries. In the first decade of the nineteenth century the
defeat of Napoleonic France rendered an imbalance amongst the colonial rivals.
The Russia was supposed to be the potential power to generate its influence in
the Afghan territory that would cause a threat to the interests of the Britain.
Hence a pull and push scene of Great Game was started in 1809 [2]. The Britain
and other European colonizers strive to divert the foreign policy of Afghanistan
for protecting their interests in the Indian subcontinent and the other areas
adjacent to the Afghan boarders. Britain East India Company for its ambitious
plans launched a confronting policy called Closed Boarder Policy in 1830s that
resulted in the first Anglo-Afghan war (1839-1842)"[3]. In the wake of the
1857 War of Independence (also referred as Mutiny in the colonial chronicles)
East India Company was replaced by Great Britain crown and Indian
subcontinent was directly governed under the British crown.
“Hence the closed border policy which rendered two devastating Anglo-Afghan
wars was gradually replaced by the Forward Policy in the decade of 1876
(Caroe, 1958)”[4]. The forward policy was aimed to treat the tribal Pashtoon in
accordance to their own customs and manners so that a room of a likeness and
respect for their ways could be portrayed for generating trust in the Pashtoons.
The series of wars amongst the invading expansionist Britain's and native
Pashtoons have been continued even after the last Anglo Afghan war fought in
1919. The attacks of the Pashtoon freedom fighters have a long account to be
explored and narrated.
As a most influential and powerful colonizer, the Britain empire cater trained
anthropologists, ethnographers, narrators and reporters labeled as "the learned
brigades" by Edward Said in his famous book "Orientalism".
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35
The image of Pashtoons is presented by the British colony officers,
administrators, visitors and spy through their various accounts on their advents
on the land of Pashtoons. The bitter memories of the devastating wars with
Pashtoons are conserved in the form of books, memoirs, diaries, sketches,
reports and journals.
The of Distortion of Pashtoon's self-image;
Pashtoon live on crossroads that has been passed by invaders from the different
corners of the world in the different historical eras. The Persians, Mongols and
British empires are of greater importance to our subject. Though the former two
had less practices of systemic domination and its legitimacy through academic,
cultural and social apparatus but the oral tradition preserves contents that can be
analyzed for unpacking the peculiar stereotyping of the particular ethnicity.
Bahadur Shah Zafar Kakakhel in his valuable work on the history of Pashtoons
has disclosed that, in the wake of retaking the throne from the Pasthoons Suri
dynasty(1557), the Mughal-Persian alliance fabricated a fake image of
Pashtoons and labeled them as “Dew Zaad1”. It was an effective psychological
tactic that tend to create skepticism and degenerated the self-esteem of
Pashtoons that had the potential to pose challenges to the Mughal dynasty. The
oral tradition and folk stories also mix stuff that, underestimate the language
and culture of Pashtoons. The origin of the very irrational notion that, “Pashto
is the language of Hell” need to be traced back, that definitely is extended and
replicated in the colonial-oriental chronicles. The colonial period Report on the
Tribes of the Dir, Swat and Bajuar reinforces this myth, “the Language of hell
is certainly Pashto, owing to number of Pathans there [5]”. This evidence may
create a theory to draw a nexus to the three empires who confronted Pashtoons
on their land.
Legitimizing the colonial oppression:-
Historical analysis shows that, indigenous people in all over the world have
always posed resistance to the Eurocentric racism and Imperialism based on
economic exploitation, slavery, violence and domination. There have been
countless accounts of rejecting and challenging the notion of “the white man's
burden” in all over the world. Besides the oppressive colonial armies, the
cadres of narrators and reporters have always been presenting the natives of
colonies synonymous to savages or the races that are not evolved to their full
human potentials. The cadres of reporters and political agents from the western
hemisphere gradually became authorities on the rest of the world's cultures,
languages, histories, races, faiths and all that can represent and interpret their
1 Dew Zaad mean the race originated from the Savages rather than human.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
36
identities. Edward .W. Said the reckoned dissent and public intellectual has
unpacked this situation in his famous account 'Orientalism'. “As discussed and
analyzed as the corporate institution for dealing with orient dealing with it by
making statements about it, authorizing views of it, describing it be teaching it,
settling it, ruling over it... .”[6]
A talk delivered in the Library of the Royal Society for Asian Affairs on the
evening of 10th November 2005, Bijan Omrani declare the diverse forms of
chronicles produced by the Europeans, he writes, “ It is quite a daunting task to
pick out just a couple of the books about Afghanistan in the Society‟s library.
There is a paralyzing embarrassment of riches. The country has always
attracted the most brilliant and raffish sort of adventurers and deserters, spies
and eccentrics, many of whom have left us their memoirs. The library contains
not only ordinary travel books, but also journals, autobiographies and
biographies, formal histories, official accounts, and journalistic reports”.[7]
Analysis of the various accounts as produced by the initial colonial envoys,
officers, administrative staff and ethnographers clearly indicates they have
always identified the native populations with scarcity and weaknesses. The
intent behind the study of the orient was to construct a moral legitimacy of the
occident's oppression and prove it as a natural phenomenon.
The way they see and define others:
In the subcontinent and mainly Pashtoon territory 'Orientalism' in its initial
forms seems informal which takes roots gradually when the responsibility of
studying and defining the orient is shifted from the army officers and political
administrators to the learned brigades of ethnographers, anthropologist and
historians in the early decade of twentieth century.
Through the eyes of Traders and Spies:
In the wake of the Great Game (1812) the very first cadres sent to study the
Afghan land pretended as tourists and traders. Contents analysis of their works
indicates a sense of surprise and revelations. Elphinstone who visited the
territory as a tourist and later on proved as political diplomat has a content of
much inspiration with diction dominated by revelations and friendship. His
relationship with the common Pashtoon was much different as that of the other
political officers and narrators of the later days.
Analysis of the narrations depicted by the several ethnographers and political
officers of later days indicates that a cross cutting influence of orientalists of the
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
37
earlier days could be seen. Like the Elphinstone's approach has been practiced
and the realities are contextualized with an angled vision and fragmented frame
of reference. As predecessors, he is still believed relevant and quoted by most
of the western and eastern careerists. Stephen Tanner, in his recent works on the
military history of Afghanistan has phrased, “At one point Elephanstine argued
with an old tribesman, stressing the benefits of social stability under firm
government rule. “We are content with discord, we are content with alarms, we
are content with blood, “the old man told him but” we will never be content
with a master” [8].
This is a specific connotation which affirms a sheer generalization on the
average person living in that part of the world. Similarly he has reported about
the specific tenets of Pashtoonwali like J. W. Spain has raised the point. “About
the tenets of Pakhtoonwali, Elphinstone, as most writers after him, is specific
about Badal (revenge) traveling in the grand manner of the seventeenth
century, he hardly notices Nanawate the right of sanctuary” [9]. These
tendencies in his approach are common as Stephen Tanner has also pointed out,
“On this first mission, Elphinstone perceived flaws in the Afghan character,
such as tendencies towards envy, avarice, discord and revenge” [10] '. Such
tendencies are also seen in the works followed by his account which is mainly
perceived as a bible for the coming slot. As Charles Masson in his three volume
narrative of various journeys in Blochistan, Afghanistan and Punjab (1842) and
English captain john Wood's “A journey to the source of river Oxus'(1837).
Both accounts are full of examples of badal2, melmestia3 and Nanawati4, but
these are never named, the authors preferring to comment on the nature of
Pathans rather than on their beliefs” [11].
Seeing Pathans through the Guns:
The huge amount of Orientalists stuff is produced through the memories,
reports, travelogue and general accounts of the persons who were physically
engaged in the conflict for imposing their forward policy or closed border
policy. One can also see interesting accounts as narrated by the women as Lady
Sale who was along with her husband during the first Anglo-Afghan war. She
has recorded her observations in diary, which opens revealing accounts of the
days they trapped amongst the strong Pashtoon warriors. The account that has
republished several times has become a significant source of information and
analysis.
2 Badal a Pashto word which means 'revenge'
3 Hospitality, especially to the persons from the far flung areas.
4 'Nanawate' a Pashtoon cultural practice of the submission of the offender
and his/her family and tribe to the victim and his/her family and tribe which often
end the conflict with non-violence.
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There is visible divergence in the diction of the writers who were pursuing the
close border policy with that of the others materializing the forward policy.
About these two policies Sir Olaf Caroe in his famous account 'The Pathan' has
shared, “The fifty -odd years from the British Annexation up to 1901 are best
seen in two periods, the first from 1849 to the outbreak of the second Afghan
war in 1878 ...the first thirty years are represent the testing time of the so-
called closed border policy”[12] '.The closed border policy as pursued in the
first thirty years resulted two Anglo-Afghan wars. While the forward policy
which was adopted by the newly elected government of Prime Minister Disraeli
was aimed to “build a strategic line of defense against Russian pressure in
Central Asia” [13].
W.L. Churchill(1874-1965) the renowned British political figure of the
twentieth century has shared an experience filled with cynicism. His diction and
general connotation comprises the sheer racist version. In his account
'Malakand Field force (1892)' he observes an overwhelming barbarism and
wickedness. He has shared his experience in these words, “Every influence,
every motive, that provokes the spirit of murder among men, impels these
mountaineers to deeds of treachery and violence. The strong aboriginal
propensity to kill, inherit in all human beings, has in these valleys been
preserved in unexampled strength and vigor. That religion, which above all
others was founded and propagated by the sword--the tenets and principles of
which are instinct with incentives to slaughter and which in three continents
has produced fighting breeds of men--stimulates a wild and merciless
fanaticism [14]”.
During his confrontation to the very tough Pashtoon tribesman, Churchill was
supposed to cast an inferior glance at their culture and religion. He could not
supersede them in the battle field but he was successful to label them as fanatics
and merciless through his account. He assumes that, the very primary characteristic
in the blood of Pashtoon is bloodshed. He has oversimplified the notion in the
following manner. “Every tribesman has a blood feud with his neighbor. Every
man's hand is against the other and all against the stranger” [15].
Making mock of the natives and casting at them an inferior bird eye view, is the
very common characteristic of the colonial reporters. Howard Zinn the reckoned
historian and public intellectual have unearthed the letters of Christopher Columbus
to the Queen Azabella written in 1493. As a mouthpiece of modern European
Civilization, the mocking at the ways of natives has been extended from Columbus
to Winston Churchill. Chirchill further elaborates, ''We see them in their squalid,
loophole hovels, amid dirt and ignorance, as degraded a race as any on the fringe
of humanity: fierce as the tiger, but less cleanly; as dangerous, not so graceful.
Those simple family virtues, which idealists usually ascribe to primitive peoples,
are conspicuously absent. Their wives and their women-kind generally, have no
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
39
position but that of animals. They are freely bought and sold, and are not
infrequently bartered for rifles. Truth is unknown among them. A single typical
incident displays the standpoint from which they regard an oath. In any dispute
about a field boundary, it is customary for both claimants to walk round the
boundary he claims, with a Koran in his hand, swearing that all the time he is
walking on his own land” [16].
Similarly Lady Sale (1790-1853) who was accompanied by her husband to
install a pipit regime in Afghanistan that led to the first Anglo-Afghan war, also
presented the Pathan tribesman with a sheer subjective manner. “Afghan of the
capital(Kabul) are a little more civilized, but the country gentlemen and their
retainers are much the same kind of people those Alexander encountered[17] '.
The image of the Pathans as narrated denotes that, Pathans are anti-protagonist
and as a martial race they are the strongest enemies ever faced by the British.
Rodenbough in his account display the war capability of the nineteenth century
Pathans, “As a trait of Afghan character, I must mention that whenever the
Jezailchis5 could snatch five minutes to refresh themselves with a pipe, one of
them would twang a sort of a rude guitar as an accompaniment to some martial
song, which, mingling with the notes of war, sounded very strangely.[18] "
Archibald Forbes (1838-1900) as observer of the first Anglo-Afghan war has
coined the word 'savage' and 'bloody' . The scene is that, the independent
territory of Afghans was ravaged for securing the interest of Britain empires
and constraining the political influences of Russia through its closed border
policy through a puppet pensioner prince Shah Shuja(1785-1842). In this
reaction the Afghan tribes took a serious charged and ruined almost all the army
in Kabul. In the wake of the very degenerated self esteem, the Archibald
Forbes has portrayed situation as following. Who presents the Pashtoon how is
an interesting analysis of the constructed knowledge base about history, culture
and civilization. While going peacefully to Afghanistan for installing the Shah
Shuja's regime the British army was posed almost a negligible resistance.
Alexander Burns (1805-1841) in his voyage along with Shah Shuja has written
his feeling in a letter to his sister. “They have no prejudices against a
Christian, and none against our nation. When they ask me if I eat pork, I of
course shudder and say it is only outcasts who commit such outrages. God
forgive me! For I am very fond of bacon, and my mouth waters as I write the
word”.[19]
It is certainly a spontaneous version of the cultural interaction that has been
gradually converted into harsh memories of bloodshed and massacre of the
Bruisers in the first Anglo-Afghan war.
5 The persons who operates the 'Jazile' the 18
th century long powder gun
traditionally used by Pathans.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
40
“The patriotism of a savage race is marked by features repulsive to civilized
communities, but through the ruthless cruelty of the indiscriminate massacre,
the treachery of the stealthy stab, and the lightly broken pledges, there may
shine out the noblest virtue that a virile people can possess. A semi-barbarian
nation whose manhood pours out its blood like water in stubborn resistance
against an alien yoke, may be pardoned for many acts shocking to civilized
communities which have not known the
Bitterness of stern and masterful subjugation”[20].
The last British political agent and Orientalists Sir Olaf Caroe (1892-1981), is
perceived as the most respected and valued authority on the subject of Pathan
ethnography and the tradition of Pashtoonwali. Content analysis of his famous
volume “The Pathan” discloses that, he has demonstrated contrasting image
which glamorizes the martial spirit of Pathan and identify Pathan as a good
enemy but having an unpredictable attitude as friend. At one place he has
concluded that the lives of the average Pashthan follow a meaningless trajectory
and they portray their gestures synonymous to the animals. “They are not much
better than the animals, for save the eating and drinking, moving about their
hills seeking their prey on the highways, and dying, they know ought
besides[21]
Captain A.H. Mc Mahon Political Agent Dir also presents a very subjective
image of the Pathans. In his co-authored account with Lieutenant A. D. G.
Gramsay, he has used prominent racist approach to de-legitimize the social and
cultural realities of the Pathans of that part of the world. About Pathan's
morality and belief it is recorded, “A Pathan admits, one half of the (holly)
Koran, , but not the other ; one foot of the Pathan is in Paradise, the other in
Hell; the Language of hell is certainly Pashtu, owing to number of Pathans
there ; the sacred law is good but not suited for healthy young man[22].
Richard Issac Bruce who sailed for India in 1862 and was appointed as Extra
Assistant Commissioner in Punjab later becomes a right hand man of Robert
Sandamen for the implementation of his “Forward Policy”. Collecting the
memories regarding the implementation of the forward Policy in his narrative
“The Forward policy” he has taken a sketch of frontier Pashtoon tribes (later on
misnomer them as part of British Balochsitan) from 1862-1898. In the opening
chapter he mentioned account he has clearly narrated that their intervention
through forward policy approach was a panacea for the Pashtoon tribes living
on 54000 Sq Km around today's Durand line. “If I can, by a plain unvarnished
tale of what has come under my own observation and the conclusion, I have
drawn, succeed in these objects, and enlisting the sympathies of my readers in
the noble and worthy cause of the civilization of the frontier tribes”[23].
This account carries a peculiar colonial connotation. The writer has particularly
mourn over the deaths of his colleagues and quite contrary has danced over the
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41
ruins of the Pashtoon tribes. He portrays a romantic sketch when the castle of
the reckoned freedom fighter 'Shahjehan jogezai' was blown with explosive
mater.
Bruce as defender of the forward policy approach has molded the history in its
own direction. He along with Maclover and Robert Sandeman have concluded
that Pathans having its egalitarian temptations are not easily manageable as
compare to the Baloch and Brahvi tribes. Bruce describes Pathans as fanatics,
Badmashees and culprits while on the other hand it is narrated that, the
Pashtoon tribes like Kakars, Barozais and Tarins have invited them to protect
them from their immediate Marri and Bugti neighbor's. In this account 'The
foreword Policy' he has narrated, “I also, under major Sandamen's directions,
opened up relations with Dummars , Panizais and Sarangzais(Kakars), the
Tarin of Harnai valley and thall Choteali and the Barozais and Pannis of
Sangan. They constantly reiterated cry of the Tarins, Barozais and Pannis was
that we should come in and occupy their country and secure their protection for
their lives and property from their implacable enemies the Marries and
Bugties[24].
The above mentioned statement indicates Bruce's fake attempt of legitimizing
their invasion. It also cater a contradiction that, at one point they declared
Pashtoon as egalitarian and uneasy to be managed and on the other hand the
same Pashtoon tribes invite them to be protected from their very immediate
neighbors they have been living with for centuries.
The mocking aspect of the accounts and memoirs generated by the political
administrators and military officers admires the individuals and tribes who
show obedience and submit their services for the empire. To the contrary the
freedom fighters and resistant tribes are always mentioned as fanatics, savage,
uncivilized and culprits etc. Like Major Maclover, political agent of the Thal
Chaotically, has coined the term “Badmashes” for the freedom fighters in his
letter to Richard Issac Bruce, “you know of course, that after you made over
charge several cases of Ghaza occurred in Bori and Duki, and Badmashes
invariably took refuge in Mina Bazar with Umar Khan”.[25]
Theo. F. Rodenbough has explored an unprecedented possibility of the war and
violence in the characters of Pathan. His narration concludes that, the meaning
of life in the view of an ordinary Pathan is to kill or to be killed by an enemy.
He has put forward his judgment, “The love of war is felt much more among
Afghans than by other Eastern peoples, although but little effort has been made
by them to augment the means of resistance and aggression”.[26]
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42
Some of the 0reintaists like Redenbough see an engineered default in the
character of Pashtoon. They perceived and propagated a linear and monotonic
identity of Pashtoon that has no organic substance and will remain the same
forever. He has further elaborated .further elaborates this points, “There is no
shade of difference between the character of the nomad and the citizen; a town
life does not soften their habits; they live there as they live in a tent, armed to
the teeth and ready for the onslaught[27].
The leading stereotype of sketching the Pathan as a warrior is the cross cutting.
It is evident somewhere while in most of the cases the orientalists have pointed
it between the lines. Similarly the rhetoric and over simplification of the reality
could be studied as a cross cutting phenomenon. About Afghans and
Afghanistan history an Orientalist of the later days have written. “Afghanistan
has nothing but stones and men: the stones made good Sungars6, which
thousands of men were always ready to defend[28] .
The stereotyping of Pashtoon as warriors is common in the colonial and post-
colonial discourse. The external invaders and rulers are either inspired or
strategically want to develop a self image that can contain them reacting in a
specific martial pattern. Hensman Howard in his account “Afghan War of
1879-80”illustrates that, “Afghanistan is a nation of soldiers, every adult being
(apart from any military training he may receive) a ready swordsman[29]
Rodenbough also comes with subjective interpretation of the ways of
Pashtoons. In his mentioned account, he has presented an over simplified
version of the ways of Pashtoon. He has observed the ways of Pashtoon through
a tunnel vision.
“These feuds are a system of petty warfare, carried on by long shots, stealing
cattle, and burning crops.
Samson, burning his neighbor's corn, acted just like an Afghan. When the
harvest is nearly ripe, neither party dare sleep. The remedy is sometimes for
both to fight until an equal number are killed on each side, when the neighbors
step in and effect a reconciliation; another method is to pay forfeit of a feast
and some sheep or cloth; in exceptional cases, a few Afghan virgins are
substituted for the sheep, but they are given in marriage, and are well
treated”[30]
Conclusion: Analysis of the memoirs, reports, diaries and other accounts produced by the
Orientalists in the colonial period on the Pashtoon's history, culture and
6 A bunkar
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43
ethnography indicates that, the connotation and diction of the colonial and post-
colonial writers has clear distinctions. Based on the peculiar political situation,
the image of Pashtoon has been constructed and reflected in the works of the
orientalists. In the result of study we can distribute these foreigners in four
categories.
The initial category covers the orientalists who visited Afghan land as visitors,
their work contain relatively much attributing characteristics. The second tier is
an outcome of the closed cored policy that is mixed with sheer bitter memories
of the two Anglo-Afghan wars. The third tier of forward Policy writers and
reporters cater another version of reconciliation and civilization. The fourth
stock consists of the administrative officers and ethnographers who came back
to Pakistan after the partition of Indian subcontinent and wrote their works like
Oalf Caroe and J. W. Spain.
The works of all these cadres was driven by the peculiar colonial policies and
its connection to the Pashtoons specially and Afghans generally.
The orientalist‟s narratives of colonial period still echoes in the accent of
political scientists, ethnographers, anthropologists and academicians. The
stereotyping of an ethnic entity as cruel, rigid, uncivilized and mischievous in
the colonial era has almost reproduced in that needs proper investigation and
articulation for rationalizing the discourse.
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
44
References:
1) Maddani, Hussain Ahmed, "Angrez Samraj nay Hammai Kaisay Loota"
2) Caroe , Sir Olaf 'The Pathans' with an Epilogue on Russia, Oxford University
Press,1958,p.395
3) L.W. Adamec/J.A. Norris, Anglo-Afghan Wars, in Encycloædia Iranica, online ed. 2010
4) Caroe, Sir Olaf, “The Pathans” Oxford University Press, 1958, P. 370,
5) Report on the Tribes of the Dir, Swat and Bajuar Together with the
Uthmankhel and Ranizai, by Captain A.H. Mc Mahon Political Agent Dir,
Swat and Chitral and Lieutenant A. D. G. Gramsay, second edition, Saeed
Book Bank Peshawar, 1981, p.19
6) Said, Edward W. Orientalism, Western Conceptions of the Orient, a Penguin Book, Non-
Fiction India, 1
st
edition 1978, 1995, p.34
7) www.bijanomrani.com -> Articles -> “Will We Make It To Jalalabad?” 19th century Book
Travels In Afghanistan
8) Tanner,Stephen. Afghanistan a military history from Alexander the great to
the fall of Taliban Oxford University Press P.134
9) W .Spain, James Pathans of the latter day, Oxford University Press Karachi, 1995 page-41
10) Tanner,Stephen. Afghanistan a military history from Alexander the great to the fall of
Taliban Oxford University Press P.134
11) W .Spain, James Pathans of the latter day, Oxford University Press Karachi, 1995 page-41
12) Caroe , Sir Olaf 'The Pathans' with an Epilogue on Russia, Oxford University Press,1958,
p.370
13) Ibib, p.370
14) Ibid., -p.7
15) Churchill. W.L Spencer, Malakan Field Force, 1897, Longman Colonial Library, p.8
16) Churchill. W.L Spencer, Malakan Field Force, 1897, Longman Colonial Library, p.8
17) Tanner,Stephen. Afghanistan a military history from Alexander the great to the fall of
Taliban Oxford University Press P.168
18) Rodenbough , Theo. F. 'Afghanistan and the Anglo-Russian Dispute'The Project Gutenberg
TAKATOO Issue 6 Volume 3 July – December 2011
45
Ebook p.15
19) Richards , D.S.'The Savage Frontier, a history of the Anglo-afghan wars ' Macmillan
London Ltd, 1990, p.6
20) Forbes , Archibald 'The Afghan Wars 1839-42 and 1878-80' Produced by Eric Eldred,
Thomas Berger, and the On line Distributed Proofreading Team, P. 34
21) Caroe , Sir Olaf 'The Pathans' with an Epilogue on Russia, Oxford
University Press,1958, p.395
22) Report on the Tribes of the Dir, Swat and Bajuar Together with the Uthmankhel and Ranizai,
by Captain A.H. Mc Mahon Political Agent Dir, Swat and Chitral and Lieutenant A. D. G.
Gramsay, second edition, Saeed Book Bank Peshawar, 1981, P.19
23) Issac, Bruce Richard, 'The Forward Policy' 2
nd
edition Nisa Traders 7-Jinah Cloth Market
Quetta (Pakistan) 1977, P.1
24) Ibid P.93
25) Ibid P.177
26) Rodenbough , Theo. F. 'Afghanistan and the Anglo-Russian Dispute'The Project Gutenberg
Ebook -p.14
27) Ibid p.14
28) Hensman, Howard, Afghan War of 1879-80, Second Afghan War, First Edition, London: H.
Allen & Co.,13, Waterloo Place S.W Publishers to the India Office 1881, Second Edition
Sang-E-Meel Publications -25 Sharah-e-Pakistan (Lower mall) Lahore,1999 p.320
29) Ibid p.320
30) Rodenbough , Theo. F. 'Afghanistan.
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