american film management structure of the hollywood production companies
TRANSCRIPT
AMERICAN FILMAMERICAN FILM
MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE OF THE MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE OF THE HOLLYWOOD PRODUCTION HOLLYWOOD PRODUCTION
COMPANIESCOMPANIES
The 6 kinds of management structures:The 6 kinds of management structures: THE CAMERAMAN SYSTEM (1896-1907)THE CAMERAMAN SYSTEM (1896-1907) THE DIRECTOR SYSTEM (1907-9)THE DIRECTOR SYSTEM (1907-9) THE DIRECTOR-UNIT SYSTEM (1909-14)THE DIRECTOR-UNIT SYSTEM (1909-14) THE CENTRAL PRODUCER SYSTEM (1914-THE CENTRAL PRODUCER SYSTEM (1914-
1930)1930) THE PRODUCER-UNIT SYSTEM (1931-1940)THE PRODUCER-UNIT SYSTEM (1931-1940) THE PACKAGE-UNIT SYSTEM (1940-PRESENT)THE PACKAGE-UNIT SYSTEM (1940-PRESENT)
Changes have been in response to the Changes have been in response to the need for:need for:
Standardization of productStandardization of product Differentiation of productDifferentiation of product
2 basic ways of structuring labor2 basic ways of structuring labor SOCIAL DIVISION OF LABORSOCIAL DIVISION OF LABOR DETAILED DIVISION OF LABORDETAILED DIVISION OF LABOR
DETAILED DIVISION OF LABORDETAILED DIVISION OF LABOR Each worker is assigned 1 task; S/he repeats Each worker is assigned 1 task; S/he repeats
this taskthis task Conception & execution are dividedConception & execution are divided ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES
Workers are easily replacedWorkers are easily replaced
Workers are more easily & more cheaply trainedWorkers are more easily & more cheaply trained
Wages are graduatedWages are graduated
2 FURTHER IMPLICATIONS2 FURTHER IMPLICATIONS Higher-level managers rarely countermanded Higher-level managers rarely countermanded
decisions made by middle‑level managersdecisions made by middle‑level managers The highly detailed script became essentialThe highly detailed script became essential
MANAGEMENT IN THE EARLY YEARSMANAGEMENT IN THE EARLY YEARS Shift to narrative films helped speed shift in Shift to narrative films helped speed shift in
production from social division of labor to production from social division of labor to detailed division of labordetailed division of labor
THE CAMERAMAN SYSTEM OF THE CAMERAMAN SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION (1896‑1907)PRODUCTION (1896‑1907)
The cameraman:The cameraman:Selected the subject matterSelected the subject matterStaged itStaged itMade all technical decisionsMade all technical decisionsPhotographed the filmPhotographed the filmDeveloped the filmDeveloped the filmEdited the filmEdited the film
DISADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGESProduction was not rapid or predictableProduction was not rapid or predictableTraining 1 person was slow & expensiveTraining 1 person was slow & expensiveNot many cameramen were experts in all Not many cameramen were experts in all aspectsaspects
THE DIRECTOR SYSTEM OF THE DIRECTOR SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION (1907‑9)PRODUCTION (1907‑9)
THE SHIFT TO FICTIONAL NARRATIVE THE SHIFT TO FICTIONAL NARRATIVE (1907‑8)(1907‑8)
Fictional narratives had a number of Fictional narratives had a number of advantages:advantages:
Better suited to mass productionBetter suited to mass production
Low, predictable cost‑per‑footLow, predictable cost‑per‑foot
Made in or near a centralized studioMade in or near a centralized studio
Made & released on a regular scheduleMade & released on a regular schedule
Resulted in director system, detailed Resulted in director system, detailed division of labordivision of labor
Director (conception) managed a set of workers Director (conception) managed a set of workers (execution)(execution)
Based on the model of the legitimate theaterBased on the model of the legitimate theater
THE FUNCTION OF THE THE FUNCTION OF THE DIRECTOR/PRODUCERDIRECTOR/PRODUCER
Furnished idea or rewrote a story provided by Furnished idea or rewrote a story provided by companycompany
Selected stage settings, gave directions to Selected stage settings, gave directions to carpenters, et al.carpenters, et al.
Gave general instructions to the cameramanGave general instructions to the cameraman
Edited the filmEdited the film
THE DIRECTOR‑UNIT SYSTEM OF THE DIRECTOR‑UNIT SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION (1909‑14)PRODUCTION (1909‑14)
The director‑unit system was the result of 2 The director‑unit system was the result of 2 factorsfactors
INCREASED DEMAND FOR MOVIESINCREASED DEMAND FOR MOVIES
THE NEED FOR YEAR‑ROUND THE NEED FOR YEAR‑ROUND PRODUCTIONMULTIPLE DIRECTOR STUDIOSPRODUCTIONMULTIPLE DIRECTOR STUDIOS
DEPARTMENTALIZEDDEPARTMENTALIZEDMiddle‑level managers needed to head deptsMiddle‑level managers needed to head depts
Coordinated activities among the unitsCoordinated activities among the units
All requirements were located at the studioAll requirements were located at the studio
Studios were designed for maximum Studios were designed for maximum efficiencyefficiency
Layouts designed for speed & economyLayouts designed for speed & economy Buildings & other structures doubled as Buildings & other structures doubled as
exteriorsexteriors Location shooting gave way to studio Location shooting gave way to studio
shootingshooting Conditions could be more tightly controlledConditions could be more tightly controlled Shops to make lights, special effects depts, Shops to make lights, special effects depts,
etc.etc.
THE SCENARIO SCRIPTTHE SCENARIO SCRIPT SCRIPT OUTLINES replaced by SCENARIO SCRIPT OUTLINES replaced by SCENARIO
SCRIPTSSCRIPTS ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES
Costs & production requirements could be more Costs & production requirements could be more accurately estimated & controlledaccurately estimated & controlled
Time & $ saved if all shots to be taken at 1 Time & $ saved if all shots to be taken at 1 location or 1 set were done at the same time location or 1 set were done at the same time
Longer, narrative films demanded a more Longer, narrative films demanded a more carefully detailed cause & effect structurecarefully detailed cause & effect structure
When length was standardized at 1 reel, all When length was standardized at 1 reel, all problems needed to be worked out beforehandproblems needed to be worked out beforehand
CENTRAL PRODUCER SYSTEM (1914-30)CENTRAL PRODUCER SYSTEM (1914-30) This change, in general, can be traced to:This change, in general, can be traced to:
Profit maximization goals, &Profit maximization goals, &
The shifting & coalescing standards of quality The shifting & coalescing standards of quality filmmakingfilmmaking
Created a new management position: the Created a new management position: the PRODUCERPRODUCER
Part of a major shift in the US to “scientific Part of a major shift in the US to “scientific management”management”
In film industry, also due to 2 factors:In film industry, also due to 2 factors: The advent of the Classical Hollywood StyleThe advent of the Classical Hollywood Style
Techniques for achieving continuityTechniques for achieving continuity
VerisimilitudeVerisimilitude
Narrative dominance & clarityNarrative dominance & clarity The increase in length of films from about The increase in length of films from about
18 min. to 75 min.18 min. to 75 min.
With the central producer system:With the central producer system: Labor became even more specialized & Labor became even more specialized &
subdividedsubdivided Production became more standardizedProduction became more standardized
THE INCREASE IN NARRATIVE FILM THE INCREASE IN NARRATIVE FILM LENGTHLENGTH Part of an effort to upgrade perceived quality Part of an effort to upgrade perceived quality
of moviesof movies By 1907, exhibitors tried to make theaters By 1907, exhibitors tried to make theaters
higher-classhigher-class 1 way to do this was to raise ticket prices1 way to do this was to raise ticket prices
Had to be justified by offering “better Had to be justified by offering “better entertainment”entertainment”
THE FEATURE FILMTHE FEATURE FILM
The term “feature film” was borrowed from The term “feature film” was borrowed from vaudevillevaudeville
Originally, not a longer film, but a Originally, not a longer film, but a featuredfeatured film film
FEATURE FILMS & ADAPTATIONFEATURE FILMS & ADAPTATION 1 way to make a film special was to adapt a 1 way to make a film special was to adapt a
famous workfamous work Increased the need for longer filmIncreased the need for longer film Both of these were used to advertise the Both of these were used to advertise the
filmfilm THE COPYRIGHT ISSUETHE COPYRIGHT ISSUE
Before 1911, common to use literary sources Before 1911, common to use literary sources without paying for rightswithout paying for rights
1911, Kalem Co. sued for violating copyright laws1911, Kalem Co. sued for violating copyright laws
Companies began to buy the rightsCompanies began to buy the rights
Advertised the literary sources heavilyAdvertised the literary sources heavily
Financed plays in return for film rightsFinanced plays in return for film rights
By 1916, multiple-reel feature films By 1916, multiple-reel feature films dominated the marketdominated the market
Runs increased to make more $ from Runs increased to make more $ from each filmeach film
WHAT DELAYED THE CHANGE?WHAT DELAYED THE CHANGE? Customers used to arriving at the theater at Customers used to arriving at the theater at
any timeany time The “lunch-time” business fell offThe “lunch-time” business fell off
By 1915, the industry also marketed the By 1915, the industry also marketed the specialspecial feature feature
THE CENTRAL PRODUCERTHE CENTRAL PRODUCER Studios hired general managers known as Studios hired general managers known as
producersproducers or or central producerscentral producers They came from businessThey came from business Oversaw all of the various departmentsOversaw all of the various departments All films were controlled & supervised by the All films were controlled & supervised by the
production officeproduction office
The function of the DIRECTOR The function of the DIRECTOR changedchanged
He no longer was the head of a unitHe no longer was the head of a unit Now another technical expertNow another technical expert Chosen to direct a film & assigned to a Chosen to direct a film & assigned to a
film crewfilm crew Typically, assistant director was the Typically, assistant director was the
liaison between the producer & the film liaison between the producer & the film crewcrew
CONTINUITY SCRIPTCONTINUITY SCRIPT The continuity script replaced the scenario The continuity script replaced the scenario
scriptscript More detailed than the scenario scriptMore detailed than the scenario script It came about for 3 reasons:It came about for 3 reasons:
Standardization of the multiple-reel filmStandardization of the multiple-reel film
Development of the central producer systemDevelopment of the central producer system
Movement toward the Classical Hollywood styleMovement toward the Classical Hollywood style
THE DIVISION OF LABORTHE DIVISION OF LABOR THE CONCEPTION OF THE PRODUCTIONTHE CONCEPTION OF THE PRODUCTION
INITIAL DECISIONSINITIAL DECISIONS Producer (LA) consulted with management (NY)Producer (LA) consulted with management (NY) This group would determine an overall budgetThis group would determine an overall budget Would determine the $ to be spent on films in Would determine the $ to be spent on films in
specific bracketsspecific brackets
Special featuresSpecial features
ProgramsPrograms
B films (after 1930)B films (after 1930)
Shorts: serials, newsreels, etc.Shorts: serials, newsreels, etc.
THE PRODUCTION DEPARTMENTTHE PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT The producer headed the production The producer headed the production
departmentdepartment Working with asst director, estimated costs Working with asst director, estimated costs
& approved budgets& approved budgets Dept. also kept records of films in Dept. also kept records of films in
production production
PRE-SHOOTING WORKPRE-SHOOTING WORK THE SCRIPTTHE SCRIPT
CONTINUITY WRITER or SCRIPT WRITERCONTINUITY WRITER or SCRIPT WRITER
Kept 2 things in mind:Kept 2 things in mind: Narrative continuityNarrative continuity The resources of the studioThe resources of the studio
THE TREATMENTTHE TREATMENT Added step between the story & scriptAdded step between the story & script Summary of the action & charactersSummary of the action & characters Needed to be approved by the producerNeeded to be approved by the producer
THE DIRECTORTHE DIRECTOR Director became another technical expertDirector became another technical expert His decision-making power decreasedHis decision-making power decreased Directors became more specialized in genresDirectors became more specialized in genres
RESEARCH DEPARTMENTSRESEARCH DEPARTMENTS
SET CONSTRUCTION & ART DIRECTIONSET CONSTRUCTION & ART DIRECTION
ART DIRECTORSART DIRECTORS Designed sets, took over some of the director’s Designed sets, took over some of the director’s
& cinematographer’s decisions& cinematographer’s decisions
PROPERTY MANAGERSPROPERTY MANAGERS Were in charge of all the propsWere in charge of all the props Had staffs to build, buy, or rent propsHad staffs to build, buy, or rent props
COSTUME DEPARTMENTSCOSTUME DEPARTMENTS Headed by WARDROBE MISTRESSHeaded by WARDROBE MISTRESS
CENTRAL CASTING AGENCYCENTRAL CASTING AGENCY Created to supply all but the most Created to supply all but the most
important actorsimportant actors
MAKE-UP DEPARTMENTSMAKE-UP DEPARTMENTS The responsibility of actors until the mid-The responsibility of actors until the mid-
1920s1920s Then the studios created MAKE-UP DEPTSThen the studios created MAKE-UP DEPTS Coordinated make-up with different film Coordinated make-up with different film
stocksstocks
SHOOTING WORKSHOOTING WORK CINEMATOGRAPHYCINEMATOGRAPHY
By the early 1920s, cinematographers had By the early 1920s, cinematographers had crewscrews
Assistants cleaned equipment, moved it, held Assistants cleaned equipment, moved it, held slate, etc.slate, etc.
The 2nd cameraman shot the 2nd negativeThe 2nd cameraman shot the 2nd negative ASSISTANT DIRECTORSASSISTANT DIRECTORS
Liaised with the production departmentLiaised with the production department
Handled the arrangements for the shootingHandled the arrangements for the shooting
SHOOTING WORKSHOOTING WORK REHEARSALS saved $ & controlled length REHEARSALS saved $ & controlled length
of filmsof films MUSIC DURING SHOOTING created the MUSIC DURING SHOOTING created the
proper moodproper mood ORDER OF SHOOTING was out of ORDER OF SHOOTING was out of
continuity & determined by the production continuity & determined by the production departmentdepartment
CONTINUITY CLERKCONTINUITY CLERKSCRIPT ASSISTANT or SCRIPT GIRLSCRIPT ASSISTANT or SCRIPT GIRL
She was an aide to the assistant directorShe was an aide to the assistant director
Kept a record of each shot to maintain Kept a record of each shot to maintain continuitycontinuity
POST-SHOOTING WORKPOST-SHOOTING WORK NEGATIVE DEVELOPMENT & RUSHES NEGATIVE DEVELOPMENT & RUSHES
checked within 24 hrs.checked within 24 hrs. EDITINGEDITING
The FILM EDITOR made the rough cutThe FILM EDITOR made the rough cut
He & the director then made the final cutHe & the director then made the final cut PREVIEWS & REVISIONS were designed to PREVIEWS & REVISIONS were designed to
ensure quality productsensure quality products MUSICAL ACCOMPANIMENT was sent with MUSICAL ACCOMPANIMENT was sent with
the filmthe film