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ElectronicsElectronics

Principles & ApplicationsPrinciples & ApplicationsEighth EditionEighth Edition

Chapter 11Oscillators

Charles A. Schuler

©2013

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• Oscillator Characteristics• RC Circuits• LC Circuits• Crystal Circuits• Relaxation Oscillators• Undesired Oscillations• Troubleshooting• Direct Digital Synthesis

INTRODUCTION

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Some possible output waveforms

Oscillator

Oscillators convert dc to ac.

ac outdc in

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Vin VoutA

B Feedback

VoutA

B Feedback

An amplifier with negative feedback.

This amplifier has positive feedback.It oscillates if A > B.

Recall: A = open-loop gain and B = feedback fraction

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VoutA

B Feedback

Sinusoidal oscillators have positive feedback at only one frequency.

This can be accomplished with RC or LC networks.

frequency

ph

ase

+ 90

0

- 90

fR

in

out

lead-lag

fR

inout

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Oscillator basics quiz

Oscillators convert dc to _______.ac

In order for an oscillator to work, the feedbackmust be __________. positive

An oscillator can’t start unless gain (A) is________ than feedback fraction (B). greater

Sine wave oscillators have the correct feedbackphase at one ___________. frequency

The phase shift of an RC lead-lag networkat fR is _____________. 0o

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Wien bridge oscillator

Only fR arrives at the + input in phase.

lead-lag

in

out

R

C

C

R

RC

1fR =

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in

out

The feedback fraction at fR in this circuit is one-third:

B = inout =

1

3

A must be > 3 for oscillations to start. After that, Amust be reduced to avoid driving the op amp to VSAT.

R2 2R1

R1

A = 1 +R2

R1

One solution is a positivetemperature coefficient

device here to decrease gain.

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After theoscillationsstart, the

lamp heats up which increases

its resistanceto reducegain andclipping.

R

Vout

C

RL

2R1

Tungstenlamp

C R

R1

Vout

time

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Q1 is an N-channel JFET.After oscillations start, theoutput signal is rectifiedand the negative voltage is applied to the JFET’sgate. This increases its D-Sresistance which decreasesthe gain of the op amp.

Q1D

S G

Notice that the clippingsubsides as Q1 reducesthe loop gain.

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When common-emitter amplifiers are used asoscillators, the feedback circuit must providea 180o phase shift to make the circuit oscillate.

A

BOut-of-phase

180o

180o

180o + 180o = 360o = 0o

In-phase

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RB

RL

VCC

CCC

R R

Feedback

1 2

3

3 RC networks provide a total phase shift of 180o.

A phase-shift oscillator based on a common-emitter amplifier

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A phase-shift oscillator based on an inverting operational amplifier

The gain must be high enough to start the oscillator, but then clipping often results which causes distortion. These circuits often use gain reduction techniques after the oscillations begin.

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A phase-shift oscillator using two op-amps and gain limiting for

low distortion.

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RC oscillator quiz

A properly designed Wien bridge oscillatorprovides a ________ waveform. sine

The feedback fraction in a Wien bridgeoscillator is ________. 0.333

A tungsten lamp has a _________ temperaturecoefficient. positive

The feedback circuit in a common-emitteroscillator provides _______ of phase shift. 180o

A phase shift oscillator uses three RC sectionsto provide a total shift of ______. 180o

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+VCC

+VCC

The Hartley oscillator is LC controlled.

feedbacktank circuit

The supply tap is a signal ground. There is a 180o phase shift

across the tank.

180o

0o

signalground

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+VCC

+VCC

2 LC

1fR =

LC

The output frequency is equal to the resonant frequency.

L is the value for the entire coil.

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+VCC

This is called a Colpitts oscillator.

The capacitiveleg of the tank

is tapped.

feedback

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+VCC Note that the amplifierconfiguration is common-base.

The emitter is theinput and the collector

is the output. Thefeedback circuit

returns some of thecollector signal tothe input with no

phase shift.

signal ground

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+VCC

L CEQ

2 LCEQ

1fR =

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Quartz crystal Slab cut fromcrystal

Electrodesand leads

Schematicsymbol

Quartz is a piezoelectric material.

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Quartz crystals replace LC tanks when frequency accuracy is important.

Quartz disc Rear metalelectrode

Front metalelectrode

Contact pinsEquivalentcircuit

CP

CS

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Crystalequivalent

circuit

The equivalent R is verysmall and the Q is often

several thousand.

R

High-Q tuned circuits are notedfor narrow bandwidth and thistranslates to frequency stability.

The equivalent circuit also predicts two resonant

frequencies: series and parallel.A given oscillator circuit is

designed to use one or the other.

CS

CP

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Crystals• The fundamental frequency (series

resonance) is controlled by the quartz slab or quartz disk thickness.

• Higher multiples of the fundamental are called overtones.

• The electrode capacitance creates a parallel resonant frequency which is slightly higher.

• Typical frequency accuracy is measured in parts per million (ppm).

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+VCCCrystal oscillator circuit

RB2

RB1

RFC

RE

C2

C1

CE

vout

Xtal

Replaces thetank circuit

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Packaged oscillators contain a quartz crystal and theoscillator circuitry in a sealed metal can.

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High-frequency oscillator quiz

A Hartley oscillator has a tapped _______ in its tank circuit. coil

When the capacitive leg is tapped, the circuitmight be called ________. Colpitts

A quartz crystal is a solid-state replacementfor the ________ circuit. tank

Crystals are more stable than LC tanks dueto their very high ________. Q

Higher multiples of a crystal’s resonantfrequency are called ________. overtones

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So far, we have learned that:

• Oscillators can be RC controlled by using phase-shifts.

• Oscillators can be LC controlled by using resonance.

• Oscillators can be crystal controlled by using resonance or overtones.

• There is another RC type called relaxation oscillators. These are time-constant controlled.

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Base 2

Base 1

Emitter

RECALL that a unijunction transistor fires when its emitter voltage reaches VP.

VP

Emitter current

Em

itte

r vo

ltag

e

Then, the emitter voltagedrops due to its negativeresistance characteristic.

UJTs can be used inrelaxation oscillators.

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+VBB

R

C

A UJT relaxation oscillatorprovides two waveforms.

RC f RC

Exponential sawtooth

Pulse

VP

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+VBB

R3

C

A programmable unijunction transistor (PUT) is a better choice.

43

4

RR

R

η =

R1

R2 R4

PUT

VP = 0.7 V + ηVBB

VP

(η is called the intrinsic standoff ratio)

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= 0.69RC

= 0.69 x 47 k x 3.3 nF

= 0.107 ms

t = 2 = 0.214 ms

f = 1/t = 4.67 kHz

This multivibrator is also RC controlled.

0 V

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Non-sinusoidal op-amp oscillators can also use RC time constants for frequency control, as shown in this circuit.

Exponential sawtooth, which is sometimes treated as a triangle.

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Undesired oscillations:

make amplifiers useless.

Why is this a problem?

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OutputR

C

Parasitic capacitancescombine with resistances

to form un-wanted lag networks.

R

C

R

C

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R

C

This can lead tounwanted oscillations

since the feedbackbecomes positive

at some higher frequency.

It’s the equivalent of a phase-shift oscillator.

Total Lag = 180o

R

C

R

C

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R

CR

C

R

C

However,if the gain is less

than unity at thatfrequency, the

amplifier will not oscillate.

There is always some frequency where feedback becomes positive.

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100 k10 k1 10 100 1k 1M0

20

80

40

60

100

120

Frequency in Hz

Gain in dB

The typical op amp has this characteristic:

Break frequency setby a dominant (intentional)

internal lag circuit.

The gain isless than unity

before combinedlags total 180o

of phase shift.

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Methods of preventing oscillation:

• Reduce the feedback with bypass circuits, shields, and careful circuit layout.

• Cancel feedback with a second path … this is called neutralization.

• Reduce the gain for frequencies where the feedback becomes positive … this is called frequency compensation.

• Reduce the total phase shift … this is called phase compensation.

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Oscillator troubleshooting:

• No output: supply voltage; component failure; oscillator is overloaded.

• Reduced output: low supply voltage; bias; component defect; loading.

• Frequency instability: supply voltage; poor connection or contact; temperature; RC, LC, or crystal.

• Frequency error: supply voltage; loading; RC, LC, or crystal.

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Phaseaccumulator

Sine lookuptable

DAC LPF

Clock

Direct digital synthesizer

Frequency tuningword (binary)

(also called a numerically controlled oscillator)

The tuning word changes the phase increment value.

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30o phaserotation

45o phaserotation

NOTE: Increasing the phase increment increases the frequency.

Access thesine table every 30o

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Direct digital synthesizer using the AD9850 IC

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Oscillator wrap-up quiz

Relaxation oscillators are controlled by RC__________ __________. time constants

Negative feedback becomes positive at somefrequency due to _______ ______. RC lags

Gain rolloff to prevent oscillation is called____________ compensation. frequency

Direct digital synthesizers are also called_____ _____ oscillators. numerically controlled

Direct digital synthesizers use a sine____________ table. lookup

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REVIEW

• Oscillator Characteristics• RC Circuits• LC Circuits• Crystal Circuits• Relaxation Oscillators• Undesired Oscillations• Troubleshooting• Direct Digital Synthesis