air quality management guidebook - citeair ii:...

Air Quality ManagementGuidebook

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Project leader: Leicester City Council-

Written by Acknowledgments :Nick Hodges C EngDr Jolanta ObszynskaDr Chetan LadRonald Swaton

Christine BourbonSylke DavisonSef van den ElshoutVeronique GhersiDavid HutchinsonMaria KazmukovaKarine LegerFelix van der MeijdenFabio NussioAndy SalkeldAndrew WhittlesCivitas InitiativeINTEGAIRE projectMOST Project and FGM Graz


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FOREWORD

Welcome to the (Common Information to European Air) Project and it’s Products.

The project was conceived to support Cities and Regions in developing their responses to the AirQuality Reporting and Air Quality Action Planning requirements of the European Union’s Air QualityDirectives, and to encourage the recognition of the Local Authorities roles in the forthcoming Directive.

The Products cover: -City Annual Air Quality Reports;Comparing Urban Air Quality across Borders;Common Operational Website (COW);Air Quality Management;Communicating Air Quality;Transferring a traffic-environmental models chain

They focus on: -• the assessment of comparable data• the impact of traffic on air quality in urban areas• Signposting measures for Air Quality Action Planning• Information for the public, local authority and professional users

The materials in each of the CITEAIR Products have been assembled and developed, using theexperiences of the 14 Project Partners enhanced by contributions from a User Group together withcomplementary European and National projects, in response to two successful workshops, anexternal review and a Conference.

Publishing the documents in electronic format ensures that additional contributions may be addedduring 2007. Additional Funding has been provided by the INTERREG 3C programme to promotefurther workshops; to recruit further cities to the COW; to develop the Forecast Index for use with theMedia; to involve the Members of the European Parliament, the Department Generale Environmentand the European Environment Agency more closely with the CITEAIR initiative to strengthen the roleof the Cities and Regions and encourage the embedding of the concept within the European AirQuality Management mechanisms.

Nick HodgesC.Eng. MICE MCIMgt

Technical Manager

Lead Partner

Leicester City Council

Citeair Project Partners


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Table of Contents

FOREWORD 3EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 61 AIR QUALITY OVERVIEW 8

1.1 INTRODUCTION 81.1.1 The context of the Air Quality management guidebook 8

2 CHOOSING MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 13

2.1 SUITABILITY OF MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 142.1.1 Policies, Plans and Programs 15

2.2 ASSESSMENT OF MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 16

2.3 EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED ACTION PLANS 183 MANAGING AIR QUALITY – AIMS AND IMPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES 24

3.1 ACCESS CONTROL,CAPACITY REDUCTION AND TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT 243.1.1 Traffic Management 243.1.2 Access Control and Capacity Reduction 273.1.3 Parking Control and Restrictions Information 32

3.2 IMPROVING TRANSPORT FLEETS 343.2.1 Vehicle and Fuel Improvements 343.2.2 Private Fleet 383.2.3 Public Fleet 393.2.4 Public Transport 44

3.3 INTEGRATED TRANSPORT AND TRAVELLING PLANING 463.3.1 Intermodal Interchange 473.3.2 Operational Improvements 483.3.3 Travel Planning to provide Sustainable Transport Options 52

3.4 INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC POLLUTION SOURCES 553.4.1 Regulations and Legisation 563.4.2 Tackling Industrial Pollution 563.4.3 Tackling Domestic Pollution 56

4 APPENDICES 63

A. CITEAIR PROJECT OVERVIEW 64

B. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN OPTIONS FOR LEICESTER 67

C. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN IN PRAGUE 71

D. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN FOR PARIS 80

E. RIJNMOND REGIONAL AIR QUALITY ACTION PROGRAMME 81

F. CASE STUDY 1: ACCESS CONTROL (ACS) & ROAD PRICING (RP) IN ROME 99

G. CASE STUDY 2: QUEUE RELOCATION IN LEICESTER 110

H. CASE STUDY 3 CONGESTION CHARGING IN LONDON 114

I. CASE STUDY 4: 80 KM/H SPEED LIMIT ON A13 MOTORWAY IN OVERSCHIE,ROTTERDAM 120


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J. CASE STUDY 5: USE OF SECTION 106 BUILDING REGULATIONS IN GREENWICH 126

K. CASE STUDY 6: ATMOSPHERIC PROTECTION PLAN FOR ILLE DE FRANCE 132

L. CASE STUDY 7: AIR CLIMATE PLAN FOR BRUSSELS 138

M. CASE STUDY 7: SHORE POWER FISHING PORT OF SCHEVENINGEN 145GLOSSARY 152


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe increasing importance of the state of the environment encouraged the European

Commission to introduce a series of Directives on Ambient Air Quality (AQD) covering a range ofpollutants and Air Quality Review and Assessments (AQRA). With over 80% of the EuropeanPopulation living in Urban Areas, the National Governments have used the derogation rules tointroduce Regulations requiring Cities and Regions to monitor air quality and prepare Air QualityAction Plans (AQAP) setting out the measures they are adopting to reduce pollution levels to achievethe relevant Limit Value Objectives (LV), within the designated timetables. Against this backgroundthe Partners in the CITEAIR (Common Information for European Air) project resolved to develop arange of products aimed at supporting Cities and Regions in meeting these new obligations.

A CITEAIR survey of European Cities revealed that many did not expect to achieve the AQDObjectives for several pollutants.

SO2 Pb CO C6H6 PM10+ NO2 O3

City 1h 24h 1yr 1yr 8h 1yr 24h 1yr 1h 1yr 8h*BolognaBratislavaBrussels ?CoventryLeicester ?Paris / / /ParmaPrague / / / / /Rome ? ?Rotterdam / /The Hague

Table 1: Expected compliance of EU Air Quality directives for 2005 and 2010 (assessed in 2004)

Key: = objective will met, = objective unlikely to be met, / = objective will generally be metbut hotspots remain

+ Refers to 2005 PM10 objective, * 8 hour maximum for ozone

In general the partner cities are confident in meeting the limit values for sulphur dioxide, lead,carbon monoxide and benzene. However all partners perceive some problems with at least oneobjective for PM10, NO2 and Ozone.

The main pollution sources and the problems (Table 2) that the cities have to tackle have beenidentified as:

Pollution SourcesCity Transport Industrial Domestic BackgroundBolognaBratislavaBrusselsCoventryLeicesterMunichParisParmaPragueRomeRotterdamThe Hague

Table 2 Main pollution issues by pollution sources


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It was also became clear that the way National Governments had interpreted the AQD’s meantthat it was not possible to compare all reported levels between different urban areas across Europe.

As Cities considered what actions they could take, no single “Killer solution” was identified apartfrom actions by the EU and National governments to improve standards for vehicle emissions and fuelto achieve a reduction in pollution levels. The impact of many measures would be difficult to assesseven when intensive monitoring infrastructures or campaigns. Cities have concluded that improvedreporting protocols are required and that measures need to be grouped together in packages to obtainthe necessary Political commitment, resources or Public acceptance. The Air Quality benefits of somemeasures may develop as by-products of tools introduced for other purposes (e.g. CongestionCharging in London and the Stockholm experiment). The contents of the packages will vary from cityto city depending on the budget, politics, geographical position, public awareness and commitmentand other restrictions.

CITEAIR project partners have developed the following products: -

CITY ANNUAL AIR QUALITY REPORTS - A GUIDEBOOK - discusses strategies for AirQuality Monitoring and Reporting and proposes an Air Quality Reporting template which willassist professional users in comparing the performance of their Air Quality Strategy and ActionPlanning.

COMPARING URBAN AIR QUALITY ACROSS BORDERS - the first air quality index (CAQI-Common Air Quality Index) for use at the European level, complementing existing local indices.Differentiating between background and roadside conditions aimed the Index provides easyaccess to simple information to enable European citizens to compare their environment withsimilar urban areas (see www.citeair.rec.org )

THE COMMON OPERATIONAL WEBSITE (COW) - provides an attractive platform to compareair quality in different participating cities in real time applying the CAQI. (seewww.airqualitynow.eu)

AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT – A GUIDEBOOK - is intended to assist the user in completingthe diagnosis of their problems and identifying a selection of tools and/or measures which couldhelp reduce the problem and improve air quality. The examples used to illustrate a theme aresupplemented by Case Studies already implemented together with signposting or links towebsites where other solutions have been reported.

COMMUNICATING AIR QUALITY - A GUIDEBOOK - provides a strategy for disseminatinginformation on air quality. It also contains good practices, which could be used as models for thefuture.

TRANSFERRING A TRAFFIC-ENVIRONMENTAL MODELS CHAIN - A GUIDEBOOK -explains the transfer of experiences in developing a Decision Support System (DSS) thatassesses the environmental impacts of urban traffic in near-real time, from a local scale to awide area (regional scale).

The Introduction to the “Air Quality Management“ Guidebook provides a brief overview of the AirQuality Management Cycle, indicating where CITEAIR products can help. Following the Air QualityReporting protocols assists in identifying the problem pollutants and locations of pollution ‘hotspots’.The chapter on Choosing Air Quality Management Strategies uses extracts from Air Quality ActionPlans to illustrate the Package process. The Appendices include more detailed information on AirQuality Strategies and Action Planning in several cities supplemented by links to the websites wherethe full documents can be consulted. Equipped with an appreciation of the problems and the factorsinfluencing the local choices, the User can make a “Pick & Mix” selection from the range of measuresoutlined in the next chapter. A subjective assessment has been made to illustrate the likely cost andimpact of each measure, using a High/Medium/Low score. The actual score for each user will beinfluenced by local circumstances. To assist the user in making their own assessment, detailed CaseStudies of some of the measures are provided in the Appendices to illustrate how their impact may beassessed or inferred. With the understanding acquired from this reading the User can then use thelinks included in each summary of the measures to access further details. Consulting the COW mayencourage the User to contact a particular city, to discuss the implementation of particular measures.The Guidebook concludes with a Glossary and References.


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1 AIR QUALITY OVERVIEW

1.1 Introduction

European Union has taken a firm course of action to combat increasing air pollution leading togreen house effect and global warming. Its legislation is concerned with maintenance of air quality,which does not harm human health or the environment.

The EU’s main Air Quality Objectives are to provide a clean and healthy environmentregardless of the global growth and its impact on the environment. Air Quality Legislation was firstintroduced at the EU level in 1970. Numerous Directives and Regulations have followed regulating airquality and factors influencing it, such as: emission sources, fuel qualities, monitoring/regulating airquality and protection of the ozone layer.

Long-term goals were set in the 6th Environmental Action Programme 'Towards Sustainability'complimented by National Strategies and Action Plans. These typically cover sectors such as :Industry, Energy, Transport, Agriculture and Tourism. Themes effecting air quality range from Climatechange; Acidification and Air Quality; Urban Environment; Waste Management; and Protection ofNature and Biodiversity.

Thirteen Council Air Quality Directives and three Council Decisions comprise the core of the airquality legislation. These Directives and Decisions implemented by National Governments throughRegulations are the tools for directing action by National, Regional and Local Government and others.They cover four main groups: product control and material handling, ambient air quality standards(limit values and guidelines), ambient air quality assessment and management; and monitoring andinformation exchange.

The development of Europe’s urban centres is linked with the development of sustainablemobility options. Changes in behaviour, economic growth or recession and structure of the populationare factors that have an immediate impact on transport and mobility patterns. The EU Air QualityDirectives are increasingly devolving responsibility for action to the Cities and regions, where the mostcomplex challenges in transport and environment need to be solved.

Air pollutants resulting from traffic are a major source of pollution in many of the urban zones.Local and Regional Authorities implement EU guidelines to reduce the impact of those pollutants onhealth and well-being of citizens. Different approaches to implementing EU directives on Ambient Airquality led to a variety of styles of reporting, modelling and an array of approaches to reduce trafficrelated pollution. Air pollution models are used to predict and analyze air quality in particular zonesand can be grouped into following categories: traffic models, pollutant emission models, atmosphericdispersion models.

The CITEAIR project started in March 2004 will last 46 months. It is led by Leicester (UK),supported by Paris (FR), Prague (CZ), Rotterdam (NL), Rome (I), the Region Emilia Romagna (I),Munich (DE), Coventry (UK), The Hague (NL), Bratislava (SK) and Brussels (BE). The projectcontributes to the development and implementation of efficient solutions to assess and reduce theimpact of traffic on air quality in large urban areas. Through close co-operation, exchange ofexperiences and joint developments between European regions and cities, the project developssolutions to inform the public and local authorities about the environmental situation in a comparableand easily, understandable way and offer guidance on efficient measures to reduce environmentaldamage mainly caused by transport. Other municipalities are encouraged to contribute to the initiativevia a user network.

1.1.1 THE CONTEXT OF THE AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT GUIDEBOOK

Developing and implementing an Air Quality Action Plan is a long and complex processconsisted of many stages and depends on the topography, geographical position and resources ofindividual city or region. It is also dependent on the legislations coming from EU as well as from thenational levels. Those legislations are set up to offer guidance and to set the limits to pollutants.Diagram 1 illustrates the Air Quality Management Cycle and its links with the European UnionDirectives and National Regulations and how the various CITEAIR products can assist indetermining sensible and achievable Air Quality Action Plans.


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Environmental Strategy

Scientific research including Biology, Chemistry, Medicine, Meteorology, Physics etcgenerates advice, which is used by Policy Makers to map out a strategy with a variety of courses ofaction including targets for individual pollutants. As our understanding of the various mechanismsdevelops, then the focus of action can change and the measures or tools available to help achievethese targets may change. The advice will suggest limit values for concentrations per pollutant,which can be incorporated in the Air Quality Directives and associated legislation. The final valuesadopted from time to time will follow political negotiations, which will take into account a wide range of socio-economic factors.

EU-Ambient Air Quality Directives

Air Quality Legislation was first introduced at the EU level in 1970. Scientist who carried outwork on the environmental strategy helped to set the basis for the legislations, advising on thepollution standards. Numerous Directives and Regulations have followed regulating air quality andfactors influencing it, such as: emission sources, fuel qualities, monitoring/regulating air quality andprotection of the ozone layer.

Legislative Tools

These allow to designate competent authorities at both national and regional / local levels.They also allow to introduce statutory ambient air quality standards and alert thresholds. Centralgovernments with the use of legislations are able to set more stringent standards and incorporatethem at primary or secondary legislations then those set in the directives.

Air Quality Modelling and Monitoring

Local and Regional Authorities implement EU guidelines to reduce the impact of pollutants.Different approaches to implementing EU directives on Ambient Air quality led to a variety of stylesof reporting. Monitoring of the pollution levels is one of the methods of implementing the directives, avariety of different styles and types of monitors are implemented throughout the Europe. Modellingof pollution is also used to predict and analyse air quality in particular zones and can be groupedinto following categories: traffic models, pollutant emission models, atmospheric. The use ofmodelling can reduce the number of measuring stations needed to assess large areas. Modellingalso allows to predict future scenarios.

AQD Exceedences Identified and AQMA Designated

It is a statutory requirement for local government to predict future exceedences of the airquality objectives where members of the public might be exposed to such exceedences. Scientificassessment processes are carried out to designate Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs) toaddress those hot spots where specific air quality objectives are predicted to exceed the futuretargets.

Identifying the Sources and Developing Options

Once the hot spots have been identified authorities consult with stakeholders, variousorganisations and general public, which helps to determine specific AQMA boundaries. Variousprofessionals within the authority as well as specialists are involved in the process of scientificassessment process and anticipated AQMA designation. Within the AQMA solutions of reducing thepollution levels are introduced.

Review Options

The local government body needs to review the options available to it. It needs to identifywhat changes are politically acceptable and are going to be accepted by the public, whatimprovements will allow for achieving significant impact. What options are feasible based on thepotential the City already has.


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agram A: Relationship between Citeair and the Air Quality Management Cycle


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The following are some of the areas that the Local authority need to consider when choosingthe options it is going to apply to comply with EU directives on Ambient Air Quality:

Roles and Responsibilities

Local authority needs to identify who is responsible for what part of AQMA and in whatcapacity that person or organisation can act.

Authority Planning Function /Integration

Local authority needs to set up an action plan to establish how to integrate decisions to co-operate with various groups and individuals within and from outside the authority.

Perceptions and Practicability

The “hot spots” identified in the preliminary stages of AQMA designation need to beaddressed. A range of suitable measures or tools need to be reviewed and appropriate actionselected. The actions undertaken by the authority need to reflect its ability to implement themeffectively and with the support of all involved.

AQ Improvements

The list of improvements that can be implemented to increase the air quality is usuallygenerated by local authority. The list will contain a variety of schemes designed to reach therecommended targets set by the air quality directives. The measures that are considered have to beboth politically and publicly acceptable. Measures that have the most significant impact are often themost difficult to promote to obtain acceptance by the public and/or the politicians.

Cost Effectiveness

The list of possible measures, tools and approaches generated by the local authority toreduce the air pollution and to minimise pollution at the hot spots may involve both expensive andcheap options. Those measures need to be reviewed to assess factors such as effectiveness, cost,acceptability and feasibility. Sadly the measures which have the greatest effect are often the mostdifficult to achieve, whilst those which are cheapest and easiest to implement do not often producesignificant reductions. However existing infrastructures, can offer the potential for implementingmeasures on a marginal cost basis. For example the London Congestion Charging Infrastructureoffers potential for enforcing a Low Emission Zone at relatively cheaper costs.

Non-Air Quality

Options and measures to reduce air quality, which are not associated with reduction ofcongestion and volume of traffic. In some cities where Industrial Emissions dominate the Air Qualitythen these might be tackled first or alongside traffic orientated solutions. Introducing green spaces ininner city, can provide “Breathing Space” as well as enhancing the overall environment.

Options

The selection of actions to improve Ambient Air Quality will depend on the budget, politics,geographical position, public awareness and commitment and other restrictions. Existing Policies andPlans may need to be adapted or replaced by new versions. In many cases these policies will need tocover several years and provide for a phased implementation programme. The “Package Concept”described elsewhere in this document has been developed by CITEAIR Cities to ensure that thecommunity can become involved and the investment can be shown to have delivered improvementsto the local Air Quality.

Policies

Existing Policies and Plans may need to be adapted or replaced by new versions. Ultimatelysome of the major reductions will rely on European and National initiatives such as Vehicle Emissionand Fuel Standards or Inter-regional initiatives for say Ozone. The Local Policies will need to bedrafted to the support required to enable the use hard and soft measures as well as “Package


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Concept” to ensure that low impact “awareness raising type” measures are implemented alongsidethe more expensive options.

National Measures

European and National initiatives such as Vehicle Emission and Fuel Standards or Inter-regional initiatives, will be required if significant improvements are to be achieved in the urbancenters, even where a City has adopted major measures.

Hard Measures

Hardest restrictions against vehicle drivers can be taken to enhance air quality in areas withhigh levels of air pollution. These measures usually have a high impact but also require biginvestments. Examples of such measures are: Low Emission Zone in London, and RUC- Road UserCharging. The use of Air Quality Modelling allows the impact of these to be assessed before themajor investment required is committed.

Packages

Groups of measures consisting of hard and soft measures can be implemented in the city orregion to achieve better air quality. The packages can be tailored to the individual needs of the cityor region, depending on the existing potential and budget. The concept is to group together a varietyof measures, some high cost/high impact with some low cost low impact, to achieve identifiablereductions, whilst at the same time conditioning the public to make “environmentally friendly greenchoices” about their life style.

Soft Measures

These types of measures usually are not very costly but also do not have a high impact onimproving the Ambient Air Quality. Usually they involve education of the public to pollution reducingactions they can take such as walking or cycling to work. They also involve educational schemes atschools to raise awareness of the environmental issues.

Quality Action Plan

The Quality Action Plan is implemented when the Local Authority has assessed andconsulted on the suitability of different management strategies and has selected those which aremost acceptable to the community and will bring the “best available” impact. The action plan willconfirm the City’s commit to implementing the changes required to improve air quality.

Implementation:

Implementing the measures depend on the many aspect of the city such as• Topography• Geography• Layout of the city• Existing infrastructure• Restrictions by politicians• Restrictions by general public• Restrictions by budgetAll of the above factors will influence the type of measures the local government will implement.

This guidebook allows the user to analyse several measures already implemented by othercites. The selection of case studies provides a broad spectrum of examples. Both soft and hardmeasures are presented and classified into sections for the easy identification. Chapter 3 of thisguidebook contains many examples of schemes that have been implemented and had a positiveimpact on the environment. Appendices include case studies of the major cities involved in theCiteair project. Examples of packages that are to be implemented in the cities that want to improvetheir air quality are also provided. The user will then be able to develop an action plan which isrelevant to the local circumstances.


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2 CHOOSING MANAGEMENT STRATEGIESThe proceeding chapters have showed the air quality implementation strategy protocol

employed. Although many cities face similar problems, strategies and methods vary widely due tosuch factors as the technological requirements, costs, social and economic make up of the city etc.

This chapter will look at the requirements of some of the schemes, how cities approach airquality decision-making and what are the implications of EU air quality directives for air qualitymanagement.

In the United Kingdom, for example, Local Authorities are responsible for the implementation ofthe Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) elements, which superseded the National Air QualityStrategy. Scientific assessment processes are carried out to designate Air Quality Management Areas(AQMAs) where specific air quality levels are predicted to exceed the future target dates. The AirQuality Regulations specify the air quality objectives at the national levels for seven pollutants(nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, lead, PM10, benzene, 1,3-butadiene and sulphur dioxide). Localauthorities are obliged to work towards the national air quality objectives (AQOs). These objectivesare health-based, and allow for considerations of cost and benefit, viability and overall capability ofreaching a particular level of air quality. It is also a statutory requirement for local authorities to predictfuture exceedences (see Table 1) of the air quality objectives where members of the public might beexposed to such exceedences. The stipulated period between identifying any such locations where airquality objectives are predicted to exceed and official declaration of the AQMA is four months. Duringthis period authorities consult with stakeholders, various organisations and general public, whichhelps to determine specific AQMA boundaries. Those boundaries are highly variable, dependent onvarious local factors (local authority, political decision making and regional collaboration).

Local Authority officers, undertake the Air Quality Review and Assessment (AQRA) leading to thedesignation of the Air Quality Management Areas. Part of this process is to fill a questionnaireassessing local politics and consultation on the final AQMA. This evaluation process includes theassessment of modelling and monitoring tools used to identifying areas of predicted exceedences.The appraisal process is also identifying various regional approaches to air quality management, andobservations relating to outcomes of the first phase assessment work and regional approaches will bediscussed.

Air Quality Objective(s) % of UK local authoritiespredicting future exeedences

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) annual mean (ann.) only 34NO2 (ann.) and PM10 24-hour mean (24-hr) 31NO2 (ann.) and NO2 hourly mean (hr) 11NO2 (ann.) and PM10 annual mean (ann.) 4PM10 (24-hr) only 2NO2 (ann.) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) 15-minute mean (15-min) 2NO2 (ann.), PM10 (24-hr) and SO2 (15-min) 2Other predicted objective exceedences combinations 14

Table 1: The most anticipated AQMAs with predicted NOx exceedences

The scientific assessment process and anticipated AQMA designation process involve variousprofessionals within the authority. Table 2 represents examples of different professionals involved.

Profession Average scoreAssessment process

Average ScoreAQMA designation

Environmental Health Officers Very involved Very involvedTransport Planning Officers Quite involved Very involvedStrategic Planning Officers Some involvement Some involvementDevelopment Control Planners Little involvement Some involvementLocal Agenda 21 Officers Little involvement Little involvementEconomic Development Officers Little involvement Little involvementLegal Officers Little involvement Some involvementEducation Officers Little involvement Little involvement

Table 2: British local Authority Officers involvement with the air quality assessment process and AQMA designationprocess


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The Highway Agency (the UK national Highway Authority) monitors and manages trafficcongestion at the regional level. All of the parties involved are required to work closely with thosefacilitating local air quality improvements at the action planning stage of the management process

Information is provided by the Environment Agency concerning major industrial emissions forinclusion with Point, Area and Line sources for inclusion in the emissions database assembled by theLocal Authority. This data is then used in Air Quality Models to identify the boundaries for the localAQMA(s).

Collaboration between individual local authorities and national agencies bring benefits fromshared experiences and resources, which can lead to joint modelling, monitoring and emissioninventory work initiatives, also it can lead to development of new methodologies for new scientificassessment process.1

Diagram 2 provides a simplified overview of the Quality Action Plan design and implementationprocess.

2.1 SUITABILITY OF MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

There is no one solution for all situations, (the “Killer Solution” ) apart from actions by the EUand National governments regarding vehicle emission standards and fuel standards aimed to achievea reduction in pollution levels. EU Air Quality directives impose duties on member states to carry outair quality assessments and implement action plans. In most cases those duties have been delegatedto cities and regions.

The contents of the packages will vary from city to city depending on the severeness of theenvironmental problems, the budget, politics, geographical position and other restrictions.

The Chapter 3 and the Appendices of this report provide a directory of measures, which can beput together in packages on a “pick-and-mix” basis depending on the local circumstances.

Table 5 illustrates different management strategies that can be employed by the city.Strategies adopted depend on several factors. Cities carry out assessments on the infrastructuresalready in existence as well as the possibilities of new implementations. Those assessments dependon the experience available. Examples are given of various schemes and the assessment of each oneis carried out on cost, technology required, political and public perception and its relation to the airquality effect. Schemes introduced to resolve say congestion will generally bring AQ benefits (e.gLondon Congestion Charging and the Stockholm RUC experiment showed 15 – 20% reductions in thelevels of certain pollutants.

1 http://science.uwe.ac.uk/research/uploads/Appendix%207.01%20Paper%201.doc

Diagram B: Air Quality Action Plan design


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2.1.1 POLICIES, PLANS AND PROGRAMS

The European Community Directive on the assessment of the effects of certain plans andprogrammes on the environment (2001/42/EC) regulates assessment of the environmental impacts ofplans and programmes. also known as the SEA Directive.

The objective of the SEA Directive is 'to provide for a high level of protection of the environmentand to contribute to the integration of environmental considerations into the preparation and adoptionof plans with a view to promoting sustainable development' This environmental commitment is broadlyconsistent with Government policies and is reflected in other transport planning and appraisalguidance. SEA will normally be required (in the UK) for new transport plans including Local TransportPlans and Local (Transport) Implementation Plans, Table 32 illustrates the process.

SEA stage Purpose of this stage

Setting the context, identifying objectives and problemsand establishing the baseline.Analyse the environmental protection objectives,Establish SEA objectives, indicators and targets.Collect relevant information on the environmental contextOutline the environmental characteristics of areas likely to besignificantly affected.Outline any existing environmental problems which arerelevant to the plan

Document how the plan is affected by outsidefactors;Streamline the subsequent baselinedescription, prediction and monitoring stages.Help to identify environmental problems,objectives and alternatives.

Deciding the scope of SEA and developing alternatives.Outline the relationship with other relevant plans,programmes and their environmental objectives.Identify relevant alternatives at the strategic level.Scope the likely significant effects of the plan andalternatives.Consult with environmental authorities

Help ensure that:the SEA covers key issues.

Assessing the effects of the plan.Forecast the significant effects on the environment of thechosen strategy taking into account the objectives andgeographical scope of the plan.Outline the reasons for selecting the alternatives dealt with.Propose measures to prevent, reduce and as fully aspossible offset any significant adverse effects on theenvironment of implementing the plan or programme. Suchmeasures should be costed and deliverable.Describe the measures envisaged concerning monitoring

Defensible consideration of all likely significantenvironmental effects.Propose mitigation measures whereappropriate.Propose a monitoring programme.

Consultation on the draft plan and the EnvironmentalReport.Prepare an Environmental Report in which the likelysignificant effects on the environment of implementing theplan, and reasonable alternatives taking into account theobjectives and geographical scope of the plan. Theinformation to be given is listed in Article 5 and Annex 1 ofthe SEA Directive.Give environmental authorities and the public an early andeffective opportunity within appropriate time frames toexpress their opinion on the draft plan and accompanyingEnvironmental Report before the adoption of the plan (Art.6.1, 6.2).Take consultation results into account.

Identify the opinions and concerns of the publicand environmental authorities onenvironmental issues.Show how information and opinions onenvironmental issues have been considered.

Monitor the significant effects of implementing the planon the environment.Decide what needs to be monitored.Identify the information requiredConfirm when the remedial action would be required andidentify what remedial actions might be needed.Consider who is responsible for the monitoring activities

Achieve implementation of the plan inaccordance with the outcomes of the SEA.Ensure that adverse effects of implementingthe plan can be identified and corrective actiontaken.Provide information for future SEAs.

Table 3: SEA appraisal stages 2 http://www.webtag.org.uk/webdocuments/2_Project_Manager/11_SEA/index.htm#1_1


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2.2 ASSESSMENT OF MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

The CITEAIR project partnership represents cities with populations of over 250,000 rangingfrom provincial cities to large capital cities (See Table 4), hence represents the different levels ofeconomic and political pressures that cities in Europe would face. The partner cities are alsoindicative of the different industrial, geographical and topographical influences on air quality inEurope.

City / Region Area [km²] Population Reference

Bologna 140.9 372, 505 Official Site of City of Bologna

Bratislava 367.59 428,672 Data from Wikipedia

Brussels 162 992,041 Brussels-Capital Region

Coventry 98.64 300,848 www.coventry.gov.uk

Emilia Romagna Region 22,123 4,030,220 Data from Wikipedia

Leicester 73.09 279,923 www.leicester.gov.uk

Paris 14,518.3 11,505,000 Data from Wikipedia

Parma 260 413,182 Data from Provincia di Parma

Prague 496 1,172,975 Data from Wikipedia

Rome 1285 2.553,873 Data from Wikipedia

Rotterdam 304.22 604,819 Data from Wikipedia

The Hague 98.22 469,059 Data from Wikipedia

Table 4: CITEAIR cities with population > 250,000

The Partners undertook an initial review of various Strategies/Measures/Tools which werebeing considered by Cities. The review is summarised in Table 5


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Management StrategyStrategy Technology Cost Infrastructure Public and Political Perception and their

requirementsAir Quality Effect

Traffic ManagementSystems

High

Low tech

Only feasible ifinfrastructure is already inplace.Low

The application of such schemes are based onexisting traffic management systems available

Low

Unlikely to noticed by, unless there is a majorchange in traffic flow

Popular locally but less so if it impacts oncommuters

Dependent on the scheme – can impact allmajor roads in a city therefore have a citywideimpactRerouting of traffic can be beneficial

Road Tolling / PermitBased Access

High(for automatedschemes)

High costs(for automated schemes)but high revenue.

Requires electronic or manual surveillance ofaccess points., as well infrastructure for issuingfines, charges, permits etc

Generally popular within the controlled zones butless so with those who have to travel into it.Politically acceptable as a congestion measureNeeds a strong political will to implement

Generally a local impact within the controlledzone.

Low Emissions Zone High(for automatedschemes)

High(for automated schemes)

To allow effective enforcement a high technologyscheme is required, along with fine and permitissuing infrastructure. Levels must be set to suitexisting car fleet of the city.

Access restriction for air quality seems to be lessfavourable than similar schemes for congestion.Needs a strong political will and a high public wellinformed

A local to citywide impact – depending on thesize of the zone.An LEZ in a major city will also effect thenational traffic fleet therefore have a nationwideimpact

Pedestrianisation / HomeZones

Low MedChange in the use of roadspace.

Planning of public transport infrastructure anddelivery access in and around non-vehicle arearequired.

Popular with the publicsome initial resistance from traders

Generally a local impact expected, howeverthere are wider implications with road planningand public transport

Parking Restrictions Low Low Enforcement required. Needs to complemented bygood public transport links

Depends on location within the city.In city: whether availability of parking spaces isimproved

Local impact, but if city centre schemes effectcommuting patterns then a citywide impact canbe expected

Fleet Renewals andRetrofitting

Low(based onexisting fleet)

Med-Low Based on existing fleet infrastructure. Likely to be popular if the rate of renewal is not toofar above the natural rate.Is consistent with alternative fuels

Dependent on organisations involved. Shouldbe regarded as having a citywide impact withpossible knock-on effect to neighbouringconurbations and nationwide.

Alternative Fuels High-Med High-Med(subsidies may act as anincentive).

An existing fleet operator required Requires strong political support for a public fleetor a willing private fleet operatorRetrofitting is probably easier to achieve thanaccelerative renewal programs

As fleet renewals – citywide impact -> possiblenationwide

Integrated PublicTransport and P&R

Med-Low Med-Low Central management of public transport logistics,ticketing etc required

Popular with the public. However feasibility ofscheme is dependent on ownership of publictransport and willingness of relevant bodies to worktogether.

A citywide impact, especially if commutingpatterns are significantly influenced.

Travel Planning Low Low Schemes must be tailored to the existinginfrastructure for public transport, cycling, walkingetc.

Generally popular except when seen to hinderemployer’s and employees’ flexibility

A citywide impact can be achieved if manyorganisations and people are involved

Industrial Pollution Medbased on BestAvailableTechnology

Medbased on Best AvailableTechnology

Dependent on the industry and its requirements Depends on the country and the priorities of thepublic and politicians on economic developmentRequires a strong national political leadership

Nationwide and transboundary impacts

Domestic Heating Low Low Government grants and incentives speed up theprocess

Popular with the public Citywide, nationwide and transboundaryimpacts

Table 5: Management Strategies


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When Citeair project was conceived partners were concerned about the impacts of limit valueson the Air Quality Action Plans. The project therefore embarked on a survey of cities to assess howthey thought they might comply (see Table 6).

SO2 Pb CO C6H6 PM10+ NO2 O3

City 1h 24h 1yr 1yr 8h 1yr 24h 1yr 1h 1yr 8h*BolognaBratislavaBrussels ?CoventryLeicester ?Paris / / /ParmaPrague / / / / /Rome ? ?Rotterdam / /The Hague

Table 6: Expected compliance of EU Air Quality directives for 2005 and 2010 (assessed in 2004)

Key: = objective will met, = objective unlikely to be met, / = objective will generally be met buthotspots remain

+ Refers to 2005 PM10 objective, * 8 hour maximum for ozone

In general the partner cities are confident in meeting the limit values for sulphur dioxide, lead,carbon monoxide and benzene. However all partners perceive some problems with at least oneobjective for PM10, NO2 and ozone.

The main pollution sources and the problems that the cities have to tackle, have been identifiedas listed in Table 7.

Pollution Sources

City Transport Industrial Domestic BackgroundBolognaBratislavaBrusselsCoventryLeicesterMunichParisParmaPragueRomeRotterdamThe Hague

Table 7 Main pollution issues by pollution sources

2.3 EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED ACTION PLANS

For a city looking to improve its air quality this guidebook provides a directory to help achieve thebest results. The options available for each individual city depend on factors such as technologicalrequirements, costs, social and economic make up of the city and already existing schemes. There


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are four main categories in Chapter 3, which deal with specific problems related to Ambient AirQuality. Each category has been assessed for its impact and implementation costs. Within eachcategory several subcategories are discussed giving at least one example each. The examplesclassified in descending order from those which have high impact on improving the air quality inurban areas to those which impact is low.

Local governments need to tackle the problem, but there is no one uniform solution. Each city orregion has to choose the options, which are most suitable- “mix and match” approach. Below areseveral types of packages that can be applied depending on the existing resources.

Package 1: Low cost, short-term, high feasibility

This scenario or package includes the measures that are low cost (<£500 000), short-term(assuming funding could be implemented almost immediately) and as such are highly feasible

Emissions

• Roadside emissions testing• Targeting idling engines – including buses and taxis

Information and education

• Real time air quality information provision for the public• Promote air quality on the school curriculum (target young people)• Education of local authority officers and Members through providing interactive seminars,

workshops and briefing meetings etc

Land-use Planning

• Integration of environmental themes• Raise awareness among local authority officers and Members

Road Network

• Increase parking restrictions and costs• Develop further speed zones (20 mph zones) combined with traffic calming and block rat runs• Pedestrian and cycle priority

Promotion of Alternatives

• Implement Travel Plan• Implement home-working and flexi-time to more council staff and promote to other employers

Package 2: Medium cost, medium-term

This scenario or package includes the more costly measures (£500K - £3 million). As before,they are listed within subgroups

Emissions

• LEZ-feasibility study and limited implementation• Encourage heavy through traffic to use most suitable routes rather than enter the city

centre. This can be done by using effective signing and providing maps of designated

Land-use Planning


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• Development Control procedures – including aspects of building design, mixed usedevelopment, assessments for developments sensitive to air quality as well as thosewhich adversely affect it via sec106 agreements

Manage network

• Reallocation of road space• Enforcement speed limits access restrictions (short-term)


• Improve bus services (frequency, attractiveness, disabled and level access etc)• Provide improved public transport information

Package 3: High cost, long-term

This scenario or package of measures represent the high cost initiatives, less feasible options,which necessitates them to be implemented over the longer-term.

(a) Generic Strategies

Emissions from road traffic using the major road network are the most significant source ofnitrogen dioxide in most urban areas. Whilst the air quality assessment work undertaken by theCouncil is intended to identify key pollution hot spots, the Action Plan seeks to address the issue ofelevated pollutant concentrations more generally across the city.

The main focus of air quality action planning must therefore be to reduce motor vehicle kilometrestravelled and emissions per motor vehicle kilometre. Of these, emissions from road traffic are the keyair quality issue in the city. Therefore in order to improve air quality within the AQMAs, attention shouldbe paid to the following variables:-A. Numbers of vehicles flowing past critical points in the City (i.e. locations where people are

exposed to excessive concentrations of traffic pollutants in the AQMA, over the relevant averagingperiods).

B. Vehicle/miles within the Local Transport Plan area.C. Emissions per vehicle/mile.

(b) List of Measures

• Implementation of a scrappage scheme with financial incentives• Full implementation of a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) with effective enforcement• Implementation of a designated Freight hub for the city centre• Provision and enhancement of VMS real time route guidance

Detailed case studies provided by the partners can be found in the Appendices. Summaries ofsome case studies have been presented in this chapter to assist with better understanding of the mixand mach approach of choosing the schemes.

The following sections have shown some of the measures available for targeting specific airquality problems that relate to specific source of emissions or a small group of users (especiallyrelated to traffic). When trying to meet air quality limit values from the European Directives, thesestrategies on their own will not achieve these targets therefore suggesting a combination of thesemeasures are required. This is particularly important in cities where pollution is not dominated by justone source. Here an integrated approach to air quality action planning is required.

In Paris planning for 2010 (see text box below) has focused on the effects of improvementsconcerned with waste treatment, energy production, rail emissions and transport planning. Theserange of measures are predicted to reduce annual average concentrations of NO2 to close to the limitvalues for 2010, yet exceedences are still expected at roadside and around the airport.


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In Brussels there has been a slightly different approach based upon Structural Air QualityImprovement and Global Warming Abatement ( see text box below)

Case Study – Air Protection Plan (PPA) for Paris

Within the framework of the development of the Plan of Protection of Atmosphere (PPA), the RegionalDirection for Industrie, Research and Environment (DRIRE Ile-de-France) entrusted to AIRPARIF theevaluation of the quality of the air in the Ile-de-France region expected for the year 2010. This evaluation wasundertaken for the two pollutants which do not respect in a chronic way the air quality objectives, namelynitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3).

The work consisted in working out the inventory and the spatial distribution of main atmospheric pollutantsemissions for the three base cases: the year 2000 being used as the baseline year, the year 2010 that takesinto account the strategies of control already engaged on national or regional scales and the year 2010+PPAthat takes into account the complementary regional measures proposed in the Plan of Protection of theAtmosphere of the Ile-de-France region. This was followed by modelling of the concentrations of NO2 andO3 for the three base cases for two different meteorological years (rather good dispersive conditions likethose encountered in year 2000 or in year 2002; and rather poor dispersive conditions and high temperaturesin summer like those of the year 2003).

The predictions for the base case for 2010 included measures that are already “in the pipeline” based onEuropean, national or regional regulations. On top of this, the base case 2010 + PPA includescomplementary measures aimed at reducing the emissions suggested within the framework of the PPA.These measures include:

- waste treatment incinerators located in the so-called “sensitive NOx area” should meet by theend of 2010 a limit value for NOx emissions at 80 mg/Nm3 (instead of 200 mg/Nm3)

- closure of certain power stations from Electricity of France and changing the operation mode ofone power station

- equipment of low-NOx burners for all the renewed individual boilers- Equipment of all gasoline distribution equipments delivering more than 1000 m3/year of a

system of vapour recovery of the NMVOC from the pumps- Reduction of 30% by 2010 compared to 2000 of the emissions of NOx of the rail traffic in Ile-de-

France by an optimization of the conditions of operating of engines- taken into account of a fall of road traffic corresponding to the realization of part of the

measures registered in the Plan of Urban Mobility

The effect of these strategies shows that for the 2010 base case, NOx emissions are expected to fall by 32%when compared with 2000. A further 10.1% reduction is expected in 2101+PPA case. For NO2concentrations a reduction in the maximum value for annual average concentration on the Paris and itssuburbs (except sector of Roissy) would be around 17µg/m3 leading to a maximum value around the limitvalue (38 to 44 µg/m3 according to weather configurations by 2010 to compare with the maximum values of55 and 62 µg/m3 in the baseline cases) in 2010 base case. For 2010+PPA a further reduction of 4 µg/m3 onthe annual average concentrations of NO2 on certain sectors of the agglomeration. A benefit of about 3µg/m3 would be in particular recorded on Paris and its close suburbs, areas where the exceedence of thelimit value would still be expected in 2010.


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The options available for Air Quality Action Plans are diverse. The topography, geographicalposition and resources of individual cities and regions all have an impact on which measures can beconsidered.

The following short paragraphs give a flavour of the content of the Air Quality Action Plans beingdeveloped by CITEAIR partners which the reader will find in the Appendices.

Case Studies – Air Climate Plan For Brussels

The government of the Brussels Capital Region adopted its Plan d’amélioration structurelle de la qualité del’air et de lutte contre le réchauffement climatique (Plan for structural air quality improvement and globalwarming abatement). This plan, dubbed the Air-Climate Plan, brings together measures designed toimprove ambient air quality and diminish the emission of greenhouse gases by the year 2010.

The Plan’s measures have been divided into several action areas:Reducing emissions generated by transport, a big source of urban pollution, through the technologicalimprovement of vehicles and a policy to reduce motorized traffic. This entails the regulation of parking,plans to displace companies and improvements in public transport, among others.Reducing emissions from energy consumption in buildings, which are leading sources of greenhousegases, by introducing a policy on the Rational Use of Energy. (RUE)Promoting renewable energy.Reducing emissions from industrial activities via a policy for technological progress and the use of productsthat generate less pollution. This involves regulations on the use of solvents-base products in companiesthat release volatile organic compounds.Reducing emissions from individual incineration and the household use of solvents (uncontrolledemissions).

The transport measures planned are:

A. Reduction of the road traffic volume by:- Incentives to reduce the use of the carEncouraging the use of less polluting modes of transportParking policy

B. The fall of the road traffic emissions by:Support and diffusion of the technological improvements of the vehicles (clean vehicles)Management of circulation (speeds and flows of traffic) viewing less air pollution

C. Actions on the behaviours of displacements aiming at a less pollutionTo control congestion and to reverse the evolution of the traffic, Brussels region Capital will follow anambitious policy, in order to support the use of other means of transport, by offering a credible alternative tothe use of the private car:To promote a new culture of displacements, and to choose more respectful modes of the environment; from2002 to 2010, the modal share of two wheel vehicles should pass from 1 to 10%, thanks in particular to thecreation of cycle roads;Creation of pedestrian roads;To increase the offer of public transport (quantitative and qualitative);To promote the more rational use of the car: through sharing, Co-conveyance,To promote the acquisition and the use of clean vehicles.

In addition, with the start-up of the RER, the Brussels-Capital region intends to improve its within mobility,and this with the modal transfer of car towards the RER; the Area thus hopes to return on a level of trafficlower by 20% than the situation of 1999. With regard to goods traffic, Brussels-Capital region will take careto ensure better organization of flows in transport, and will follow a policy of encouragement of the modaltransfers in favour of rail, water way and of inter method water-rail-road; the Area of Brussels-Capital willalso continue the development of the port of Brussels.

It is expected that this 20% drop in traffic volume will enable Brussels to meet its air quality targets for 2010through 70% drop in SOx, 48% reduction in NOx and 77% drop in NMVOC emissions compared with 2000.


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Leicester

Emissions from road traffic using the major road network are the most significant source ofnitrogen dioxide in Leicester. Different strategies were assessed with respect to costs, benefits,feasibility and terms on air quality. It can be determined that the implementation of schemes likeaccess restrictions, capacity reductions and promotion of public transport are core elements of tacklingnitrogen dioxide emissions. Further information of Leicester’s scheme of tackling traffic causedpollution can be found in Appendix B.

Prague

The City of Prague assessed impacts of the implementation of different measures for improvingthe air quality, which are included into the Strategic plan for Air Quality Protection in Prague. Sharingthe experience with the other partner cities, a contribution to an efficient air quality management wasachieved.A proposal of 25 measures is directly bound to concrete groups of pollution sources and was preparedon the basis of a detailed analysis of potential solutions of respective issues. One of the most effectivemeasures to tackle air pollution are changing in parking policies, extension of road network to enhancetraffic flow, promotion of public transport and capacity reduction schemes for lorries into city centre.More details about Prague’s Air Quality Action Plan is mentioned in Appendix C.

Rijnmond

In Rinjmond the amount of particulate matter is mainly affiliated to sea salt and industry.Exceedences in nitrogen dioxide are expected to occur especially along major arterial roads at a largenumber of locations in future when no further measures will be implemented. Analyses of differentsources of emitters were taken and it became apparent that the concentrations in NOx are caused byroad traffic by about 50 %. Different task groups responsible to chart every possible measure for theirparticular 'source', including a breakdown of costs, impact, feasibility and timeframes. As a result 100measures were carried out. Based on different criteria as the impact on air quality, costs, feasibility,side effects and timeframe, a qualitative assessment was made. As a main result it was found thatthe introduction of shore-side electricity for ships in the port and low-emission zones do have apositive effect on the local air quality.How the strategy of Air Quality Action Plan in Rinjmond was prepared can be found in Appendix D.


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3 MANAGING AIR QUALITY – AIMS AND IMPLEMENTATION OFSTRATEGIES

In the proceeding chapter a number of themes for managing air quality in urban areas wereidentified. This chapter will discuss these in further detail and use examples of where such techniqueshave been applied. The first 3 sections that deal mainly with road transport based issues highlight theimportance of managing traffic. The wider scope of air quality management and the importance ofcreating integrated action plans are highlighted in the following sections.

3.1 ACCESS CONTROL,CAPACITY REDUCTION AND TRAFFICMANAGEMENT

Since the 1950s, car ownership and road building increased rapidly throughout Europe.Consequently – along with an uneven growth in the modal share of both passenger and goodtransport – for most countries in Europe, major cities and main highways connecting urban centressuffer from congestion problems that have found to create economic problems for the cities and thecountries as a whole. Since the 1970s efforts have been made to reduce congestion and improvetraffic in particular in cities. Although such schemes are designed with traffic management (and itseconomic impacts) in mind, their effect on air quality has only being appreciated recently, ascomplementary air quality and traffic monitoring and modelling techniques have been developed. Oneof the solutions for traffic congestion was to increase capacity of the existing network of roads andhighways. Such approach created even more congestion because of the increased usage of roadsespecially by freight transport.

This section looks at the range of measures that have been designed to reduce urbancongestion and their impacts on air quality.

3.1.1 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

For many cities, the main traffic management activities are controlled by a central IntelligentTransport System (ITS) used to optimise traffic flow and minimise congestion in urban areas. In theUK, this concept is represented by Urban Traffic Management & Control (UTMC) systems UTMCsystems were initially set out to “improve congestion and demand management”, however currentlynew initiatives involved air quality effects. The principles of traffic management systems used acrossEurope are the same but are based on differing software platforms. The basic requirements are:

• Traffic signals with variable timing systems• Real-time traffic monitoring data (e.g. Traffic count data, CCTV images)• Historic traffic data to predict normal traffic flow trends• Real-time or static data on public transport• Local information on events that effect traffic flow

This information allows for traffic management by a central control system by a variety of methods.• Automated fixed plans for traffic light control for different scenarios (based on day of the week

and time of day, as well as special plans for events)• Automated responsive plans, based on traffic monitoring data to optimise flows• Manual intervention of traffic light sequences by operators

The City of Leicester has a well-established UTMC system based on SCOOT based trafficmonitoring and optimisation, complemented through the use of CCTV that allows for operatorintervention. Through research collaboration with Leeds University air quality impacts of queuerelocation using has been carried out, utilising the existing system in Leicester (see text box). This wasdone as part of a national government and European funded initiatives. The alterations of signal


25

timings were made to relocate queues during morning peak time traffic to areas with natural ventilationand provide a buffer between traffic emissions sources and the population. These trails showed theability to reduce pollution at “hot spots” however the evidence suggests that no effect would beexpected on annual averages of pollution concentrations. The case study from Leicester is presentedin Figure 1.

ImpactHigh

CostHigh

ImpactHigh

CostHigh

Case Study - Gating Trails in Leicester

Using existing UTC (Urban Traffic Control) system using SCOOT (Spilt Cycle Offset Optimisation Technique)and air quality monitoring infrastructure. A gating trail was carried out on Narborough Road in Leicester.

The Narborough Road in Leicester is a major radial that becomes increasingly narrow as it approaches thecity centre. Gating has been used here to restrain traffic at the outer end of the radial where there isrelatively little pedestrian activity and the houses are set well back from the road. There are service roadseither side of the dual carriageway and the houses have appreciable front gardens. In contrast, the citycentre end of the road is single carriageway with buildings close to the kerb so that pollutants are trapped bya canyon effect. The aim is to reduce congestion, and hence emissions of pollutants, at the more sensitivecity centre end of the radial. To reduce congestion at the city centre end of the road it was necessary tocreate very large queues at the gating point, the Braunstone Lane junction, which lead to complaints from thepublic. The trial was modified to hold somewhat smaller queues at the Fullhurst Avenue junction, the firstjunction inbound from Braunstone Lane and reduce the severity of the restraint at the original gate. Twosmaller queues have proved to be more acceptable whilst still improving conditions at the city centre end ofthe road. Figure 1 shows the site and the two gating points used.

NORTH

CityCentre

Braunstone LaneSOUTH

Imperial Avenue

Fullhurst Avenue

Pollution Monitor

SCOOT junction

Upperton Road

The trial successfully demonstrated a reduction in emissions in the protected area. Emissions were reducedby between 3% and 8%, depending on pollutant. Reductions in the peak ¼ hour were almost twice as greatas reductions in the average values over the two-hour peak. Since a high level of restraint was needed togain these reductions, it was found to be more publicly acceptable to have two smaller queues rather thanone very large queue. Outbound traffic was delayed more in the protected area, due to the nature of the twostage signal. An extra stage, allowing traffic out of the protected area would increase reductions in emissions.

Figure 1: Leicester gating trial site


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In Rotterdam speed restrictions3 were applied on part of the urban motorway using hightechnology traffic management techniques (See Figure 2). Appreciable impacts on air quality werefound at roadside and within the district. Effectively the traffic management technique provided apositive effect on driving style, which leads to a positive effect on traffic flow and air quality.

Traffic management techniques based on established high technological traffic controlinfrastructure have been shown to reduce localised air quality “hot spots”. The benefits of suchtechniques on air quality are now being appreciated and should provide an important tool for air qualitymanagement where the infrastructure already exists.

3 http://www.mobilitymanagement.org/epomm_example.phtml?sprache=en&id=318

ImpactHigh

CostLow

ImpactHigh

CostLow

Case Study – Speed Restrictions On A13 Motorway, Overschie District, Rotterdam

In order to improve the air quality in the Rotterdam district Overschie, a pilot experiment has been conducted on thenational motorway A13. As of May 11th, 2002, the maximum speed has been reduced from a 100 to 80 kilometres perhour in the area where the motorway passes through this district. Research by the Netherlands Research Organisation(TNO) has proved that traffic moving at a constant moderate speed emits less air pollution in comparison to dynamictraffic (traffic with frequent speed fluctuations or speeds above 120 km/hr). The 80 km speed limit is only successful if itis heavy policed. So in addition to new road signs a system taking pictures of vehicles entering and leaving the zone andcalculating the average speed was put in place. The system is connected to an automated fining system for peopledriving too fast. Capturing chances are close to 100%.

.The findings and the conclusions are based upon the measurements up to and including March 2003 and calculationsup to and including January 2003. The findings can be summarised as follows:

• Trajectory speed control has been effective in reducing the fluctuations in traffic speed on the A13 right acrossOverschie and also in not exceeding the speed limits (especially during the night). The traffic now flows moreefficiently through Overschie even while the number of vehicles has remained constant or has even slightlyincreased.

• As a result of the new speed limit the traffic emissions on the A13 through Overschie (in case of constantintensity) are estimated to be reduced by about 15-25% for NOx and about 25-35% for NO2 and PM10.

• Concentrations measured at the locations 50 and 200 m to the east of the A13 in Overschie during westerlywinds indicate that the air quality for NO2 has improved by approximately 5 µg/m3 at a distance of 50 m and by3 µg/m3 at 200 m and for PM10 by approximately 4 µg/m3 at 50 m and by 1 µg/m3 at 200 m. These resultsindicate that the measure has a positive impact on the air quality in Overschie.

• NO2 measurements with passive samplers in Overschie indicate that local traffic affects the spatial variation inair quality. At a distance of 250 m and more from the A13, the impact of the emissions is no longer detectablein Overschie.

• Model calculations were used to assess the effect of the on the contribution of the A13 to the air quality inOverschie as well as the impact on the total air quality. The reduced contribution of the A13 on the air qualityin up to 200-m distance is approximately 25% for NO2 and 34% for PM10. The improvement of the total airquality at this distance was calculated as 7% for NO2 and 4% for PM10.

Figure 2: Rotterdam Speed Restriction


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3.1.2 ACCESS CONTROL AND CAPACITY REDUCTION

The initial development of access control and capacity reduction schemes was not designed as airquality measures exclusively but such effects now have an impact on the planning process in theirimplementation. Usually technological requirements for access control are limited but instead requirethe reorganisation of streets and roads. Access control to roads or certain areas of a city has takenmany guises. The types of schemes include:

• Road tolling• Permit based control• Low Emission Zones• Home Zones / Liveable Areas• Pedestrian Areas• Parking restrictions

In The Netherlands, the development of ‘woonerf’ concept (’Living Yard’) during the 1970s led toinitiatives that attempt to reduce the domination of vehicular traffic in streets, and share space equallywith other users (cyclist, pedestrians and residents). Notable developments were carried out in Delftand The Hague. The concept was imported to other European countries4 and in the UK is representedby ‘Home Zones’5 principle. Such schemes are characterised by the re-design of residential streets toencourage greater safety and community cohesion by reducing vehicle through-flow and speed.Cycling and walking are encouraged in these areas. The influence of promoting sustainable living withsustainable transport in these schemes means there are many overlaps with air quality management.

3.1.2.1 Congestion Charging Scheme- London6

Examples of high technological control of capacity reduction and accesscontrol schemes have been used in Rome’s ACS+RP scheme ( see Figure 4) and congestioncharging in Central London (see Figure 3). In both these schemes high set up cost were required dueto technology and traffic management infrastructure needed, yet high revenues were obtained fromthe charges, issuing of permits and fines. Both these schemes are examples of where non-air qualitymeasures (traffic and congestion measures) have shown to have a positive impact on air quality.More information on road user charging can be found in the studies carried out in various Europeanprojects7, in particular on the impacts and feasibility of such schemes. A good summary of lessonslearnt and recommendations is provided from the Progress project8, that highlights some factorsrelating to consultation, legal issues, transport policy, technology, enforcement and user acceptance ofroad charging schemes. Some of the key points are:

• The effects on traffic (and environment) must be clearly explained

• Such schemes will not succeed in isolation and therefore must be linked with otherimprovements in traffic and transport. (In the examples of London and Rome public transportimprovements and a flat rate parking fee respectively were introduced as an integral part ofthe congestion charging and access control schemes).

• Automated schemes have generally higher compliance rates, however must be based onrobust proven technology rather than new experimental technology.

4 Woonerf developments in The Hague and Delft5 Homes Zones in the UK: www.homezones.org and www.homezonesnews.org.uk6 http://www.cclondon.com/7 Road User Charging Information:

a) www.progress-project.org,b) www.europrice-network.orgc) www.transport-pricing.net

8 Progress Project Deliverable D7.2: http://www.progress-project.org/Progress/pdf/D7.2.pdf

ImpactHigh

CostHigh

ImpactHigh

CostHigh


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Case Study – Congestion Charging Scheme

The congestion charging scheme in London was introduced in February 2003. The scheme charges a dailyrate for vehicles to enter and travel in the 21 square kilometre charging zone between 7:00 and 18:30 duringweekdays. The scheme is supported by an infrastructure of 203 camera sites, using automatic number platerecognition (ANPR) technology cameras placed on the 173 entry points into the congestion zone and inlocations within the zone. Vehicles driving in the charging zone during the charging period are charged a flatrate of £5 per day, subsequently increased by £8 per day. Vehicles exempt from the scheme include licensedtaxis and minicabs, buses, motorcycles, vehicles for disabled persons including “blue badge” holders andvehicles with 9 seats or more. Residents in the charging zone – of which approximately 40,000 householdsown a car – are entitled to a 90% discount of the charge (£2.50 for one week compared to a full charge of £25for non-residents).

Within the charging zone road traffic flows have decreased by 15 per cent and mean daily traffic speed hasincreased by 20 per cent (from 19 km/h to 23 km/h). Congestion in the charging zone has been reduced by 30per cent. Car trips into the central charging zone has reduced by 65,000 – 70,000 per day. Changes in vehiclekm travelled in the charging zone shows an increase in buses (+20%), an increase in taxis (+13%) and adecrease in cars (-29%) and heavy goods vehicles (-11%). Bus usage has increased inside and outside thecongestion charging zone.In terms of air quality, congestion charging in London has been found to reduce emissions of nitrogen oxidesand particulates by 12 per cent and carbon dioxide by 19 per cent within the charging zone

Figure 3- Congestion charging scheme in London


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Road charging schemes are regarded as controversial for the public, businesses and politicians.Therefore extensive consultations with all parties is required before implementation and clearinformation after implementation.

ImpactHigh

CostHigh

ImpactHigh

CostHigh

Case Study – Access Control Scheme and Road Pricing(ACS + RP) in Rome

Access control restrictions were first implemented in the city centre of Rome in 1989. The scheme was steadily modified withthe biggest change being observed in October 2001 when automatic enforcement of the scheme was introduced. The accesscontrol policies are accompanied by flat rate road pricing (ACS + RP) for the authorised private car users.

The ACS+RP scheme is applied to central limited traffic zone (ZTL). The pricing zone has an area of 4.6 km2 and is controlledthrough 22 entrance gates. In the scheme access to the ZTL is restricted on weekdays between 6.30 am and 6.00 pm and onSaturday from 2.00 to 6.00 p.m. to permit holders only.Residents of the zone receive two free permits per family group and then pay for any further permits required. Non-residentscan receive a permit if they belong to specific categories: doctors, commercial agents, reporters, etc., based on an annualpermit which is worth the equivalent of a 12-month public transport card that is 311.47 Euro, while some other specificauthorised people pay half fare. This access permits are about 20,000. Public offices and other private bodies andassociations are given each a limited number of permits, agreed in advance with the municipal offices. All non-resident ownersof a parking space can receive a circulation only permit. Permits are given to disabled with reduced walking capabilitiescertified by one of the national service doctors. Freight operators with their offices in LTZ or with a continuous activity in LTZhave received permits to access the area in specific time windows, using special parking slots for loading/unloading vehicles.Time limitations are not valid for transporting food, medicines, press products and some other freight categories. Further,permits have been distributed among the operators of public services, such as technological services (water, energy, waste,etc.). In all approximately 200,000 LTZ permits have been issued, of which 28,000 are resident permits (LTZ residentpopulation 42,000).Main observed results of the implementation of the system are a 10% decrease in traffic during the day that becomes 20%decrease in traffic during the restriction period, 15% decrease in the morning peak hour (8.30-9.30), 10% increase of twowheeled vehicles and a 6% increase of public transport.The air quality impact of the scheme is difficult to judge, as since year 2000 (before the ACS+RP operations) many actionshave been undertaken to reduce the traffic impacts on air quality including yearly emission control on registered car fleet,renewal of the public transport bus fleet, access limitation to non-catalysed vehicles and an increase of the Park & Rideprovision. In this period, the access restrictions for non-catalysed vehicles in the whole Rail Ring zone was achieved in the firstpart of 2003. However between January 2001 and January 2003 significant improvements have been seen in monitoredbenzene concentrations (reductions of 19% - 39%) but the improvement for particulates in the ZTL – the biggest air qualityproblem for Rome – were less than expected. This is partly due to the increased use of powered two wheeled vehicles sincethe introduction of the scheme.

Figure 4- Acess Control Scheme and Road Pricing in Rome


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3.1.2.2 Low Emission Zone (LEZ) as a measure to tackle air pollution

LEZ London9

To improve air quality in London - which is currently among the worst in Europe - the Mayor isproposing to designate Greater London as a Low Emission Zone (LEZ). The objectives of theproposed LEZ are two-fold:

• To move London closer to achieving national and EU air quality objectives for 2010• To improve the health and quality of life of people who live and work in London, through

improving air qualityA LEZ would aim to reduce air pollution by discouraging the most polluting vehicles from driving

in Greater London. These are generally older, diesel engined heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), buses,coaches, heavier vans and minibuses.Air pollution affects the quality of life of a large number of Londoners, especially those with respiratoryand cardiovascular conditions. It is estimated that every year some 1,000 premature deaths and asimilar number of hospital admissions occur due to poor air quality in the Capital. Many more peopleexperience discomfort as a result of pollutants aggravating existing conditions.Two of these pollutants - particulate matter (PM10) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) - are particularlyharmful to health. Road transport is responsible for around half of all emissions of PM10 and NOx inLondon.

The Low Emission Zone (LEZ) would aim to encourage operators to clean up their vehicle fleetsby either replacing or modifying older diesel-engined vehicles that do not meet the proposed LEZemissions standards.

Operators of vehicles that do not comply with the proposed standards would have to pay asubstantial daily charge to drive these vehicles within the zone. In order to maximise improvements inair quality and health benefits, it is proposed that the LEZ would cover all of Greater London andoperate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. From 2008, the LEZ would target the most polluting diesel-engined heavy goods vehicles (HGVs), buses and coaches. From 2010, the LEZ would target heaviervans and minibuses. These would have to comply with the LEZ emissions standards in order to drivein London without charge. The standards would predominantly be based on Euro standards. Newervehicles would meet these standards but older, diesel-engined vehicles would have to be fitted withpollution abatement equipment or be re-engined in order to comply with the standards and travel intoLondon without charge.

The next stage of development is the drafting of a Scheme Order which would implement theproposed LEZ. This will detail the exact vehicle types, emissions standards and area covered by theLEZ, as well as registration and enforcement procedures.

3.1.2.3 Kilometre Pricing in Rotterdam10

The scheme is designed to reduce congestion during peak hours,influence modal split, prevent trips during peak hours.

At present every owner of a car is taxed equally. Owners are not confronted with costs for theuse of the car, except by he fuel they have to pay. Representatives of the business community inGreater Rotterdam were provided with information on new proposals to introduce kilometre pricing inthe Netherlands. Aim was also to stimulate them to prepare their businesses and their employees forthe upcoming introduction of kilometre pricing and have them develop ways to cope with it. Kilometrepricing was herewith put on the agenda before the discussion on a political level will possibly result ina bill, if there are no divergences, a nationwide Road User-Charging scheme for all vehicles will beimplemented by the year 2012.

Supported by GPS/Galileo satellite monitoring technology, the charging will depend on thelocation (i.e. city drivers will pay more km than country ones), on the time (i.e. the per km charge atpeak times will be higher than at off-peak times) respectively to the characteristics of the vehicle being

9 http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tfl/low-emission-zone/default.asp10 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=109

ImpactHigh

CostMedium

ImpactHigh

CostMedium

ImpactHigh

CostHigh

ImpactHigh

CostHigh


31

driven (i.e. larger vehicles will pay more per km driven than smaller ones). The estimated costs willadd up between € 2.2bn and €4.1bn.

This Kilometre Pricing system offers the vehicle drivers a fair bill because of detailed costfinding. Furthermore it is difficult to say whether a direct correlation between charges for road usingand less air quality exist. Probably there will be a change in the modal split because it is probable thatmore people will use public transport. Resulting from this switch, traffic flow in peak hours will be morestable. The impacts of stable traffic flow results in the reduction of pollutant emissions.

3.1.2.4 Clear Zones11

This project is an initiative set up by the UK’s Department of Trade andIndustry (DTI) in 1995 - which aims to exploit new technologies andoperational approaches to improve quality of life and support economic growth, whilst minimising theadverse impacts of its transport systems to provide a liveable accessible and lively urban centre wheretraffic congestion, pollution noise, stress and other negative impacts are eliminated or limited, hasdeveloped a platform for urban planning, air quality and technological access control to be combined.The initiative allows local authorities to combine statutory objectives for air quality management,regeneration and traffic reduction and has become a platform for cities to develop technologies andsystems to promote access control schemes along with other complementary schemes, such ascleaner fuel public transport.

An example of a Clear Zone initiative is the work carried out by the Corporation of London increating a Traffic and Environment Zone12 within the City of London “Square Mile”, which incorporatesLondon’s main business district. Using the principle of making traffic routes less attractive orimpossible by removing a significant amount of traffic capacity in the zones by reducing the number ofaccess points, and by reducing their width to a single lane. Improving the efficiency of the surroundingstreet network and altering traffic signal timings has created provision of additional capacity fordiverted traffic outside the zone.

3.1.2.5 Toll Collect – Road Pricing System in Germany13

The Toll Collect system calculates andcollects the road toll based on the exact number ofkilometres travelled on a motorway for HGV above 12 tons. This is differentfrom the vignette system. The satellite-supported free-flow system ensuresthat toll collection does not interfere with the flow of traffic. In contrast toconventional systems, Toll Collect requires no speed limits, traffic stops, orrestriction to prescribed traffic lanes.

The toll system, which is a dual system, offers the benefits of two log-on options: automatic log-on via On-Board Unit and manual log-on at tollstation terminals or over the Internet.

The system of automatic log-on is based on an innovative combinationof mobile telecommunications technology (GSM) and the satellite-based GPS (Global PositioningSystem). The main element of the automatic log-on system is the On-Board Unit (OBU), which usessatellite signals to determine the truck's position and distance travelled, automatically calculates theamount of toll, and transmits this information the Toll Collect computer centre.

As an alternative, Toll Collect offers the option of manual log-on at a toll station terminal or overthe Internet. This type of log-on is particularly suited to trucks that seldom use German motorways,such as foreign drivers and companies.

The contribution to a better air quality by introducing a toll collect system is difficult to assess. Itis false to say that there is a direct correlation of road pricing and a better air quality because peoplewill rather use A-roads instead of motorways to avoid paying for road pricing but taking an A-road tothe target can takes more time and consequently more fuel. To assess the direct impacts on toll collectsystem it is necessary to focus individual considerations and no general predication can be taken. 11 http://www.clearzones.org.uk/home.htm12 http://www.clearzones.org.uk/casestudylondon.htm13 http://www.toll-collect.de/frontend/HomepageVP.do;jsessionid=E75C038EDB7852B562BD252A24C50F6D

ImpactHigh

CostMedium

ImpactHigh

CostMedium

ImpactMedium

CostMedium

ImpactMedium

CostMedium


32

3.1.2.6 Air Quality Action Plan for Berlin14

In Berlin, the limits of PM10 and NO2 are mainly caused by traffic and exceeded. ThereforeBerlin has to compile an action plan for tackling air pollution between 2005 and 2010.At this a sustainable and long-dated strategy of reducing air pollution in Berlin is aspired.

The whole urban area of Berlin is declared as a control zone for this Action Plan. Limitexceeding appears especially close to trunk roads and therefore those areas are study areas. Theaction plan includes variance analysis, analyses of causes, development of air quality, development ofmeasures and the elaboration of this action plan.

Due to vehicle modifications (soot filter, natural gas vehicles) and funding of NGVs by the TUT15

programme the consequence in the light of an air quality improvement can be detected. Moreoverthese modifications are an inspiring example for other sectors.

To improve air quality a few short termed measures were adopted. Inherent are speed limits,congestion relocation as well as information campaigns for public and companies. In addition to theabovementioned one mid-termed measure with high impacts on air quality will be installed by the year2008 – the implementation of a LEZ.

The general framework for introducing a LEZ in Berlin has to consider an act on the part of thegovernment, traffic signs for the LEZ, and fiscal fundings for vehicles with low emissions and enoughlead-time for introduction.

Furthermore the enhancement of parking management systems and the focussing on publictransport can be long-termed measures.

3.1.3 PARKING CONTROL AND RESTRICTIONS INFORMATION

Instant access to parking information and zone restrictions information reduces congestioncreated by large queues for car parking space and eliminates unnecessarily travel into restrictedzones. E-Parking has been described as a system which delivers a solution enabling drivers to getearly information on available parking space, make a reservation, access the reserved space and payfor the service booked upon departure - without ever having to leave the car. There are severalschemes, which use e-parking technology.

3.1.3.1 E-Parking16

E-Parking is a scheme to reduce congestion caused by queuing forcar parking spaces. E-Parking has delivered a solution enabling drivers toget early information on available parking space, make a reservation, access the reserved space andpay for the service booked upon departure - without ever having to leave the car.

Preston – Parking database, real time information for public about availability of parking spacein car parks participating in the scheme, no controls as such but just info about space availability.

Corlay - Parking database, real time information for public about availability of parking space incar parks participating in the scheme no controls as such but just info about space availability

Norwich - Parking database, real time information for public about availability of parking spacein car parks participating in the scheme, , no controls as such but just info about space availability

Leicester - Parking database, real time information for public about availability of parking spacein car parks participating in the scheme, , no controls as such but just info about space availability

Leicester’s parking guidance and information system plays a vital role in reducing circulatingtraffic, congestion and as a consequence air pollution in the city centre and helps finding a parkingspace easier.The city centre of Leicester is divided into four zones:17

• North (Blue)• South (Orange)• East (Magenta)• West (Green)

14 http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/luftqualitaet/de/luftreinhalteplan/situation.shtml access 26/09/0615 Tausend Umwelt Taxis; programme to fund natural gas vehicles in collaboration between Berlin City Council and a gas

supplier16 www.leicester.gov.uk17 http://www.erf.be/files/2432_eparking_TTI.pdf

ImpactHigh

CostMedium

ImpactHigh

CostMedium


33

Drivers entering the city via any of the main arterialroads can follow the signs to their chosen zone and thenonto the named car parks where there are spaces available.

The signs have been specified and designed by theTransport Systems Section; the system is based around anetwork of 31 strategically located digital signs.

The system links all of the city centre’s multi-storey carparks. Data is transmitted to the central system from the carparks via a fast communications link enabling the system tosend car park occupancy data back to the digital signs.18

3.1.3.2 OptiPark19

OptiPark™ is an electronic parking system, which eliminates theneed for parking meters or pay-and-display. The system is easy to use and maintain by a provider. Itprovides an easy way to manage on and off street parking or non-gated controlled parking lot. Thesystem utilises the Internet to load the OptiPark. Users can choose any amount of money to be loadedon the card, the users enter a web site, chooses the amount of money they wish to pay, and thenOptiPark is loaded. They can also select the city & zone of required parking (variable tariffs, length ofparking time). OptiPark offers tangible advantages for the driver, the parking inspector and the localauthority. It is activated easily and reduces the need to go to specialised machines of hunting forchange. Its main advantages are:

• It can be used anytime, anywhere (with internet access)• It is easy to use, charged card allows for parking• Eliminates the need for expensive infrastructure such as token machines• Eliminates unnecessarily drive to find cash points and change.20

OptiPark contributes to lower emissions produced by cars by reducing the need to make trips to findcash points.

3.1.3.3 Restrictions of Truck Parking in Residential Areas -Rotterdam21

The aim of the Truck Parking management concept is preventinglong term parking of truck-combinations in residential quarters close tothe port area.

The residents of urban areas close to the port district suffer noise pollution because of trucksparking in residential streets. In addition the district is not optimally accessible and the residents do notfeel safe. An area has been designated with long-term parking places for truck combinations (TruckPark) to try to solve these problems. The project incorporates two innovative aspects. The first is thatthe expansion of these parking spaces is seen as a solution for noise pollution in residential areas.The second aspect is the intelligent use of limited space. This system could be a solution for tacklingnoise pollution as well as a marginal reduction of air pollution can be reached due to the limitedparking spaces. The Truck Park Fruitport is located in a port area with fruit companies and is close tothe residential areas of the Delfshaven district. The Truck Park offers secured parking with 24-hoursurveillance for trucks and other lighter distribution vehicles. The Truck Park is already in use with 60

18 http://www.leicesterequal.co.uk19 http://europa.eu.int/information_society/activities/eten/cf/opdb/cf/project/index.cfm?mode=detail&project_ref=ETEN-51734820 http://www.antoptima.com/admin/pdf2/pdf022.pdf#search=%22OPTIPARK%20parking%20database%2221 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=13

ImpactLow

CostLow

ImpactLow

CostLow

ImpactLow

CostLow

ImpactLow

CostLow


34

parking spaces for long-term parking (up to a maximum of one week). In 2004 around 10.000 trucksparked at the facility. The trucks using the facility are both national and international. Almost all truckshad one of the Fruitport companies as their destination.

3.1.3.4 Rotterdam- Alexander scheme22

In the Rotterdam region everybody can park at the P+R sites forfree. The Rotterdam Alexander site is close to a metro/intercity-trainstation and it has 535 parking places. A lot of non public transport users make use of the P+R site togo shopping or working in the area instead of using the P+R for its main purpose.

Due to this, it is possible that people who want to use the P+R for travelling with public transportcan not find a parking place. The pilot was introduced in May 2004 for the period of two years. In thispilot Rotterdam had implemented a parking management-system. It is a basic parking system. Peoplewith a valid public transport ticket will get a free parking ticket. People without valid ticket will pay aparking tariff. Controllers between 7:00 – 19:00 will check the tickets. When the controllers are notpresent the P+R can be used without a ticket. In the future a pay-machine will be used to recognise alegal public transport ticket with stamp or a public transport ticket without one.

The parking system is operational since May 2004. Inhabitants and organisations situated nearthe P+R site were informed and consulted. Important is the monitoring of the pilot. This will be done atthree moments, before the start (May 2004), after half a year and after one year and a half. Themonitoring of the occupancy rate is supplemented with interviews with P+R-users and measuring ofthe parking in the surrounding of the location. Non-public transport users are trying to avoid theparking tariff check this parking in the surrounding to measure the effects of additional parking.The above-mentioned main purpose of this P+R scheme is to improve intermodal interchange,ameliorate the attractivity of public transport and hence a reduction of emissions can be a possibleresult. However one single P+R scheme is definitely not enough for tackling emissions – multiple P+Rfacilities located on strategic neuralgic points can be efficient with at least a “medium” impact on airquality.

3.2 IMPROVING TRANSPORT FLEETS

European legislation on vehicle emission standards – the so-called Euro standards – have setstandards for road vehicle manufacturers on emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC),nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulates (PM).

The Euro emissions standards are enabling graduated reductions in vehicle emissions as eachEuro standard set tighter controls for emissions from new vehicles. This means urban air quality canimprove due to natural vehicle renewal and the removal of older, more polluting cars from the city’sfleet (however in reality emissions reduction from cleaner cars has been off-set by the increase in thenumber of cars). On top this initiatives to use alternative fuels enable emission reductions beyondwhat can be achieved from the Euro standards.The following sections look at how the impact of Euro standards and the uptake of alternative fuels ona fleet basis.23

3.2.1 VEHICLE AND FUEL IMPROVEMENTS

European emission standards are sets of requirements defining the acceptable limits forexhaust emissions of new vehicles sold in EU member states. The standards are defined in a series ofEuropean Union directives staging the progressive introduction of increasingly stringent standards.Currently, emissions of NOX, HC, carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter are regulated formost vehicle types, including cars, lorries, trains, tractors and similar machinery, barges, but excludingseagoing ships and airplanes. For each vehicle type, different standards apply. Compliance isdetermined by running the engine at a standardised test cycle. Noncompliant vehicles cannot be sold

22 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=10823 http://www.sugre.info/Vorlage.phtml?lan=en

ImpactLow

CostHigh

ImpactLow

CostHigh


35

in the EU, but new standards do not apply to vehicles already on the roads. No use of specifictechnologies is mandated to meet the standards, though available technology is considered whensetting the standards.

The stages are typically referred to as Euro 1, Euro 2, Euro 3, Euro 4 and Euro 5, oralternatively using Roman numerals instead of numbers. However, the directives in which thestandards are defined do not refer to them in either way.

The legal framework consists in a series of directives, each amendment to the 1970 directive70/220/EEC. Here is a summary list of the standards (see Table 9 A and B ), when they come intoforce, what they apply to, and which EU directives provide the definition of the standard.

• Euro 1 (1993) for passenger cars - 91/441/EEC (also for passenger cars and light trucks -93/59/EEC)

• Euro 2 (1996) for passenger cars - 94/12/EC (& 96/69/EC)• Euro 3 (2000) for any vehicle - 98/69/EC• Euro 4 (2005) for any vehicle - 98/69/EC (& 2002/80/EC)• Euro 5 (2008/9) for any vehicle - (COM(2005) 683 - proposed)

A)

EU Emission Standards for Passenger Cars (Category M1*), g/km

Tier Date CO HC HC+NOx NOx PM

Diesel

Euro 1†Jul-92

2.72(3.16) - 0.97 (1.13) - 0.14 (0.18)

Euro 2, IDIJan. 1996 1 - 0.7 - 0.08

Euro 2, DIJan. 1996a 1 - 0.9 - 0.1

Euro 3Jan. 2000 0.64 - 0.56 0.5 0.05

Euro 4Jan. 2005 0.5 - 0.3 0.25 0.025

Euro 5(proposed)

mid-2008 ? 0.5 - 0.25 0.2 0.005

B)

Petrol (Gasoline)

Euro 1†Jul.1992

2.72(3.16) -

0.97(1.13) - -

Euro 2Jan.1996 2.2 - 0.5 - -

Euro 3Jan.2000 2.3 0.2 - 0.15 -

Euro 4Jan.2005 1 0.1 - 0.08 -

Euro 5(proposed)

mid-2008 ? 1 0.08 - 0.060.005b

* Before Euro 5, passenger vehicles > 2,500 kg were type approved as Category N1 vehicles† Values in brackets are conformity of production (COP) limitsa - until 30 Sept. 1999 (after that date DI engines must meet the IDI limits)

b - applicable only to vehicles using lean burn DI engines

Table 8: EU Emission Standards for Passenger Cars


36

Whereas for passenger cars, the standards are defined in [g/km], for lorries (trucks) they aredefined by engine power, [g/kWh], and are therefore in no way comparable. The following tablecontains a summary of the emission standards and their implementation dates. Dates in Table 9 referto new type approvals; the dates for all type approvals are in most cases one year later (EU typeapprovals are valid longer than one year).

The official category name is heavy-duty diesel engines, which generally includes lorries and buses.

EU Emission Standards for HD Diesel Engines, g/kWh (smoke in m-1)

Tier Date Test cycle CO HC NOx PM Smoke

1992, <85 kW 4.5 1.1 8 0.612

Euro I1992, >85 kW 4.5 1.1 8 0.36 Oct. 1996 4 1.1 7 0.25

Euro II Oct. 1998 ECE R-49 4 1.1 7 0.15

Oct. 1999EEVs only

ESC &ELR 1.5 0.25 2 0.02 0.15

0.1Euro III Oct. 2000 2.1 0.66 50.13* 0.8Euro IV Oct. 2005 1.5 0.46 3.5 0.02 0.5Euro V Oct. 2008

ESC &ELR 1.5 0.46 2 0.02 0.5

* for engines of less than 0.75 dm3 swept volume per cylinder and a rated power speedof more than 3000 per minute. EEV is enhanced environmentally friendly vehicle.

Table 9: EU Emission Standards for HD Diesel Engines

3.2.1.1 Alternative Fuels as a solution

History of Alternative Fuel Development24,25

The history of biofuels has less to do with technology advancements and more to do withpolitical and economical greed. In order to understand the foundation for biofuel technology though, itis necessary to know the history of the diesel engine. In 1893, a German Inventor named RudolphDiesel published a paper entitled "The theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Engine". In thispaper, he described a revolutionary new engine where air would be compressed by a piston toincrease pressure and therefore raise temperatures. (Planet Fuels, 2001) Because of the hightemperatures, it was found that the engine could run off a variety of vegetable oils such as hemp andpeanut oil. In 1911, at the Worlds Fair in Paris, Rudolph ran his engine on peanut oil, and laterdescribed that "the diesel engine can be fed with vegetable oils and will help considerably in thedevelopment of the agriculture of the countries which use it." Rudolph wanted an alternative toexpensive and inefficient steam engine, and his new diesel engine was the answer.

Two years after the Worlds Fair, Diesel was found dead. It was rumoured that the Germangovernment assassinated him in order to keep his new technology out of the UK submarine fleet. Shortly after this, the Germans introduced diesel engine technology in their U-boats, which contributedto much of their success during wartime. After his death, the petroleum industry capitalized on thisnew engine, altering it to run on the by-product of petrolem distillation called "Diesel #2". (Boyle, 2003)

Also during this time, Henry Ford, creator the Model T and contributor to the advancement ofthe assembly line, became convinced that renewable resources were the key to success in the 24 http://www.gather.com/viewArticle.jsp?articleId=28147497671768725 Pearce, F. Fuels gold; NewScientist 23 September 2006; p 36-41


37

automotive field. Ford built an ethanol plant in the Midwest, and formed a partnership with StandardOil to sell and distribute it in the states. In the early 1920's, biofuels made up 25 percent of all fuelsales. (Sahlman, 2003)

But, with the rapid growth of industry and economic growth of major players in the industrialfield, biofuels and renewable resource growth was threatened. There were a few major players whohad a lot of political pull and contributed to the downfall of biofuels and renewable resources. WilliamRandolph Hurst produced nearly all the paper in the US, and was threatened by the many uses of thehemp plant. Andrew Mellon, secretary of the Treasurer and financial backer of the DuPont Company,patented a chemical necessary to produce wood pulp in paper. The Rockefellers were developinglarge empires from the use of petroleum, and biofuels threatened all of their niche their markets. These key players all had vested interests in seeing renewable resource use decreased, the hempindustry destroyed and biomass fuels forgotten. (PlanetFuels, 2003)By the beginning of World War II, by undercutting biomass fuel prices, the petroleum companiesmonopolized on fuel causing the biomass industry shut down. The industry's agenda was to makemore money, and they had no interest in the effects their greed would have on following generations.

Throughout the next couple decades, the petroleum and automotive industries grewtremendously, both in their economics and political power. Due to our increasing dependency for oil,the US began importing from other countries at low prices. In the early 1970's, the US supply of oilbecame limited and we had to rely on foreign imports to run our country. In 1973, OPEC, anorganization in the Middle East that controls a majority of the world's oil, reduced its output, whichcaused prices in the US to increase dramatically. With the rising prices of gas, consumers beganlooking for other methods to support their obsession with travel. So, in 1978, diesel engines began re-gaining popularity and biofuels re-entered the consciousness of the country. (NBB, 2005)

Now, almost thirty years later, ideas for alternative fuels are beginning to catch on. Over 200major fleets in the US now run on biofuels, including US Post Office, US Military, and metropolis transitsystems. (NBB, 2005) Hybrid vehicles are being produced by more car companies and sales areincreasing throughout the country. Biodiesel is now being produced from many different products:from soybeans and corn in the Midwest, tallow from the slaughter industry, sugar cane in Hawaii andforest wastes in the North West. . The only types of biofuels utilised nowadays on a commercial basisin Europe are bioethanol and biodiesel produced by agricultural crops26. Many private groups havecaught onto the trend of alternative fuels and have made it their mission to educate people of the usesand technologies involved in using and creating alternative energies.

Despite the resistance of major political and economic powers, biofuel technology27 and use isbeginning to regain its popularity. At this point in history, with increased pollution, global warming,environmental degradation, health problems, and rising prices at the gas pump, the popularity andimplementation of biofuels and renewable technology is extremely important for the continuation of oursociety.

Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)28

A Diesel Particulate Filter is designed to remove Diesel Particulate Matter or soot from theexhaust gas of a diesel engine. Hereby the rate of efficiency reaches the total of about 90 [%].Different methods of burning off the accumulated particulates are designed. The burning off can eitherreached through the use of a catalyst (passive) or through an active technology such as a fuel burnerwhich heats the filter to soot combustion temperatures.Basically the filter walls are made of Cordierit, Siliciumcarbid (SiC) or Aluminium Oxide that are allceramics. The off-gas stream is forced to pass the porous filter wall. Due to sedimentary deposition ofthe particles on the filter wall (filter cake) the differential pressure increases. When a thresholdpressure level is reached the filter regeneration will be initialised to avoid a too high off-gas streampressure. For this reason the particles have to be burned off from time to time. This procedure is called“Regeneration” and is done either passively (by adding a catalyst to the filter) or actively. On-boardactive filter management can use a variety of strategies:· Engine management to increase exhaust temperature· A fuel burner to increase the exhaust temperature· A catalytic Oxidizer to increase the exhaust temperature

26 TZIMAS E. et al; The introduction of alternative fuels in the European Transport Sector: Techno-Economic Barriers and

Perspectives; European Commission DG JRC; Technical Report EUR 21173 EN; May 200427 http://www.biodiesel.org/resources/fuelfactsheets/28 http://www.deep.org/reports/stobiedpf.pdf


38

· Resistive heating coils to increase the exhaust temperature· Microwave energy to increase the exhaust temperature

All on-board active systems use extra fuel, whether through burning to heat the DPF, orproviding extra power to the DPF's electrical system. Typically a computer monitors one or moresensors that measure back pressure and/or temperature, and based on pre-programmed set pointsthe computer makes decisions on when to activate the regeneration cycle. Running the cycle too oftenwhile keeping the back pressure in the exhaust system low, will use extra fuel. The reverse runs risk ofengine damage and/or uncontrolled regeneration and possible DPF failure. Quality regenerationsoftware is a necessity for longevity of the active DPF system.Diesel Particulate Matter combusts at when temperaures above 820 [K] are attained. The start ofcombustion causes a further increase in temperature. In some cases the combustion of the ParticulateMatter can raise temperatures above the structural integrity threshold of the filter material, which cancause catastophic failure of the substrate. Various strategies have been developed to limit thispossibility. The amount of available oxygen makes fast regeneration of a filter possible; it alsocontributes to run away regeneration issues.Some applications use off-board regeneration but they are not useful for on-road vehicles, except insituations where the vehicles are parked in a central depot when not in use because of requirement ofoperator intervention.

Biodiesel effects on Diesel Particulate Filter performance29

The Balance Point Temperature which describes the Diesel Particualte Filter inlet temperatureat which the rate of particle oxidation approximately equals the rate of particle collection, is on average315 [K] lower when B20 (20 [%] Biodiesel 80[%] petrodiesel) is used. Furthermore the use of B20causes a 2.9 [%] increase in fuel consumption which is consistant with the lower heat value of this fuel.An installation of the DPF caused a nearly 2 [%] fuel economy penalty for Ultra Low Sulphur Diesel aswell as for B20.

Emission changes petroleum diesel versus B20:• + 2.0 [%] NOx• -10.1 [%] PM• -11.0 [%] CO• -21.1 [%] THCIn catalysed DPF systems the soot is then burned by reaction with NO2. The role of NO2 as an

oxidant is critical to catalysed DPF performance and DPFs typically contain a precious metal catalystupstream of the ceramic filter where NO is converted to NO2. NO2 is a more aggressive oxidiser ofsoot at low temperatures than oxygen, and thus can control the soot oxidation rate. Therefore thesmall increase in NOx emissions observed for B20 may have significant consequences for theperformance of B20 with DPFs.

3.2.2 PRIVATE FLEET

The usage of renewable fuels in private and public sector will gain more importance in futureparticularly with respect to sustainability and air quality. The following chapter lists a few examples ofusage of different renewable fuels in the private and pubic sector seperately to gain a better reader’soverview.

3.2.2.1 USPS Delivers with Alternative Fuel Vehicles30

The United States Postal Service (USPS) runs the largest federalfleet, with approximately 208,000 vehicles. Of those vehicles, USPSoperates approximately 7,400 alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs). The majorityof these AFVs are converted "long life vehicles" (LLVs), designed with a1,000-lb capacity and a 24-year life span. By converting a large portion of

these vehicles to compressed natural gas (CNG), the USPS has created the nation’s largest fleet of

29 www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39606.pdf30 www.eere.energy.gov/cleancities/ccn/pdfs/afnewsv2-5.pdf

ImpactHigh

CostHigh

ImpactHigh

CostHigh


39

CNG delivery vehicles. The USPS also has other medium- and heavy-duty trucks that operate onalternative fuels.

In 1999, USPS plans to purchase a number of electric vehicles (EVs), and will seek cost-sharingfrom local governments, utilities, and various other sources (the majority of these EVs will be locatedin Clean Cities communities). They also have long-term plans to convert all 128 trucks operating fromthe Dallas, Texas, bulk-mail center to run on liquefied natural gas (LNG).

The large fleets of AFVs within USPS also provide an impetus for infrastructure development:the more AFVs there are in a city, the more interest industry and suppliers have in building theinfrastructure to fuel these vehicles. In Tucson, Arizona; Dallas, and El Paso, Texas; New York;Connecticut; and Washington, D.C., USPS fleets have made great strides toward meeting the goals ofthe Clean Cities programs by implementing alternative fuel programs that not only help displace oil,but also create a workable solution for the industry. The automakers have produced the vehicles, nowthe infrastructure is needed. USPS is working with fuel suppliers and other government agencies tomake this happen.

3.2.3 PUBLIC FLEET

Public transport is an integrated part of the modern city. The overall emissions from busescontribute significantly to the urban pollution. Several schemes have been introduced to combat thissituation and examples of different measures have been listed below.

3.2.3.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) - Winchester31

An Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) was declared forWinchester in November 2003, due to high concentrations of air pollutants in the city centre. QualityBus Partnership was agreed between MIRACLES and the local main PT operator: in 2003 13 newEuro 3 buses were added to the Winchester fleet and all mid-life vehicles will be brought up to Euro 3standard or better. HCC have purchased LPG and Euro 4 pool vehicles, hybrid petrol/electric,LPG/petrol and electric cars.

The main public transport operator in the area, Stagecoach, has a fleet of nearly 60 busesserving Winchester. Prior to MIRACLES, Stagecoach had already set up a rolling programme toupgrade its fleet to Euro II standard, but in partnership with Hampshire County Council (HCC), throughMIRACLES, it was decided that this should be extended to meet the Euro III standards introduced in2001.

A Quality Bus Partnership was agreed between MIRACLES andStagecoach in September 2003. In November 2003 thirteen new Euro IIIbuses were added to the Winchester fleet. Through the QBP an ongoingprogramme of retrofitting has been agreed for the Winchester bus fleet tobring all mid-life vehicles up to Euro III standard or better. Clean up grantsfrom the Government organisation, Energy Savings Trust, have beenapplied for, to provide additional funding for the retrofit programme.Alternative fuel buses, such as the electric powered bus pictured below,have been trialled on the Park and Ride service to raise awareness of the

different technologies available and test public reaction.Retrofitting of the local bus fleet is ongoing and expected to continue after the end of the

demonstration phase, although funding may need to be found from other sources. Once complete,Winchester will have one of the cleanest bus fleets in Europe. Based on their analysis of HCCvehicles, Motorvate will be advising HCC how to improve the fuel efficiency and emissions status oftheir fleet. Improvements should be seen before the end of the project. Following the Motorvateworkshop, local businesses will be invited to join the Motorvate scheme. The aim is to get at least fourcompanies to sign up to Motorvate before the end of the project. Another example of the fleetimprovement can be observed in Bristol with the implementation of new vehicles for Dial-a-rideprogramme.32

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3.2.3.2 Electricity - electric buses in Rome33

City of Rome implemented a measure to increase the number ofelectric buses circulating within the inner city centre and to purchase new electric buses 34 with highertransport capacity, in order to serve a larger area. The measure forms part of a wider municipalityproject, which aims to achieve a “zero emission area” in the city centre.

Since 1989 three bus lines, operating with electric mini buses, have successfully been in serviceinside the inner city centre Limited Traffic Zone (LTZ). The LTZ covers a surface of 5.2 km2 comparedto the 1,300 km2 of the whole Municipality. ATAC, the PT Agency in Rome, with the support ofMIRACLES has so far purchased 10 new electric mini buses, which have been added to the 42already in service. The plan to buy 36 more medium sized e-buses (8-9 meters length) is still on going.The objective of the measure is to continue to enlarge the electric bus fleet through the purchase of 36new “medium sized” buses, to be operated on two new lines, with a total length of 14 km. It is plannedthat they will produce 700,000 vehicle-Km/year.

3.2.3.3 Fuel Cell Buses in London35

Route 25 between Oxford Circus and Ilford has been chosen as thefirst fuel cell trial bus route for a number of reasons.London’s Buses is part of Transport for London, and is responsible for achieving environmental targetsand standards for the whole of London’s bus fleet, as required by the Mayor’s Air Quality Strategy.“First” operates around 16 % of the London bus network. Their experience, support and expertise intransit management is crucial in ensuring the trial is conducted and assessed to rigorous standards.

BP is providing the hydrogen-refuelling facilities for the fuel cell buses. BP is an infrastructurepartner in five of the nine CUTE (Clean Urban Transport for Europe) cities and is demonstrating arange of different hydrogen technologies in each location. Energy Saving Trust is supporting theproject through grant funding from its new vehicle technology fund programme.

Daimler Chrysler has developed and manufactured the buses and will provide technical supportduring the trial.

The European Union has co-financed the trial, with the support of the European CommissionDirectorate-General for Energy and Transport.

London is taking part in a pioneering project to reduce air pollution and noise by testing thefirst generation of zero emission fuel cell buses. This important initiative is a key part of the Mayor’sTransport and Air Quality Strategies, which are designed to help give Londoners a cleaner andhealthier future. Not only is the fuel cell bus trial a significant step towards achieving that goal, it alsodemonstrates that London is leading the way in alternative forms of public transport.

Nine cities in Europe are taking part in the fuel cell bus trial, making it the largest project of itstype anywhere in the world. The reason it’s so important is because of greenhouse gas emissions andinner-city noise levels, which are a major source of complaint. The project brings together over 40organisations including the bus manufacturer, operating companies, hydrogen suppliers, fuelling andstorage facilities, and universities. It is part of the ongoing development of clean urban transportsystems, which combine energy efficiency with cost-effectiveness. The fuel cell buses will besubjected to rigorous ecological, technical and economic analysis, which will then be compared toconventional bus transportation. By the end of the trial London will have made a major contribution toa much-needed initiative, the results of which are eagerly awaited by transport authorities andgovernments across the globe.The usage of Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells, which are the most common fuel cells, have severalpositive aspects: Hydrogen can be raised renewably e.g. by using solar energy to split up H2 fromwater by electrolysis and the necessary O2 can be used directly from the atmosphere. SteamReforming is a more cost-efficient method to raise H2 from synthesis gas, which is a mix of carbonicenergy sources. The Methanol Reformation underlies the Steam Reformation and with this method it is

33 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=2534 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=54 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=18035 http://www.tfl.gov.uk/buses/fuel-cell-buses.asp

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easy to get H2 from Methanol (CH3OH) and water vapour (H2O). Methanol Reformation is taken intoconsideration for conventional vehicles to avoid on –board pressure vessels filled with H2.

3.2.3.4 Fuel Cell Hybrid Railcar in Japan36

The East Japan RailwayCompany developed a fuel cell system for railcars as anindependent type motive power system that emits low airpollution. JR is world’s first company, which present thedevelopment of the first fuel cell hybrid railcar.

This fuel cell hybrid railcar will be realised by modifyingthe New Energy train (NE train) used for development of a

diesel engine-based hybrid system. Testing is scheduled to start from July 2006, and various tests willbe performed to confirm the fuel cell performance, environmental burden reduction effects, hydrogensupply system and other aspects. Development of railcar system technology that uses fuel cells is alsobeing promoted to utilise future breakthroughs in fuel cell technology.

3.2.3.5 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) in Nantes and Barcelona

CNG Station Nantes37

At the end 2001 GN Vert/Eurotec was selected by the market commissionfor the construction of the station, with a work planning starting January 2002 andfinishing august 2002. The market was attributed for 152,449 Euro. Thecompressed gas station was opened up in June 2003. While waiting for thedefinitive fuelling station to be operational, a temporary fuelling station, rented bySemitan has been implemented. This temporary station enables to operate the

buses that have been delivered for training session and to operate At the end 2001 GN Vert/Eurotecwas selected by the market commission for the construction of the station, with a work planningstarting January 2002 and finishing august 2002. The market was attributed for 152,449 Euro. Thecompressed gas station was opened up in June 2003. While waiting for the definitive fuelling station tobe operational, a temporary fuelling station, rented by Semitan has been implemented. This temporarystation enables to operate the buses that have been delivered for training session and to operateroutes that will be equipped in September. Gas will be delivered at 16 bars instead of 200 on theprevious fuelling station, thus giving access to a real gas “market” tariff.The experience gained withJupiter 2 and the first CNG fuelling station in St Herblain depot enabled Semitan to improve some ofthe processes. It also showed that being the owner of the fuelling station would be more economicallyefficient for UCN.

The advantage of Compressed Natural Gas is the better stoichiometric combustion leading tolower emissions. A new CNG tank is made of aluminium sheets with fibreglass.CNG is often confused with LNG – CNG is in compressed form and has lower costs of productionwhile LNG is in liquid form and the production is much more expensive. Furthermore CNG requires amuch larger volume to store the same mass of natural gas and needs the use of high pressures too.However the advantage of LNG is that no expensive cooling processes and cryogenic tanks arenecessary.LPG is a compressed blend of propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10).

Compressed Natural Gas Buses in Barcelona38

In Barcelona, one of the measures to reduce the air pollution consists of the integration ofCompressed Natural Gas (CNG) buses in the urban transport fleet of TMB (Barcelona MetropolitanTransport), thus promoting more sustainable transport. TMB started trials with CNG buses for the first

36 http://www.jreast.co.jp/e/press/20060401/index.html37 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=6338 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=39

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time in 1995 when tests with two CNG vehicles showed the feasibility ofthis new type of fuel. The results confirmed the reduction of pollutingemissions and noise produced by these vehicles compared with thosepropelled by diesel oil. In 2000, TMB signed an agreement with GASNATURAL to introduce CNG as an operational fuel for the bus fleet.

In this way, between 2001 and 2002 a fleet of 70 CNG vehicleswas introduced. These are standard buses, of 12 m. length, supplied byIVECO and MAN (2001/2002 generation). One part of the demonstration

concerns the evaluation of the environmental and energy performance under real, generalisedoperating conditions. The other concerns the installation of equipment and specialisation of one of thecity’s biggest bus depots (Zona Franca I) for the maintenance of vehicles using this fuel type.

Compressed Natural Gas is an attractive fuel 39 because of its environmental advantagescompared with diesel oil since, for a same use, it achieves a reduction of polluting emissions ofbetween 82% and 98% for each 100 To realise the feasibility studies, the vehicles were put intooperation on different type of lines of the road network, and a comparative analysis of performancewas undertaken. The selected lines were services 22, 57 and 157. The first one is a hilly route withconsiderable gradients (Sea-Mountain line), while the others are flat routes.

The trials were started in parallel with the first phase of equipment and infrastructure relatingto gas supply, storage and distribution. In this way it was concluded that on the lines with importantgradients the CNG buses performance was worse, and so CNG buses are normally assigned to lineswith flat routes. The results of the introduction of Gas Natural vehicles have been highly positive, bothbecause of the good performance and of the positive acceptance by users (see Rationale). TMBwants to maintain and enlarge the project, and to do so 90 new Natural Gas vehicles will beincorporated to the existing fleet so as to reach, by 2005, a total of 160 CNG buses. The fleetextension includes both standard and articulated types of buses (currently the 70 CNG buses arestandard). The new engines, and CNG-related elements such as gas tanks, incorporate technologicalimprovements compared to the current ones, and further improvements in fuel consumption andmaintenance are anticipated.

3.2.3.6 Bio fuel in Cork and Graz

Biofuel use in Cork City Council40

Before the project Cork City Council’splant and machinery/vehicle fleet used to consist of approximately 250vehicles, and the only fuels used by the City Council were petrol (2.5%)and diesel (duty paid and duty free).

After a preliminary study, it was decided to use Cold-pressed Rape-Seed Oil as the clean-fuel and in May 2003 Elsbett trained councilemployees to convert 16 vehicles of the City Council fleet. After someadjustments the trial was successful, and a full excise duty exemption forBiofuels was eventually introduced in Spring 2005.This measure involved

researching various options for converting 5-10% of the City Council Fleet to run on a lower emissionfuel. Conversions would then be carried out on a pilot basis with a view to possible expansion fleetwide and promotion of the alternatives nationwide, depending on the results of the pilot. The significantdrawback associated with the use of RSO in Ireland related to the relatively high cost of RSO.Previously, it had been possible to invoke a clause in the Finance Act, which exempted research onbio fuelled vehicles, from fuel excise duty. Unfortunately this waiver was no longer applicable when theMIRACLES project was being drafted. However, as a result of lobbying by the budding bio fuelindustry, supported by Cork City Council, a full excise duty exemption for Bio fuels was eventuallyintroduced in Spring 2005.

100% Biodiesel bus fleet in Graz41

39 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=23

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The Graz public transport company operates all of its ca. 120busses on 100% biodiesel. A large part of this fuel is provided byprocessed used cooking oil.

Graz collects used cooking oil on a large scale. This UCO isconverted into biodiesel and along with biodiesel produced from rape seedprovides the whole bus fleet with fuel. The busfleet also got an optimisedhigh quality interior design (information screens, air conditioning, a betteracoustic and visual information and ramps for mobility impaired persons.The attractivity of the city will increase due to lower pollution levels by the

biodiesel driven buses. Public transport becomes user-friendlier, especially for the disabled and otherspecific target groups.

All busses (120) operate on 100% biodiesel fuel, in winter additives have to be added and about30% fossil diesel has to be added. There are own biodiesel filling stations. There is a regularmonitoring of fuel quality (supported by the local university) and of the engines and enginecomponents.

The operation is very successful. However, it is only possible because biodiesel is fuel taxexempt. The experience from Graz: 100% Biodiesel in the whole bus fleet (and now also taxis) withused cooking oil bases biodiesel is unique and could be spread to all European cities 42. Often this ishindered by extra guarantees asked for by bus and car manufacturers. Usually operating with a 30%biodiesel mix is already deemed difficult, Graz proves the contrary.

3.2.3.7 Retrofitting “Hybrid drive” in La Rochelle43

The aim of the project is to provide 1fully accessible and 2 conventional hybrid taxis per year for taxiasscciation – “Abeille”. Implementation of clean hybrid vehicles is beingcarried out in close cooperation with cars manufacturers.

To reach this goal, a strategic scheme was set up in cooperationwith the taxi drivers and managers. One of the main tasks will concern theprocurement for which cooperation will be looked for with some carconstructors in order to get special incentive prices for the taxis.

To help the deployment of these vehicles, promotion activities willbe launched in order to convince taxi drivers as well as customers.

The main advantages of hybrid vehicles are the integration of an on-board rechargeableenergy storage system. This results in less pollution and less fuel. Hybrid vehicles provides better fueleconomy than conventional vehicle because the engine is smaller and may be run at speeds providingmore efficiency.

3.2.3.8 Ethanol- clean car fleet in Malmo44

The increased use of clean vehicles is today hindered by a lack ofinformation of alternatives such as gas, ethanol and electricity, incombination with higher investment costs and the uncertainty of whichfuels will be available locally in the future. It is the municipal units thatdecide which car that will be selected and purchased 45. The City of Malmöwill procure 250 clean vehicles. The city employees when in duty, insteadof using their own private cars, use these vehicles. These vehicles runs 20000 km on average per year. The total mileage will be approx. 7 millionkilometres per year, 28 million kilometres in four years. Moreover, the

employees are discouraged of using private cars when travelling to work. The demonstration effect is 41 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=89&PHPSESSID=84a39d7e8defe7231306751bd7...42 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=91

http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=332 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=335

43 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=32644 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_short.phtml?lan=en&id=22445 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=334

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the most important aspect of the activity; the vehicles will be clearly marked as environmental vehiclesand highly visible during daytime in the traffic in Malmö. Since many people the positive experience ofthe vehicles is spread more widely use the vehicles compared to if 250 vehicles was bought for privateuse (City of Malmö has 18 000 employees and potential users).

Implementation timetable for month 1-48 M 1-4 Specification of vehicles and planning ofprocurement M 3-13 Planning and realization of information to users/information campaign M 2-48Procurement of vehicles.

To stimulate the municipal organization and it’s employees to choose and purchase cleanvehicles The direct environmental effect will be a decrease in CO2 emissions NOx, CO, VOx yearly.When biogas production is developed by the City Sewage Services (measure 5.2) the effectsconcerning CO2 will be even larger.

Ethanol is a combustion fuel; it does not produce any particulates due to the fact that thereaction product is just water and carbon dioxide. O2H 32CO 22O 3OH6H2C +→+ . The usage ofethanol in the vehicle reduces CO2 emissions by about 13 [%] in comparison with unleaded petrol.Furthermore ethanol has a high energy density and because it is a liquid, it is easy and safe to handle,transport and distribute, without the need for expensive cryogenic and high-pressure systems that areneeded for gaseous fuels.

3.2.4 PUBLIC TRANSPORT

The common goal for improving public transport is in increasing public transport’s share of thedemand for travel, specifically through attracting trips from car. The focus of Central GovernmentTransport Policy and of the Central Leicestershire Transport Strategy is in maintaining mobility whilereducing dependence upon the private car, and this can only be achieved by increasing use of thebus. Other important policy objectives, such as reducing social exclusion and improving accessibility tojobs and social opportunities will also be addressed by improved bus services. The commercialinterest of the bus operators is long term growth in profits, which given reduced opportunities for costcutting can only come from growth in passenger numbers. But as perceived by the general public, busservices must improve significantly if they are to achieve these objectives.

3.2.4.1 Public Authority operated fleets

The following examples are just selected applications of types of measures that localgovernments implemented. In order to improve their fleets to be more environmentally clean. Theseexamples t show that, with the adequate political engagement, an improvement in the public transportoperation can be made to reduce its impact on environment. These implementations require completestrategy including the infrastructure. It also shows that only partial evaluation cannot be sufficient toapproach the problem of converting a complete regional fleet

3.2.4.2 Busses – Lille fleet46

In 1990 Lille Metropolis decided to start anurban bus service, fuelled by natural and/orpurified biogas, produced from the fermentation of sludge from a localsewage treatment plant. After an experimental project and a test period, itwas decided to introduce a new fleet of such vehicles into full service. Thefinal objective is to convert the entire fleet (400 buses) into buses runningon this type of fuel. Infrastructure investments will be partly financed by theTrendsetter Budget (extra-cost of the busses, the depots and the linemodifications due to the use of biogas). Furthermore, a technical study will

evaluate the technical and environmental aspects of the experience of a biogas busses fleet. 86 newgas buses have been put in service in Lille metropolis. The total fleet of gas buses, at this date is 127gas buses on a total fleet of 311 vehicles. 40 new buses (EURO 5 standards) have been order anddelivered. A new bus depot was constructed, and it is designed to park and maintain 150 gas buses(100 standards, 50 articulated). This new depot is built in front of the next organic recovery context,which will produce mass quantity of biogas. In the hart of this depot is built one of the biggest


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compression units in Europe. This compression unit will be the first one in Europe that will compressnatural gas and biogas.

The experience of Lille in the operation of a biogas bus fleet is certainly pioneering this areaand setting the trends for future clean and sustainable public transport. Lille metropolis demonstratedthe technical, environmental and economical feasibility of such conversion in a large scale.

3.2.4.3 Trams – tram train extention in Bremen47

Bremen has made Public Transport moreattractive and more environmentally friendly by providing clean transport in thecity as well as the region. The experience shows that an extension of the tramnetwork is an important element to attract more passengers and influence the

shift in modal split, which leads to improvement in air quality.The surveys of the recently opened tram line n°4 in the East of Bremen showed an increase in

patronage of Public Transport up to about 40% in comparison to the previous (even more frequent)bus services. It demonstrates that tram rides are perceived as more convenient – giving also transfer-free access to the city centre.

The tram network actually ends at the edge of Huchting, a peripheral development of the 60s.The residents of that area and the peri-urban areas of the neighbouring communities (Stuhr area)have either to interchange from bus services to the tram or are using Park & Ride. More than 16.000residents will benefit from a direct and convenient tram connection to the city. There will be a time-saving of about 6 minute per trip. As there is no new corridor for tram tracks necessary, a very cost-efficient and innovative solution is feasible. It should be highlighted, that the freight operation can bemaintained. Many of such (underused) tracks have already been closed down in Germany – with theresult that more freight was coming on the road.

3.2.4.4 Rail - New Nantes Vertour railway connection 48

On the Motorway that connects Nanteswith Vertou 55,000 vehicles a day use thisconnection. To reduce the volume of traffic and hence effect anenhancement of air quality a new alternative to car traffic was designed byinstalling a new railway link between this cities.

The link Nantes-Vertou uses the existing national railwayinfrastructure Nantes-Bordeaux. This infrastructure is planned to accept alocal express train on the Nantes-Vertou part of the infrastructure. Thethree halts in between are all equipped with car and bike park and ride:

In the Vertou station, 150 car park spaces are in use and thereare extension possibilities. The station Frêne rond has 60 car park spaces and the station Pas

Enchantés 80. For each station 20 enclosed bike park spaces (closed boxes for 20 bicycles) areavailable. Users will have a free access by card if they have a public transport monthly or annualticket. In addition, 12 free bike park spaces are available.This new link is a success because 1.400 users/day are using this railway link (300 before).

3.2.4.5 Private Sector operated fleets

There is an increasing trend across Europe for transport fleet to be operated by private sector.Improvements in those fleets lead to more environmentally friendly buses and cleaner ambient air inurban areas. Here are some examples of schemas aimed at improving the private sector fleet.

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3.2.4.6 Buses- the Central Leicestershire Quality Bus Partnership49

The Central Leicestershire Quality Bus Partnership consists ofLeicester City Council, Leicestershire County Council, Arriva, First andKinchbus.

The Partnership is an informal Body, which aims to plan, facilitate anddeliver improvements to bus services and busservice facilities in Central Leicestershire. Itmeets regularly to review matters of commoninterest and discuss ways in which bus servicescan be improved. These may include items such

as publicity, bus priorities and traffic management issues. Individual buscompanies remain responsible for their own commercial strategies. Achievements already delivered,or being progressed include:

• Development of the Star Trak real time information system (see Operational Improvements)• Introduction of the “all operator” Flexi ticket (see Integrated Ticketing)• Bus priority measures in important bus routes (see Operational Improvements)• Development of a Bus Information Strategy, which will provide improved standards of

information on bus services and times.• Input to the Local Transport Plan.

Additionally, the bus companies have invested in updating their bus fleets with the introduction ofmany new, low floor buses.

3.2.4.7 Taxis – CNG driven taxis in Berlin 50

At this time 800 CNG taxis and drivingschool cars are in usage in Berlin. The costs of acquisition and fuel arereduced heavily. The purchase of new CNG Taxis and driving schoolvehicles will be funded when the following is fulfilled: All ordered vehicleshave to be on the state of art and to apply a standard, several norms (D4

EURO IV and UZ 89) are convenient. Furthermore the vehicles have to be in usage appropriated for atleast 2 years in the region of Berlin.

To enjoy the funding it is necessary to file an funding application at the KfW bank of fundings.To summarise, this funding system of taxis and school driving vehicles can be a contribution todecrease air pollution because of attract the purchase of CNG vehicles and as a result the lessemissions because of less polluting fuel.

In addition to that several other benefits occur like the cheaper fuel costs (-50 [%] incomparison with petrol, -30 [%] in comparison with diesel), cheaper car insurance as well as taxincentives.The changes in the taxi fleet have also been implemented in London to improve emission values.51

3.3 INTEGRATED TRANSPORT AND TRAVELLING PLANING

Integrated transport concept has been widely discussed at the Government and local levels.Definition of Integrated Transport52 as presented in 1998,by the UK Government’s Transport White

Paper, “A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone” includes four areas of Integration:a) Within and between different types of transport, so each works properly and people can make

easy connections between them;b) With the environment, so that our transport choices cause less damage;c) With land use planning, to support more sustainable travel choices; and

49 http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council--services/transport--traffic/transport-development/sustainable-team-

homepage/buses--public-transport/quality-bus-partnership50 http://www.tut-berlin.de/

http://www.fgm.at/docs/etaxi_e.pdf51 http://www.tfl.gov.uk/pco/pdfdocs/emissions-strategy-revised-implementation-date.pdf52 http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200203/cmselect/cmwelaf/205/20504.htm

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d) With other areas of Government policy, such as education, health and wealth creation, so thattransport helps to make a fairer, more inclusive society.

The key objective of an integrated transport policy is to create accessible, affordable and sustainabletransport and to optimise the efficiency of the transport information system in the Urban communityGlobal economy can be enhanced by an improvement in the organisation of transport systems. Thefragmentation of the transport modes– road, sea, rail, air – as well as of transport systems is a rathercostly situation, which can be improved by integration.53

3.3.1 INTERMODAL INTERCHANGE

Intermodal Interchange is an integrated part of public and private transport which enhancespassenger’s optimal connection to their destinations. Intermodal Interchange offers the passenger theoption of linking different ways of public transport with individual transport.

A well-installed system can significantly reduce air pollution by limiting the journey time by theusers and encouraging them to use the public transport.

The following chapter lists just a few examples of how Intermodal Interchange can be installedin a city.

3.3.1.1 Park and Ride in La Rochelle54

The objective of this scheme is to create asecond car park shuttle in the district ofLAGORD (North of La Rochelle) with, in parallel,the management of the parking in the centre. Innovative aspects of thisproject are coordination of bus and taxi services to increase multi-modaltravel. This Park and Ride (P+R)55will be located near the motorway andnear important residential zone. The estimate of the costs of the scheme isavailable to the public but the full evaluation will be carried out after theimplementation of the scheme.

The implementation of a Park and Ride Scheme can have significant impacts on air qualitydepending on the size of the operation.

3.3.1.2 Bike and Ride in Berlin56

The aim of this project is to give cyclists in Berlin the option of takingtheir bicycles on the train or leaving them at the station. It will allow tocombine their travel with train, underground and the tram. 10% of allcyclists in the capital already combine bicycle travel and public transporton a daily basis. Cyclists in Berlin can take their bicycles on regional trainsthe underground and the trams at any time. Night bus services alsorecently started allowing bikes on board. Single journeys can bepurchased at a reduced price, cyclists who regularly take their bicycle onpublic transport have the option of buying a monthly bicycle ticket and

schoolchildren can take their bikes on for free. The state of Berlin has contributed over one millioneuros towards these projects. The BVG, the Berlin transit company responsible for the underground,buses and trams, also plans to improve its facilities for bicycles. As part of the Bicycle TransportationStrategy for Berlin drawn up by the Berlin senate, the various transport companies have promised tocontinue to improve interfaces between bicycle transportation routes and the public transport network.

53 Andersson T. et al. “Why Integrated Transport Systems?”; The OECD Observer; No.211, April/May 199854 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=33955 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=159

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3.3.1.3 Bicycle Parking in Rotterdam57

Facilitation of the whole range of schemes is needed to stimulatethe use of bicycles in combination with public transport: such as bicycleparking at home and public transport location and improving cycle lanesSpecial safe boxes for bicycles were placed throughout many streets/livingareas to encourage the bicycle users The project aims to stimulate the useof bicycles and public transport, by realisation of high quality bicycleparking facilities at several metro and train stations in Rotterdam. Alreadyexisting facilities were assessed and as a result, a strategy for the locationand exploitation of bicycle parking facilities was set up. For all locations

implementation plans were made. The unguarded bicycle parking facilities at 23 public transportstations needed extension and/or improvement. Near public transport nodes, there is a demand forthree large scale guarded bicycle facilities. The unguarded bicycle parking facilities have beenextended in 11 metro stations. At each station 30 up to 200 bicycle parking places are now available.A further extension at another 15 metro stations has been planned. The extension at 7 metro stationswill be realised in 2005. The draft plans for two guarded bicycle stands in the city centre is finished,with a total capacity of 600 parking places.

3.3.2 OPERATIONAL IMPROVEMENTS

To enhance attractiveness and effectiveness of Public Transport services a ManagementInformation System can be used. Management Information Systems can improve the traffic flow andreduce the congestion. A few examples of how Management Information Systems are working areexplained in the following chapter.

3.3.2.1 Management Information Systems58

Management Information Systems assist road users maintaining a steadily traffic flow and hencecontribute for a better air quality. Traffic Flow and Speed have a significant correlation as shown inFigure 4. A method based on the k-means algorithm, a statistical technique demonstrated to besuccessful in categorising traffic flow regimes in the urban environments of Leicester City wasdeveloped to classify traffic into four states. From Figure 2 it can be seen that there are four distinctareas of the speed flow curve that relate to different levels of emissions for quiet, free flow, busy andcongested conditions;

• Quiet (not congested) – characterised by traffic speeds not constrained by the flow levels

• Free flow (slightly congested) – where the speed is constrained by the flow, particularly withthe ability to overtake, but nevertheless traffic remains flowing.

• Busy (moderately congested) - when the flow is approaching and reaching the capacity of thelink. Traffic flow is very unstable, causing short shock waves and, for a given traffic volume,large variation in speed with acceleration and deceleration events.

• Congested (severely congested) – with flow breakdown speeds are slow and display stop startbehaviour.


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ImpactLow

CostLow

ImpactLow

CostLow


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The extreme value shows the optimal balance between traffic flow and speed. ManagementInformation Systems contribute reaching this extreme value to balance the maximum vehicle flowbased on the capacity of the road.

Figure 3: Relationship between Traffic Counts and soeed

There are several systems available on the market that allow a bettercoordination and real time information processing of traffic data. Suchinformation is invaluable for efficient management of traffic. TRAMS is aWindows® software System Integration package. It works with standarddesktop PCs easily enabling Variable Message Signs limited to configureand tune bespoke solutions to meet specific traffic management needs.TRAMS provides clear and concise information to about traffic. It issuitable for an extensive range of applications and is compatible wit mostof the roadside equipment. The system can be characterised by:

• Flexible & varied communications• Complete System Integration with:• Variable message signs• Access Control• Bus-lane violation monitors• Pollution/weather monitors• Car park information• Overheight vehicle detectors• MIDAS vehicle detectorsApplications include: UTMC, Car Park Guidance, and Driver Information. A case study of UTMC in

Leicester (“Queue Relocation in Leicester) is described on page 25.The latest generation of traffic management and information system is COMET and is the

architectural hub of a modern traffic control centre. It provides co-ordination facilities allowingoperators to control and monitor their urban networks across a range of systems whilst deliveringmeaningful timely and accurate information to the travelling public. 59

Comet offers different features like• Graphical display of map, web data and traveller information• Control and monitoring of congestion, strategy and time of day• System logging and auditing• Incident management• External system controlManagement Information Systems improve the traffic flow in cases of imminent congestion. That

implies a more stable traffic flow and hence the vehicles will emit less pollution. The disadvantage ofthese systems is the cost.

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3.3.2.2 Real Time Passenger Information System “Star Trak”60

The Star Trak system is a real time buspassenger information system that gives ‘next bus' information. Theinformation is provided to users in one of the 4 following ways:• Signs at bus stopsSigns are located at various locations along Star Trak routes, which give‘next bus’ information using various types of signs.

• Multiroute signsThese are signs located in Leicester city centre, which gives passengers

‘next bus’ on all routes leaving the city centre. These signs can be used a multi-route terminus.• SMS

All stops along a Star Trak route are equipped with plates which have a code associated with the stop.Passengers can text this code to a national number (84268) and receive the ‘next bus’ information fortheir chosen stop.To test the service out,• Website

A website has been designed with mapping functionality giving users the ability to find their ‘next bus’using the website. All of the Star Trak routes appear on the website with other general informationabout the routes and the system.The Star Trak system comprises the following components:• Bus location – using GPS technology to located the bus at all times along its route• Intelligent traffic signal priority – to enable a late running bus to have priority through traffic

signals• Passenger information – bus stop signs, sms and website• Bus fleet management – for the bus companies to keep track of their buses• Electronic timetable database – the main part of the system, which says when the bus is on time

or late.

3.3.2.3 Telematics Technologies for Transports and Traffic in Turin - “5T”61

The city of Turin started in 1992 a large-scale project in mobilitytelematics named 5T Telematics Technologies for Transports and Traffic inTurin, which embodies the conceptual framework and the results of theQUARTET Project financed by the EU and of the “Environment and Trafficproject” financed by the Italian Environment Ministry. The Turin 5T System has been developed andimplemented right across the city of Turin. It comprises nine subsystems (Urban Traffic Control, PublicTransport Management, Environment Control, Parking Control, Information Media Control, CollectiveInformation (VMS), Automation Debiting, Maximum Priority, Route Guidance), together with an overallCity Supervisor, which integrates all the other sub-systems actions into a general mobility/environmentstrategy. Turin has focused on a comprehensive evaluation of the IRTE (Integrated Road TransportEnvironment) system. The 5T project was tested during a two-year experimental phase which endedin 1997. The measured effect of the 5T System was a reduction of the average O/D triptime by 21%for the resident in the area affected by the system. The 5T System has been maintained in 1998-99 atthe functional levels reached during experimentation. In the same period the process of thetransformation of the 5T Consortium – which has generated 5T – into a new company in charge of alldevelopments of transport telematics in Turin has been accomplished.

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3.3.2.4 Dynamic real-time passenger information for trams62

Prototyping of an interface between thePublic Transport Operation Control Centreand the dynamic passenger informationsystem in Berlin. Main goal is the acceleration of the pilot realisation fordynamic information of passengers at tram stops about the realdepartures of trams (Pilot-Demonstration: Tramline 6).

Tram line 6 with a length of 21.6 kilometres was selected fordemonstration, because other tram lines are partly running on the sametrack with tram line 6 and interchanges to 12 other tram lines do exist

along the track. On the common track these other tram lines will be included in the system and alsodisplayed on the information panels. Information panels will also be installed at 4 bus stops atconnecting points to tram line 6. 100 information panels will be installed at 40 tram stops and thementioned 4 bus stops. The following information will be given on the display for all lines running at thestops: line n°, destination, real (dynamic) departure time ("in xx minutes").One display line is providedfor free programmable text information.

The dynamic passenger information system uses the actual available hard- and software Oracledatabase distribution server, decentralised computers, information panels with LED-technology.Parallel the development of a passenger information system which gives dynamic information basedon mobile-phone technology via SMS and internet is starting in February 2004. The development ofthe application software/interface between the “RBL”and the DAISY-system was finished at the end of2003. Extensive tests of functionality were done. The necessary changes, which were caused by thetest results, were almost all implemented. The DAISY software was implemented in the operationcontrol centre. In the frame of the BVG-DAISY-project the first 6 panels appeared at Moll-/Otto-Braun-Str. stop November 2003.

3.3.2.5 Integrated Ticketing63

An integrated ticketing system needs firstlythe agreement of public transport authorities to use one ticket for severalpublic transport journeys. This offers passengers an easier access to travelinformation.

The main objective of Integrated Ticketing is to simplify of theticketing structure. Hereby Smart Card Systems support the improvementof intermodality between Public Transports and consequently thesesystems contribute to better air quality because a probable shift in modalsplit can be the result.

Different Policies they are relevant for Integrated Ticketing are i.e. to work to secure PublicTransport provision that is accessible and affordable to all Sections of the community.

The Integrated Ticketing system has already been applied in several European countries e.g.Karlsruhe (D), Graz (A), and Stockholm (S) as well as in all Swiss regions.

3.3.2.6 Bus priorities

The main objective of a bus lane is to give priority to buses and savejourney time in places where roads are congested with other traffic. There are norestrictions to the length of the bus lane; they could be very short to reducecongestion in a particular place. Some cities created separate local road


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systems using bus lanes. In Berlin bus lanes can be also used by cyclists. In Graz, bus lanes can beused by private vehicles outside rush hour and taxis can use it at all times. Bus lanes can only beimplemented when the road in question is both likely to be congested as well as heavily travelled bybus. The construction of bus lane has to be the same or even higher standards as usual lanes, as thetraffic weight loads tend to be high.

The result of introducing bus lanes is prioritisation of public transport and reduction in journeytime. The shorter journey time makes the public transport more attractive to car owners thereforereducing the care use and pollution.

3.3.2.7 Guided Bus64

The main objective of guided buses is tobe independent from the traffic. They can useeither physical, guiding system such as kerbs, or remote, such as opticalor radio guidance. Guided Buses can be steered for part or their entireroute by external means, usually on a dedicated track. This track, whichoften parallels existing roads, excludes all other traffic, permitting themaintenance of reliable schedules on heavily used corridors even duringrush hours.

On kerb guided buses (KGB) small guide wheels are attached to thebus, and these engage vertical kerbs on either side of the track way. The bus is steered in the normalway away from the guide way. The start of the guide way is funnelled from a wide track to the normalwidth. The track way allows for high speed operation on a narrow guide way. Only a few examplescurrently exist, but more are proposed in various countries. The longest guided bus way in the world isthe O-Bahn Bus way in Adelaide, South Australia, which has been operating reasonably successfullyin the mid 1980s. In the United Kingdom a number of guided bus ways currently operate. They are at:

• Ipswich – opened in 1995• Leeds – opened in 1995• Leeds enlargement – opened in 2001• Bradford – opened in 2001• Crawley – opened in 2003• Crawley enlargement – opened in 2004• Edinburgh – opened in 2004

The effects in the light of air quality are the same as in the example “Bus Lanes” mentionedabove. Independency from traffic indicates an enhancement in public transport and hence animprovement of air quality.

3.3.3 TRAVEL PLANNING TO PROVIDE SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTOPTIONS

A travel plan sets out a range of measures aimed at promoting otherforms of transport to reduce dependency on single car occupancy. It is not ascheme that is against the car as such, but aims to achieve less car use to benefit everyone. Bylooking at the travel issues that face both staff and students we can try to make other forms oftransport more accessible, drawing on the help of TravelWise and other travel planning consultants.

Travel Plans are relevant to the full range of developments relating to jobs, leisure, retail andservices, including offices, industry, health and education uses.

At the heart of successful Travel Planning is partnership. Through working in partnership withother organisations and businesses, including local planning authorities and public transport operators,real transport alternatives can be provided to your site.

Travel Plans can involve the introduction of incentives to people to change their mode of travel,such as discounts or interest free loans for alternative transport modes, sometimes in the context ofrestrictions on the use of private cars.

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Travel Plans help to reduce the impact of travel on the environment. And, by reducing costs,they can also make good business sense.Travel Plans can produce many benefits for an organisation such as:

• Helping to inform the design and operation of buildings• Promoting good access to your premises and cutting congestion around your site• Improve road safety around and near your buildings• Improving the number of car parking spaces available to customers• Reducing the costs of car park provision and maintenance• Saving money on business travel• Promoting the image of your organisation• Reducing air and noise pollution• Increasing staff punctuality and performance• And, potentially a healthier workforce.The main question should be, how the passenger can be excited with public transport. The

Transport Information system is one of the possible tools for catching potential passengers. In fact,there are many other measures as well. Following several measures are listed. To get a better idea ofit, this chapter consist of mainly two component parts.

Alternatively this explanation might be useful:A travel plan provides a strategy for an organisation to reduce its transportation impacts and toinfluence the travel behaviour of its employees, suppliers, visitors and customers.

3.3.3.1 Walking Bus65

Each walking bus had an adult 'driver' atthe front and an adult 'conductor' bringing up the rear. The children walk toschool in a group along a set route picking up additional 'passengers' atspecific 'bus-stops' along the way.

The bus runs rain or shine and everyone wears a reflective jacket.Along the way children can chat to their friends, learn valuable road safetyskills and gain some independence.All walking buses are different - they vary to suit the needs of the childrenand their parents.

Some schools have a number of walking buses and some only have one walking bus. Somewalking buses operate only on certain days; other walking buses operate only in morning or afternoon.

A walking bus at your school could be set up to match the availability of the volunteers.The walking bus provides a chance for everyone to take part in regular exercise. Evidence shows thatmore active children are likely to become more active adults.

Every journey made on foot helps reduce the amount of traffic around schools, which will helpreduce air pollution and improve local environment for everyone.

Examples: Hammersmith and Fullham, in the US, Walking Bus becomes more and more popular.

3.3.3.2 Bike IT project in Leicester66

Bike IT is the National ‘Schools & Skills’ Cycling DemonstrationProject carried out in partnership between Leicester City Council andNational Cycling Charity – Sustrans. This two-year project has involvedeight local schools, provided cycle training to almost 1,000 pupils and introduced New NationalStandard Cycle Training to the City as part of an on-going review of Road Safety Education.

There has been a definite, measured and radical impact on levels of cycling in schools involvedin the project. A co-ordinated approach to cycle training for pupils and parents, curriculum andclassroom support for teachers, new cycle shelters and local area traffic control has made a dramaticchange. For example (as below) over 100 students and staff at Braunstone Frith Primary School rode

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to school for a Bike to School Week Promotion this April (More than 34% of the whole school). Morethan 50 students now cycle to school on a regular basis. 116 Cycled to Herrick School in early Juneand 31 children and parents took part in the first after-school ride at Granby school for National BikeWeek. 177 cycled to Queensmead on the final day of their first ever bike to school week in late June.Across all eight schools where there was an existing culture of cycling numbers have increased by 300to 500%. In schools where there were there was no culture of cycling average numbers of 50+ arenow common. These numbers are far in excess of what in comparison are modest City Counciltargets.

3.3.3.3 Make bicycling attractive67

The main aim of this project is to promotecycling. he project will include information on the fastest and safest bicyclepaths through the city along with information on Bike and Ride facilities.

Its objective is to make people shift from car and public transport tobike, thereby reducing fuel consumption and environmental impact. Themain bodies responsible for this project are Public Transport authority,such cities as Stockholm, Nacka, Huddinge, Södertälje etc. and theregional branch of the Swedish Road Administration. There are 19 of the

24 municipalities involved in this project at present. Another important stakeholder is Cykelfrämjandet,a Swedish association for bicycling, driving promotions for a environmental friendly society. During thecourse of the project , several activities have taken place: Creating a strategy for bicycling in thecounty in the back ground study, starting agreements with the different authorities/stakeholders,designing website and launching it, Evaluation and many more, which allow for better understanding ofproject dissemination and satisfaction of bikers. 68

3.3.3.4 Establishing a car sharing scheme in Aalborg69 and Rome70

The objectives of the car-sharing schemeare to: promote car sharing as an alternative topurchase of the first/second car; The main goalsof this project concentrate on establishing a car-sharing service at to 2-3sites with 4-6 shared vehicles replacing 15-35 private cars and toIntroduce car sharing as a private/public scheme aimed at creating acommercially viable service.

Aalborg will introduce a combined private/public car sharing71

scheme. It will address the increase in private car ownership and the corresponding increase in modalshare of the private car. The idea is to combine individual citizen memberships with private companyand public institution memberships. This will make the utilisation of the vehicles over the day asefficient as possible, and thereby enhance the opportunities of an economically successful scheme. Itis important that the car-sharing scheme is structured in a way that will meet the requirements of theusers. Inputs from app. 200 potential users acquired through telephone interviews and a dialogue withthe Hertz Delebilen have served this purpose. The main car-sharing site as well as a front deskfunction is located at the new bus terminal central in the city neighbouring major residential areas.Train, city bus and coaches as well as bike rental will service this area - the key transfer point forpublic transport in Aalborg.

Currently there is only one commercial operator in Denmark - Hertz Delebilen. In order toinvestigate the market and allow other operators to enter the market as well Aalborg launched a tenderfor the service. But no others than Hertz Delebilen responded to the tender. Partnering with acommercial operator does not mean public funding of commercial activities. The key role of Aalborghas been practical assistance and support in the promotion of car sharing in the development phase. 67 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=10568 http://www.civitas-initiative.org/measure_sheet.phtml?lan=en&id=82

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Car-sharing has had its difficulties gaining market in Denmark. To overcome the risk of a lack ofinterest, promotion and dedicated marketing and information efforts are required.

Car sharing in Rome

The objective is to change the currenttransportation habits, especially the way the caris used, creating an alternative to the purchaseof the first/second car and indirectly enhancing the use of PT services.Car sharing trial started March 2005 in the Borough III. This zone wasselected because of its strong PT network: TP pass-holders residentshave therefore been contacted and encouraged to subscribe. Car sharingvehicles are allowed to circulate in the interdict zones and have a lot ofbenefits, so as to make the scheme more attractive.

Rome has one of the highest rates of car ownership in the world: 76 cars every 100inhabitants. Car sharing is a flexible mobility service, allowing the common use of a fleet of vehicles bya customer club.

After a preliminary study carried out in 2003, within the inner part of the city rail ring, a pilotproject was chosen. The Borough III was selected as the ideal area to trial an experimental car sharingservice. The Borough III has a strong underground and surface PT network, a large number of paidparking spaces and several important attractions: railway stations, scientific and university centres,Ministries, the general hospital (Policlinico), etc. The Municipality of Rome has joined ICS (IniziativaCar Sharing). This is national Agreement between Municipalities, promoted by the Ministry ofEnvironment, to guarantee the coordinated and integrated management of local services and theapplication of established standards. ATAC, the main Public Transport Operator, was commissionedto start up the car sharing service in collaboration with Legambiente (one of the most importantenvironmental associations in Italy). These two organisations are in charge of the administration of thefleet and of the relationships between partners and suppliers, managing payments and customers(information, subscriptions, assistance, complaints). The fleet consists of 11 Euro3 compliancevehicles, some of which are marsh gas supplied. Car sharing vehicles are allowed to park free ofcharge in every car park of the city, included the park&ride zones. They can enter the LTZ (LimitedTraffic Zone) and the preferential lanes as well as the future green corridors of mobility; furthermore,they are allowed to circulate in the interdict zones, also during the limited traffic days. All thesebenefits help to make the scheme more attractive to users.

Interest of Public Administrations in car sharing depends on the ability of the schemes to reducepollutant gas emissions. Every car owner who becomes a car sharer reduces his costs by 30-50%,thanks to more efficient use of the vehicle and an increased use of PT. It has been estimated thatevery shared car can reduce the number of private cars by 10, and that 54% of subscribers sells theirsecond car, while 13% no longer purchase a first car. 72

3.4 INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC POLLUTION SOURCES

The previous section has concentrated on tackling road traffic related air quality problems,which in many cities are the dominant source of pollution. However this is not always the case, as for anumber of Europe cities industrial and domestic sources still play a large part in the pollutionconcentrations that they must deal with.

This section will look at some of the legislative and regulatory methods used to reduce theimpact of industrial and domestic emissions and then provide examples of how they have beentackled.


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3.4.1 REGULATIONS AND LEGISATION

This chapter includes how regulations in particular for industrial emissions have beenresponsible for reducing the most common emissions. Not to be sneezed at is the proper legalframework as well as the measures to cope with the emissions that are part of this chapter.

3.4.1.1 General information

Many EU countries already have policy instruments aimed at reducing the sulphur, NOX and dustemissions that cause "local" environmental degradation and health problems. Because many of thesepollutants have cross-border impacts (e.g. sulphur emissions from the UK causing acid rain inScandinavia), the European Commission has introduced a number of directives that will harmonise thecontrol of such emissions including:

• Large Combustion Plant Directive (LCPD), due to come into force on 1 January 2008,imposes strict limits on the concentration of SO2, NOX and dust emitted in the flue gas ofindustrial plant. The concentration levels differ according to the type, size and age of plant;

• Integrated Pollution and Prevention Control (IPPC) directive, places requirements onoperators of plant to use the Best Available Techniques (BAT) to minimise harmful emissionsto the environment. It was introduced in 1999 and is being phased in to full implementation by2007; and

• National Emissions Ceiling Directive (NECD) sets national emissions ceilings for SO2, NOX,VOCs and ammonia to be met by 2010.

3.4.1.2 Domestic fires

Smoke consists of unburnt particles of carbon or soot, tiny tar particles and hydrocarbons.These particles can penetrate deep into our lungs and cause damage. About 20% of the smoke in ouratmosphere comes from domestic fires. Ordinary coal burnt in open grates can produce up to twentytimes as many tar and hydrocarbon particles as industrial chimneys. Domestic smoke is emitted at alow level, so does not disperse quickly. Domestic smoke can be a major cause of urban smog.Although smoke control legislation has cleaned up many towns and cities, some areas still haveproblems. The London smog of 1952 lasted for several days and caused at least 4000 deaths,prompting the implementation of the Clean Air Acts 1956 and 1968.

Although the situation is vastly improved, in areas where solid fuel is widely used densedomestic smoke can still obscure winter sunshine, contribute to fogs and cause respiratory problemsfor children, old people and those with bronchitis or asthma. Open fires are also a source of dust andgrime in the home.

3.4.2 TACKLING INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION

The impact of industrial emissions on the local environment will vary from city to city.Where there is a significant contribution then the user will consider appropriate measures. These arenot scope of this document.

3.4.3 TACKLING DOMESTIC POLLUTION

The impact of smokeless fuel legislation and the move away from coal and brown coal has afuel towards natural gas and oil, means that the domestic emissions make a better contribution to theair quality.

3.4.3.1 Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for heating systems conversion on theCity territory

The Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for heating systems conversion on theterritory of the City has been running since 1994. The objective of subsidies provided is to motivateowners or users of apartments to convert their original heating systems (namely the solid fuel) intoenvironmentally friendly fuels and renewable sources of energy. The Programme has been acceptedby the public in a very positive manner and also received highly positive response from abroad.


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The Programme development and results are presented in Table 11 and depicted in the Figure 4below.

Figure 4: Subsidies paid and the number of apartments, 1994–2004

Number of applications in respective year Apartments

YearRegistered Duplicities Rejected Granted

Amount paid[Kč / CZK]

Max. amountper apartmen

[Kč / CZK]

Numberof

apartments

Averagesubsidy

per apartment [Kč / CZK]

1994 6 335 54 3 095 3 186 108 220 940 20 000 11 069 9 777

1995 7 036 2 899 575 3 562 83 238 513 25 000 7 840 10 617

1996 2 398 325 381 1 692 55 657 126 25 000 5 071 10 976

1997 2 404 276 151 1 977 59 528 854 20 000 5 641 10 553

1998 1 144 7 155 982 25 997 010 15 000 2 607 9 972

1999 956 1 111 844 21 554 464 15 000 2 158 9 988

2000 769 4 37 728 17 415 627 15 000 1 675 10 397

2001 429 5 28 396 8 693 928 15 000 788 11 033

2002 251 0 11 240 5 837 606 15 000 604 9 664

2003 225 0 18 207 5 040 345 15 000 457 11 029

2004 140 0 17 123 3 659 870 15 000 340 10 764

Total 22 087 3 571 4 579 13 937 394 844 283 – 38 250 10 434

Table 10: Complete overview of submitted applications for subsidies to the conversion of heating systems in 1994–200473

The average amount of the subsidy per apartment (see Table 11) following from the Figure 4above depends mostly on if the conversion was carried out in family houses and apartments withstand-alone heating system or in tenement houses having more apartments heated by means of acentral boiler room. The central heating system appears as more effective for less portion of power perindividual apartment than in the case of stand-alone heating system.

Number of ap. Number of ap. Number of ap.

73 OIM MHMP


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Type of heating beforethe Programme,

1991

Shareof ap.

[%]

converted usingsub-

sidies in 1994–2004

current status,2004

Shareof ap.

[%]

DCH 164 679 33,44 % 2 879 167 558 34,02 %

Gas + electricity + alter.sources

160 113 32,51 % 35 371 195 484 39,69 %

Solid fuels 167 716 34,05 % 0 129 466 26,29 %

Total 492 508 100,00 % 38 250 492 508 100,00 %

Table 11: The overview of changes in shares of respective heating categories of apartments (ap.) over the period of theProgramme implementation, 1994–200474

The overview above demonstrates, that the Programme subsidies in 1994–2004 helpedto reduce the number of apartment units heated using solid fuels by approx. 22 % (from 168,000 to130,000 apartments). The resulting share of apartments heated in full or in part by means of solid fuelfired systems dropped from 34 % in 1991 to 26 % at the end of 2004. The total share of suchapartments is, in fact, lower because the statistics do not include the cases of the heating systemconversion, which received no subsidy from the Programme.

In 1994–2004 the City of Prague contributed to the conversion of solid or liquid fuel- heatingsystems into more environmentally sound heat sources (central heating, natural gas, electricity, orrenewable sources) in 38,250 apartments, which represents approx. 8 % of the total number ofapartments on the Prague territory (according to the census 1991).

The adverse environmental effects of stationary energy sources in Prague have beensignificantly reduced over the last decade as shown in Figure 5, pollutants emissions droppedfrom three to ten times.

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Figure 5: Yearly assessment of immission characteristic of the period 1981–2003

Finally, it may be stated that the Programme of subsidies for conversion of heating systemsadopted by the City of Prague to, along with other programmes for healthier air, have contributed, inlarge extent, to the reduction in SO2 concentrations.

The sulphur oxides emissions from stationary energy sources account for 95 % of the totalamount of sulphur emissions and do not pose a critical issue concerning air pollution. The persistenthigh air pollution in Prague is caused, mainly, by traffic, which has been producing approx. 80–90 % oftotal emissions of critical pollutants (NO2, CxHy, CO).


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3.4.3.2 Shore –Side Electricity proposal in Fishing Port of Scheveningen

The developer in conjunction with the local authority has suggested a new development on thenorthern quay of the Fishing Port of Scheveningen. These facilities originally included short-stay rentalapartments, shops and an underground parking.At present the northern quay has no usage because of limited space. New facilities would require thedemolition of these buildings.

Compliance to noise regulations is a decisive issue in terms of project feasibility. The shippingvessels are equipped with deep freeze storage facilities on board. The power for the refrigerationsystem is provided by a diesel engine driven generator. A typical engine will have a capacity of 800kW. The diesel engine runs 24 hours a day.

Acoustical research has demonstrated that the allowed sound exposure levels on the façade ofadjacent living dwellings will be greatly exceeded, when these vessels are at berth and operational.The most suitable alternative is shore-connected electricity also known as cold ironing (see Figure 6).The fishing vessels will have to be modified, if the project is carried out, to accommodate for thesupply of electricity from the quay.

The European Commission drafted a “European Union strategy to reduce atmosphericemissions from seagoing ships”, COM (2002) 595 final. This has led to a proposal for a revision ofDirective 1999/32/EC regarding the sulphur content of marine fuel.

The Commission proposal did not initially include any provisions for exemptions to the portrequirement (0.1% sulphur when operating at berth). For shore-side electricity an exception was madein the second reading of the proposal (article 4b). The justification for the amendment is cited below:

The use of low-sulphur marine gas oils in ports is a matter of high priority, andderogations/exemptions should be avoided to the largest extent possible. The use of shore-sideelectricity significantly reduces air and noise emissions in ports and should therefore be promoted.

The environmental and subsequent health effects of cold ironing are local in their nature. Noisereduction can be achieved by simply creating sufficient distance between the source and the object(living dwellings) that needs protection.

One of the requirements for the Fishing Port was the flexible use of the quay since the reefervessels do not have a fixed berth. This a major difference with regard to existing shore power facilitieslike Göteborg.

Figure 6: schematic view cold ironing (cross-section)

6 kV-60Hz10 kV-50Hz


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Depending on the destination of the fishing vessels time at sea varies from 3 to 5 weeks. Berthtime is approximately 1 day for every week at sea. Together these vessels remain approximately 700days a year at berth. This includes the use of the new quay.

The annual combined electricity consumption of the reefer vessels is 10 GWh (see Table 12).The variable costs are based on the peak tariff of approximately € 0,060 per kWh (from 07.00 - 23.00hours) and a night tariff of € 0,030 per kWh. The average price for the use of electricity is estimated at€ 0,0437 per kWh. In addition the power user pays a charge of € 0,00112 per kWh for themaintenance of the electricity network.

The fixed costs for the use of electricity are based on the available capacity of 6 MW and themaximum average monthly power consumption, estimated at 50% of peak capacity.

The number of running hours of the auxiliary engines will be considerably reduced when shorepower is used while the ship is at berth. This will affect the frequency of engine maintenance. Basedon estimates by the ship-owner the maintenance costs will decrease by € 4 per running hour. In 2013,based on 700 days at berth (all vessels) the savings will amount to € 69.000.

In the first year the costs of using the shore power facilities exceed the benefits. From 2013onwards the operational costs of shore power are lower than the use of the auxiliary engines onboard.During the transition period some of the vessels still need to be modified to allow for connection to theshore power facilities. As soon as all reefer vessels make use of shore power the reduced costs of fueland maintenance outweigh the costs of electricity consumption

The project is technically feasible but requires a large investment, the cost-benefit analysisshows that in socio-economic terms, the investment is feasible, even when taking variousuncertainties into account. Full description of the proposed project can be found in Appendix L.


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Name vessel Vessel ID Power use[kWh / year] NOx [kg] SO2 [kg] CO2 [kg] HC [kg] PM [kg] Sfc [kg] Fuel savings

[l]

Afrika SCH 24 691,200 9,262 8,433 499,046 276 553 156,902 184,591Johanna Maria SCH 118 614,400 8,233 7,494 443,597 246 492 139,469 164,081Sandettie FC716999 384,000 5,146 4,685 277,248 154 307 87,168 102,551Wiron 1 PH 110 288,000 3,859 3,514 207,936 115 230 65,376 76,913Wiron 2 PH 220 288,000 3,859 3,414 207,936 115 230 65,376 76,913Wiron 5 SCH 22 672,000 9,005 8,198 485,184 269 538 152,544 179,464Wiron 6 SCH 23 672,000 9,005 8,198 485,184 269 538 152,544 179,464Zeeland SCH 123 537,600 7,204 6,559 388,147 215 430 122,035 143,571Alida SCH 6 576,000 7,718 7,027 415,872 230 461 130,752 153,826Ariadne SCH 303 576,000 7,718 7,027 415,872 230 461 130,752 153,826Franzisca SCH 54 921,600 12,349 11,244 665,395 369 737 209,203 246,121Oceaan IV SCH 120 96,000 1,286 1,171 69,312 38 77 21,792 25,638Oceaan VII SCH 333 576,000 7,718 7,027 415,872 230 461 130,752 153,826Willem vd Zwan SCH 302 1,152,000 15,437 14,054 831,744 461 922 261,504 307,652Future vessel - 537,600 7,204 6,559 368,147 215 430 122,035 143,571Future vessel - 537,600 7,204 6,559 368,147 215 430 122,035 143,571Future vessel - 537,600 7,204 6,559 368,147 215 430 122,035 143,571Future vessel - 537,600 7,204 6,559 368,147 215 430 122,035 143,571

TOTAL 10,195,200 136,615 124,381 7,360,934 4,078 8,156 2,314,310 2,722,717

Table 12: Emission reductions and fuel saving through the use of shore power

Notes:The fuel density (0.850 kg/l) is based on the use of gas oil with a low sulphur content at an ambient temperature of 15 degrees centigrade.


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4 APPENDICES


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A. CITEAIR PROJECT OVERVIEW

Welcome to the ( Common Information to European Air ) Project and it’s Products.

The project was conceived to support Cities and Regions in developing their responses to theAir Quality Reporting and Air Quality Action Planning requirements of the European Union’s AirQuality Directives, and to encourage the recognition of the Local Authorities roles in the forthcomingAir Quality Directive.

Partners from the HEAVEN (Healthier Environment through Abatement of Vehicle Emissionsand Noise) project concluded that the implementation of the existing EU Air Quality Directives andguidelines has been fragmented, without any common approach. They felt that there was a need for asustainable harmonised EU level approach involving the more efficient implementation of Europeanlegislation with integrated interregional initiatives.Transport has a major impact on urban centres,bringing problems concerning air pollution, noise, traffic and congestion. CITEAIR is advising theRegione Emilia-Romagna on the transfer of the Decision Support Systems developed in the HeavenProject.

The European Union has been actively developing policies to protect the environment and requiremember states to inform citizens on the state of their ambient air quality, a concept further enforcedby the Aarhus convention. Simple, up to date and comparable information on air quality in Europe isimportant for the general public which is increasingly concerned about air pollution, for the media aswell as for local authorities. Currently, this information is not easily available. The internet is commonlyused for publishing air quality in near real-time and often air quality is being presented as an index,translating measurements into a summary figure for easy interpretation. A review of existing websitesand indices shows that the way air quality is interpreted differs considerably and is not easilycomparable. For air quality specialists air quality information is available at the European scale (e.g.Airbase, an historic database and Ozone web, near real time but one pollutant only75). These sourcesof information are not easily usable by the general public. There was a gap to fill, to provide near real-time comparative environmental data easily understood by the wider public..

The CITEAIR project started in March 2004 and will last 46 months. Fourteen partners fromseven European countries are involved in the project (see Diagram A 1). These are divided into fivecore cities (yellow), five follower cities (green) and a transfer region (red).

Diagram A 1

75 http://air-climate.eionet.eu.int/databases/airbase/ and http://labs.eea.eu.int/neighbourhood/ozone-web


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The project is led by Leicester; who along with the other core cities, Paris, Prague, Rotterdamand Rome, are responsible for the development and delivery of the project.

The Follower Cities, Bratislava, Brussels, Coventry, Munich and The Hague are responsiblefor providing user response to developments. They are complemented by a User Group. Emilia-Romagna is the Transfer Region who are being assisted in the development of a TransferImplementation Plan and its partial implementation. City Subscribers have been recruited for theCommon Operational Website.

Air pollutants resulting from traffic are a major source of pollution in many of the urban zones.Local and Regional Authorities implement EU guidelines, different approaches to implementing EUdirectives on Ambient Air quality led to a variety of styles of reporting, modelling and an array ofapproaches to reduce traffic related pollution. Air pollution models are used to predict and analyse airquality in particular zones and can be grouped into the following categories: traffic models, pollutantemission models, atmospheric dispersion models.

The project contributes to the development and implementation of efficient solutions to assessand reduce the impact of traffic on air quality in large urban areas. Through close co-operation,exchange of experiences and joint developments between European regions and cities, the projectdevelops solutions to inform the public and local authorities about the environmental situation in acomparable and easily, understandable way and offer guidance on efficient measures to reduceenvironmental damage mainly caused by transport. Other municipalities are encouraged to contributeto the initiative via a user network.

Consisting of five major components : three technical components plus management anddissemination, CITEAIR has developed products including: -

CITY ANNUAL AIR QUALITY REPORTS - A GUIDEBOOK - discusses strategies for AirQuality Monitoring and Reporting and proposes an Air Quality Reporting template which willassist professional users in comparing the performance of their Air Quality Strategy and ActionPlanning.

COMPARING URBAN AIR QUALITY ACROSS BORDERS - the first air quality index (CAQI-Common Air Quality Index) for use at the European level, complementing existing local indices.Differentiating between background and roadside conditions aimed the Index provides easyaccess to simple information to enable European citizens to compare their environment withsimilar urban areas ( http://citeair.rec.org) The CAQI is a pragmatic, bottom-up compromisebetween a number of objectives: dynamic and easy to understand for the public (main targetgroup) and scientifically reasonably rigorous. It was defined after a review of existing indicesand tested through one year data from four CITEAIR cities. A further comparison with otherindices was made from airbase data (de Leeuw and Mol, 200576). The CAQI is split into twoindices representative of two types of exposure: a background and a traffic index. Three timescales are available through an annual index, a daily index and an hourly index which isupdated each hour in order to provide a dynamic picture enticing people to make repeatedvisits.THE COMMON OPERATIONAL WEBSITE (COW) - provides an attractive platform to compareair quality in different participating cities in real time applying the CAQI.www.airqualitynow.org is designed to automatically treat the data from a multitude of EuropeanCities and calculate the corresponding indices. The process to participate has been made easy:cities only have to upload their data through an agreed ftp format; easy to use proventechnology (procedure detailed on the website). If cities want to participate in only one of theindices, can only deliver data on a daily basis, or even only present year average data, they canjoin via www.airqualitynow.org. The purpose of the CAQI and the website is not to replacemore detailed local information nor to check EU regulation compliance (indices are the onlydata displayed) but to complement it. The value added is to provide, for the first time, aEuropean and comparable picture of the air quality, near real-time and understandable byanybody. The methodological innovation is the provision of separate indices for 2 types of

76 Leeuw, de F., and Mol, W. Air quality and air quality indices: a world apart? ETC/ACC Technical paper 2005/5.


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environmental conditions and three time scales. It could also be an alternative to raise publicawareness for cities which do not already operate a website.

AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT – A GUIDEBOOK - is intended to assist the user in completingthe diagnosis of their problems and identifying a selection of tools and/or measures which couldhelp reduce the problem and improve air quality. The examples used to illustrate a theme aresupplemented by Case Studies already implemented together with signposting or links towebsites where other solutions have been reported. For example extensive use has been madeof measures implemented by Cities and Regions especially from the CIVITAS Initiatives, theMOST and INTEGAIRE Projects.

COMMUNICATING AIR QUALITY - A GUIDEBOOK - provides a strategy for disseminatinginformation on air quality. It also contains good practices, which could be used as models for thefuture.

TRANSFERRING A TRAFFIC-ENVIRONMENTAL MODELS CHAIN - A GUIDEBOOK -explains the transfer of experiences in developing a Decision Support System (DSS) thatassesses the environmental impacts of urban traffic in near-real time, from a local scale to awide area (regional scale).

The inter-relationship between the CITEAIR products and the requirements of the EU Air QualityDirectives are described in the Introduction to Air Quality Management Guidebook (see Diagram 1and accompanying text). The products aim to assist the user and focus on :-

• the assessment of comparable data• the impact of traffic on air quality in urban areas• Signposting measures for Air Quality Action Planning• Information for the public, local authority and professional users

All the documents are published in electronic format, which ensures that additional contributionsmay be added during 2007. The reader is invited to send comments, and details of any measures ortools, which they believe would enhance the advice being offered to the user, to the Lead Partner ([email protected] ).

Additional Funding has been provided by the INTERREG 3C programme to promote furtherworkshops; to recruit further cities to the COW; to develop the Forecast Index for use with the Media;to involve the Members of the European Parliament, the Department Generale Environment and theEuropean Environment Agency more closely with the CITEAIR initiative to strengthen the role of theCities and Regions and encourage the embedding of the concept within the European Air QualityManagement mechanisms.


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B. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN OPTIONS FOR LEICESTER

Package 1: Low cost, short-term, high feasibility

This scenario or package includes the measures that are low cost (<£500 000), short-term(assuming funding could be implemented almost immediately) and as such are highly feasible. Themeasures to be included are incorporated under the 5 headings used in section 3.2.

Emissions

• Roadside emissions testing• Targeting idling engines – including buses and taxis

• Campaigns to influence driving style (i.e. to encourage more consistent driving behaviour),and campaigns to reduce short journeys by car (i.e. through encouraging uptake of cycling,walking and different school transport)

• Run Seminar/Conference and provide guidance packs for other fleet operators to reduceemissions

• Develop an implementation plan for and investigate funding for SCR to Council Fleet. Thisbuilds upon feasibility studies already undertaken showing retrofitting as the preferred option.

Information and education

• Real time air quality information provision for the public• Improve information about links between poor air quality and health, through targeted

information campaigns• Use the internet as a medium for disseminating information on air quality and transport• Targeting house movers with local information on public transport (to be done through estate

agents and developers).• Promote and reward car-free days• Mobility management strategy• Targeting short journeys (schools, businesses and residents) for example develop a vehicle

pollution index for households and businesses in Leicester based on the age of vehicles/milestravelled/length of journeys. This could be done via questionnaires to schools and with onlinewebsite calculators to allow individuals to calculate the vehicle emissions they produce:compare their emissions with the average advise what measures they could take to improvetheir performance.

• Promote air quality on the school curriculum (target young people)• Education of local authority officers and Members through providing interactive seminars,

workshops and briefing meetings etc

Land-use Planning

• Integration of environmental themes in to Supplementary Planning Guidance (SPGs) and intoLRC area design briefs

• Raise awareness among local authority officers and Members• Encourage tree planting through planning agreements and obligations to assist with improving

local air quality

Highway Network

• Increase parking restrictions and costs• Develop further speed zones (20 mph zones) combined with traffic calming and block rat runs• Pedestrian and cycle priority• Co-ordinate highway and utility works• Provide real-time parking information via VMS• Increase the co-ordination and collaboration between neighbouring authorities within LTP

area with respect to efforts to improve local air quality


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• City Council to implement their own Travel Plan• Travel plans for other large organisations• Implement home-working and flexi-time to more council staff and promote to other employers• Safer routes to school/ Breathe Easy and exclusion zones• School “walking buses”• Pilot school yellow bus scheme• Pilot off bus ticketing scheme• Promote and facilitate cycling• Promote and facilitate walking

Package 2: Medium cost, medium-term

This scenario or package includes the more costly measures (£500K - £3 million), and thosewhich can be implemented over the course of LTP 2 period (i.e. 2006 to 2011). As before, they arelisted within subgroups used in section 3.2.

Emissions

• LEZ-feasibility study and limited implementation• Encourage heavy through traffic to use most suitable routes such as A46/Western Bypass

and M1 rather than enter the city centre. This can be done by using effective signing andproviding maps of designated routes to all companies in the city.

• Further enhance Freight Quality Partnership• Feasibility study for movement of freight vehicles on network – Freight hub• Implementation of a minimum emission standard for buses in the city, through a Quality

Bus Partnership• Council fleet purchase to consider emissions• Implementation of action plan for retrofitting SCR to Council Fleet• Voluntary schemes for scrapping old vehicles i.e. in relation to a specific local authority

scheme in future or a national campaign. Subsidised Public transport could be offered asan incentive locally. The Authority could also lobby government for a nationalscheme/legislation to address older vehicles.

Land-use Planning

• Development Control procedures – including aspects of building design, mixed usedevelopment, assessments for developments sensitive to air quality as well as thosewhich adversely affect it

• Develop and implement policy for restricting parking provision for new developments viasec106 agreements

Manage network• Reallocation of road space• Enforcement speed limits access restrictions (short-term)

Promotion of Alternatives• Improve bus services (frequency, attractiveness, disabled and level access etc)• Provide improved public transport information• Implement off-bus ticketing• Leicester West Park & Ride scheme to proceed with associated corridor improvement


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Package 3: High cost, long-term (Post LTP-2: 2006-2011)

This scenario or package of measures represent the high cost initiatives, less feasible options,which necessitates them to be implemented over the longer-term. For example, there may be barrierswhich need to be overcome, funding sources which need to be investigated and feasibility studieswhich need to be undertaken before any particular option, or suite of options, are viable forimplementation.

It should be noted that, in its present form, this package does not represent a cluster ofmeasures that will result in the objective for nitrogen dioxide to be met by the end of 2010.

(a) Generic Strategies

Clearly, emissions from road traffic using the major road network are the most significantsource of nitrogen dioxide in Leicester. Whilst the air quality assessment work undertaken by theCouncil is intended to identify key pollution hot spots, the Action Plan seeks to address the issue ofelevated pollutant concentrations more generally across the city.

The main focus of air quality action planning must therefore be to reduce motor vehicle kilometrestravelled and emissions per motor vehicle kilometre. Of these, emissions from road traffic are the keyair quality issue in the city. Therefore in order to improve air quality within the AQMAs, attentionshould be paid to the following variables:-

D. Numbers of vehicles flowing past critical points in the City (i.e. locations where people areexposed to excessive concentrations of traffic pollutants in the AQMA, over the relevantaveraging periods).

E. Vehicle/miles within the Local Transport Plan area.F. Emissions per vehicle/mile.

Appropriate generic strategies to achieve each of these can be tabulated as follows:

Strategy A B C

Transport modal shift

Elimination of unnecessary travel / transport

Redistribution of traffic flows

Reduction in free-flowing traffic speeds

Reduction in congestion / queuing

Reduction in old / poorly-maintained vehicles in all / part ofthe area

Promotion of appropriate automotive technologies in all / partof the areaAvoidance of development where relevant exposure canoccur in close proximity to major roads.

Table 13: Appropriate generic strategies

Unlike the previous packages described, this package consists of a single list of the specificmeasures and options identified as delivering clear improvement to local air quality. All of the optionswill affect overall emissions positively, and many will encourage a modal transition from private caruse to other forms of transport


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(b) List of Measures

• Implementation of a scrappage scheme with financial incentives• Full implementation of a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) with effective enforcement• Implementation of a designated Freight hub for the city centre• Provision and enhancement of VMS real time route guidance• Subsidised bus fares• Electric guided buses• Trams – MRT

Implementation of School ‘yellow bus’ scheme


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C. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN IN PRAGUE

City of Prague would assess impacts of the implementation of different measures for improvingthe air quality, which are included into Strategic plan for Air Quality Protection in Prague. Sharing theexperience with the other partner cities will contribute to efficient air quality management.

In accordance with legal requirements, an Integrated Action Plan of City of Prague has beenprepared highlighting the types of air quality management strategies available for air qualityabatement.

The Integrated Action Plan consist of two documents, the “Integrated Plan for the PollutantsEmissions Reduction” and “Integrated Plan for Air Quality Improvement on the Territory of the City ofPrague“ . These documents were based on the background material (“Long-Term Concept of AirPollution Control on the Territory of the City of Prague”), which provided both detailed analysis of thecurrent air quality conditions as well as prospective ones, and the analysis of instruments available forthe improving of air quality and the emission reduction. The Programmes solutions were thereforefocused on concrete conditions of the City of Prague.

The crucial part of the Programmes for the City of Prague is a proposal of 25 measures, whichare directly bound to concrete groups of pollution sources or to individual circles of activities affectingemission load and ambient air quality, respectively. The proposals of respective measures wereprepared on the basis of a detailed analysis of potential solutions of respective issues found within theframework of the “Long-Term Concept”. Doing so attention was concentrated namely on sources ofsuch pollutants emissions, in which ambient air quality limits have been exceeded.

The summary information on the measures proposed is given in Table 13 below. The majority ofmeasures (15) are targeted on transport, five measures are focused on the reduction of emissionsfrom stationary sources , and the other five instruments are common to all emission sources or circlesof activities, respectively. The measures have been subdivided into short-term ones (to be appliedimmediately as the document has been passed), medium-term ones (deadline by 2010), and long-term ones – permanent (to be gradually implemented over a longer time period). In terms of air qualitybenefits the measures have also been classified into three groups as follows:

• decisive measures are such measures, which would have an essential benefit in the emissionreduction and or ambient air quality improvement in one or more pollutants;

• important measures should have their expected air quality effects at the level of percents ascompared with the current state (in the case of a couple of pollutants) and thus contribute inan important way to compliance with the air quality limits in “hot spot” areas;

• supplementary measures include other measures proposed, which air quality effects would beless visible.

The Act on Air Pollution Control assumes that, once approved by the competent authorities, boththe Programmes shall become the binding documents for the public administration at the City Hall aswell as at its respective districts and quarters not only for air pollution control but also in land-useplanning, zoning and permitting of new constructions or changes to constructions, which maysubstantially affect air quality, or development concepts and development programmes of respectiveindustries and other activities (see Table 13 A, B and C).A)

Short-term measuresReduction in particulates emissions from transport Modifications to rules and principles of the Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for theheating systems conversion

Decisive

Reduction in particulates emissions from stationary sources Parking policy in the centre and in local centres Limiting sources and destinations of traffic Operative inspection of emission parameters of vehicles

Important

Programme for public communication and public awareness Organisational measures for public transport preference Time-organised delivery of supplies Reduction of emission produced from the public transport buses

Supplementary

Reduction of dust levels by greenery plantation


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B)

Medium-term measuresComprehensive support to the use of alternative fuels in traffic Access charging into designated parts of the Prague territory

Important

Reduction in emissions from the group of sources under the Act on IPPC Demonstration projects of major fuel and energy suppliers Supplementary Energy supply concept for the left-bank part of the City of Prague

C)

Long-term, permanent measuresConstruction of high-capacity ring road network Decisive Support to high-quality public transport Support to park-and-ride facilities Limiting of heavy lorries access into the City centre Land-use planning - principles of territorial arrangement concerning air pollution control

Important

Land-use permitting - principles for new constructions Pedestrian zones and establishing of other types of calmed roads Supplementary Support to cycling

Table 14: A, B, C summary information on the measures proposed

C 1 Brief characteristics of the measures proposed

C 1.1 Construction of high-capacity ring road network

The completion of the construction of the network of radial roads and ring-roads is the basicprerequisite for a partial displacement of traffic from the densely populated central part of Prague andthus to the reduction of the immission load in the most polluted parts of the City. The measure givespriority constructions, recommends the ranking of implementation of respective sections, andprinciples of their preparatory works, etc. See more information in part 3. Examples..

C 1.2 Parking policy in city centre and in the local centres

The measure task is to achieve a reduction in traffic volume in the most loaded parts of the Citythrough effective regulation of parking. It proposes to establish the acceptable traffic capacity levelsfor respective parts of the City, which should serve as a basis for the supply of parking lots, to expandpaid parking zones further from the city centre, to install information systems, etc.

C 1.3 Support to park-and-ride facilities

The traffic restrictions shall be connected with the support to park-and-ride parkings, whichenable to reduce the individual car traffic volume in the inner part of Prague. The measures proposeddefine the rules necessary for the effective functioning of the park-and-ride system and recommendthe sequence of the construction of respective park-and-ride parking facilities.

C 1.4 Organisational measures for public transport preference

The target is to eliminate reasons for the reduction of travel speed namely of tramways througha strict enforcement of law in the case of traffic offences, which are crucial for the reduction in theroad capacity – as the riding on the tramway lane, no respect to bus priority lanes, etc.

C 1.5 Support to high-quality public transport

The City public transport should provide an effective option to the use of an individual car. Themeasures proposed can be classified in the groups as follows:


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a) increasing of the travel speed of public transport means;b) meaningfull tariff policy;c) expanding the routes of the public rail transport and their equipment;d) integrating of public transport networks with those of railway and regional bus transport systems;e) improving of exchange relations of public transport lines;f) better information to the passengers;g) supporting use of park-and-ride facilities;h) providing high quality public transport over short distances, namely in the city centre;i) restricting of and reasonable reduction in advantages of other transport modes.

C 1.6 Restricted access of heavy lorries into the central parts of the city

At present there are two zones limiting the heavy lorry entrance to the central part of Prague.The measure is aimed, first of all, at further expansion of the zone as the construction of the high-capacity road network will be advancing. Furthermore recommendations for the control andinformation activities are formulated here. See more information in part 3. Examples.

C 1.7 Limiting sources and destinations of car traffic

The objective is to formulate such land use development principles, which will be in accordancewith air pollution control against adverse effects of transport caused by the location of new high-capacity structures as large shopping centres, cultural and sports centres, transport terminals, andwarehouse, etc. The major instrument thereof is the system of limits for new constructions andestablishing of conditions for the location of structures which induce high demand for transport.

C 1.8 Inspection of emission parameters of vehicles

The measure objective is to gradually eliminate from operation the vehicles, which do notcomply with emission limit values. It is expected that the application of widely spread inspectionsusing a new mobile laboratory will significantly support the elimination of non-compliant vehicles,which contribute to air pollution in Prague in very important manner, out of operation.

C 1.9 Time-organised delivery of supplies

One of the factors affecting air quality is the contact of supply delivery vehicles with otherparticipants of road traffic. The stop-and-start mode of the vehicle operation across the City and theblocking of traffic contributes to extreme load of roads that are already filled at the limit of theircapacity.

C 1.10 Reduction of emissions produced by the public transport buses

Although the public transport vehicles’ operation has a relatively smaller share in the Prague’sair pollution, nevertheless, there is a certain potential here to reduce the emission and immissionloads. Besides, it is appropriate that the City would begin to apply remedial measures, first of all, infleets of its own organisations. There are following steps proposed for respective groups of vehicles:replacing fuel with diesel fuel emulsion (for older bus models) and installing of filters to reduceparticulate emissions, which contribute significantly to the reduction in emissions of other substancesas well.

C 1.11 Comprehensive support to the use of alternative fuels in traffic

The measure aim is to spread the utilisation of gaseous fuel in passenger as well as cargo roadtraffic as an alternative to the current fuels. Recommendations are formulated to support technicalinfrastructure, furthermore, the usage of economic instruments (namely the creation of a programmeof subsidies and alleviations within the traffic regulation), and information campaign.


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C 1.12 Reduction in suspended particulates emissions from transport

The measure concentrates on the reduction of dust fluidised by road traffic. In this case themain remedial tool is the street cleaning and therefore the increased intensity, frequency, and extentof street cleaning activities has been proposed.

C 1.13 Reducing of dust levels by the greenery plantation

The purposeful greenery plantation has been proposed as an effective measure to reduce theconcentration of suspended particulates PM10, especially in the vicinity of main roads. Moreover, it isnecessary to prevent further reduction of vegetation cover share and to establish requirements for thenew constructions accordingly.

C 1.14 Access charging into designated parts of the Prague territory

The measure is focused on the reinforcement of the regulation of an access toll into a partof the City of Prague. The proposal expects namely a decision on the intention at the City Council andthe development of a feasibility study, which shall be followed with further steps.Some of the key points are:

• Road charging measures are regarded as controversial for the public, businesses andpoliticians. Therefore extensive consultations with all parties is required beforeimplementation and clear information after implementation.

• The effects on traffic (and environment) must be clearly explained

C 1.15 Pedestrian zones and other types of roads with calmed traffic

This is a proposal of principles for further expansion of pedestrian zones. Priority areas andtypes of localities for the development of pedestrian zones and a proposal of their implementation areparts of the measure recommendations.

C 1.16 Support to cycling

The measure objective is to create such conditions, so at least a portion of population wouldstart to use bicycle not just for relaxing activities or sports also for the inevitable trips across the City(smaller shopping, travel to authorities, to schools, etc.). This means, first of all, to provide for the safepassage through the entire City (minimisation of car crash accident) and potential for the safe storageof bicycles.

C 1.17 Reduction in emissions from the group of sources falling under the Act on IPPC

The text formulates recommendations for the issuing of integrated permits in respectivecategories of sources. Further concrete measures for two most important stationary sources,Cogeneration Plant Malešice and Cement Mill Radotín, were developed.

C 1.18 Modifications to rules of the Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for theheating systems conversion

This measure proposal is based on the current programme of subsidies to the heating systemsconversion, which have been carried out in Prague since 1994. Respective recommendations aretargeted on the increase in the current subsidy level, classification depending on the type of the newheating system, support to population communication and awareness, and relations to other sourcesof funding. See more information in part 3. Examples.

C 1.19 Energy supply concept for the left-bank part of the City of Prague

It was recommended to develop a feasibility study of the construction of a long-distance supplypipeline from a source in Kladno, which has a surplus of heat output. Depending on the study resultsthe construction of such long-distance pipeline could be implemented and the current heat sources onthe Prague territory could be replaced with.


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C 1.20 Reduction of particulate emissions from stationary sources

The measure concentrates on two groups of pollution sources. The most important groupincludes construction sites, heaps and bulk material depots, waste landfills, quarries, etc., and alsolarge parkings or clay playgrounds, for example. The second group includes selected installations(quarries, wood mills) where the risk of local immission limit value exceedance was detected.

C 1.21 Demonstration projects of major suppliers of fuel and energy

The measure will promote those projects, which would enable to show to the public approachesin energy industry and transportation that are extremely sound to air quality. The City role in theseprojects is mainly in an active support, in the forms of competitions or contests, for example.

C 1.22 Air quality protection principles in land-use planning

The measure objective is to form basic rules and requirements for the sites, in the initial phaseof the land-use planning either to improve current state or to protect selected location from new airpollution sources.

C 1.23 Land-use permitting - air quality protection principles for new constructions

The land-use decision making represents the most important preventive instrument of airpollution control. The measure concentrates especially on setting more precise conditions for the newconstructions and on stricter inspection of the conditions established.

C 1.24 Programme of communication and public awareness

Concerning the long-term point of view, education and awareness are one of the most effectiveinstruments of environmental protection. For the nearest period the basic circles were selected asfollows:

• current state of air quality and the necessity to adopt restrictive measures;• the use of the City public transport instead of private cars;• health hazards following from the solid fuel combustion and the municipal waste incineration;• possibilities for the use of alternative fuels in vehicles.

C 1.25 Change in the conditions of municipal tenders

The proposal includes establishing of conditions of air pollution control, compliance of which willbe inevitable to be able to receive public orders from the City. The measure concerns namelyconstruction works, building and structure maintenance, supplies of heating systems, etc. Themeasure objective is especially to support the organisations, which employ procedures meeting thestricter conditions of air pollution control.

C 2. Suitability of Management Strategies

All measures proposed in “Integrated Plan for Air Quality Improvement on the Territory of theCity of Prague“ were analysed as for the effects on air quality. The air quality limit exceedance in thearea of Prague has been analysed. The results are shown in the Table 15.

NO

2 ye

arly

aver

age

>40

µg.m

-3

PM 10

year

lyav

erag

e>4

0 µg

.m-3

PM 10

24h

aver

age

>50

µg.m

-

3 >35x

/rok

CO

max

imum

8-h

mov

ing

aver

age

% o

f tot

alar

ea(e

xcep

t of

BaP

)

BaP

year

lyav

erag

e>0

,001

µg.m

-3

Term ofcompliance 2010 2005 2005 2005 2012

%of Prague area

6,4 7,5 26,4 1,0 28,0 62,3

Table 15: Air Quality limit exceedance in Prague, 2004


76

The limit of exceedance for PM10 concentrations occurs in 26% of Prague area and the limitexceedance for NO2 in 6% of area of Prague.

For this reason all measures proposed above were analysed and compared to the results ofair quality modelling ATEM, simulating introduction of the proposed measure and its effects on trafficload and on traffic or production emissions, as well as on ambient air quality in respective areas. Theeffects were also analysed as to the population density in the areas influenced by the measures.

Financial analysis has been carried out for all the above mentioned measures, related to theinvestment cost, durability and operational cost for their realisation.

The double factor cost – benefit analysis including population density and other social aspectshas been carried out for all the measures proposed. The priority list according to the “effectivness” ofthe measures (see an example in Table 15) has been proposed to experts and decision makers fordiscussion.The most effective measures in Table 16 are:2. Parking policy1. Construction of high-capacity ring road network3. Support to high-quality public transport6. Restricted access of heavy lorries into central parts of the city

The discussion over the proposed measure has been promoted and the Steering Committeeof experts and decision – makers has been established. The political desision will be taken by the CityCouncil and approved List of Priorities will be included into the “Integrated Plan for Air QualityImprovement on the Territory of the City of Prague“. The documents approved by the City Council ofPrague will become a binding regulation for City Auhorities of Prague for Air Quality Management.

In the next part of the article some examples and case studies of Air Quality measures will bedemonstrated and discussed.

Cost related to1 year* Benefit Relative

effectivityNo Measure Descriptionmil. Kč points %

2 Parking policy in city centre and in the local centres -73,72 0,71 1 Construction of high-capacity ring road network 664,33 6,50 100%5 Support to high-quality public transport 1 165,9 8,70 67%8 Inspection of emission parameters of vehicles 0,05 0,78 63%6 Restricted access of heavy lorries into central parts of the city 0,26 3,50 57%

12 Reduction in suspended particulates emissions from transport 121,05 3,40 44%7 Limiting sources and destinations of car traffic 0,10 0,39 31%

13 Reducing of dust levels by the greenery plantation 15,36 2,60 29%10 Reduction of emissions produced by the public transport buses 2,97 0,30 23%22 Air quality protection principles in land-use planning 0,08 0,91 20%20 Reduction of particulate emissions from stationary sources 0,73 1,15 16%

23 Land-use permitting - air quality protection principles for newconstructions 0,08 0,39 8%

9 Time-organised delivery of supplies 0,15 0,10 8%3 Support to park-and-ride facilities 72,00 0,72 8%

11 Support to the use of alternative fuels in traffic 23,86 0,69 8%15 Pedestrian zones and other roads with calmed traffic 0,86 0,09 7%4 Organisational measures for public transport preference 0,15 0,09 7%

24 Programme of communication and public awareness 0,77 0,38 6%25 Change in the conditions of municipal tenders 0,76 0,38 5%18 Subsidies for the heating systems conversion 9,18 0,39 5%16 Support to cycling 4,01 0,10 2%

Table 16: Effectiveness of measures

*) Cost related to 1 year are expressed as investment per 1 year of lifetime + operating costs per 1year


77

C 3. Examples and Case Studies of Air Quality Measures in Prague

C 3.1 Air pollution charges

In compliance with the Act No. 86/2002 Code on air pollution control the Department ofEnvironment of the Prague City Hall kept the registration and issued decisions of charges both forlarge and extra large air pollution sources as well as for mid-sized ones in 2004.

Within the agenda of charges for air pollution from mid-sized stationary air pollution sources,there were 3,062 mid-sized stationary air pollution sources, out of that 2,713 combustion installationsand 349 technology installations, as for instance pump stations, paint shops, etc., registered by theend 2004. Charges for air pollutants emissions to the operators of mid-sized air pollution sources in2004 totalled the amount of CZK 1,767,000.- which equals about 70,150 EUR.

Within the agenda of charges for air pollution from extra large and large stationary air pollutionsources, there were 463 sources registered by the end of 2004, out of that number 225 werecombustion installations and 238 were technology installations. Charges for air pollutants emissions tothe operators of extra large and large stationary air pollution sources in 2004 totalled the amount ofapprox. CZK 5,540,000, which equals to 220 000 €.

C 3.2 The Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for heating systems conversion on theCity territory

The Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague for heating systems conversion on theterritory of the City has been running since 1994. The objective of subsidies provided is to motivateowners or users of apartments to convert their original heating systems (namely the solid fuel - browncoal) into environmentally friendly fuels and renewable sources of energy. The Programme has beenaccepted by the public in very positive manner and also received highly positive response fromabroad.

The Programme development and results are given in Tables and depicted in the graph below.

Figure 7: Subsidies paid and the number of apartments, 1994-200477

The results depends mostly on if the conversion was carried out in family houses andapartments with stand-alone heating system or in tenent houses with more apartments heated bymeans of a central boiler room. The central heating system appears as more effective for less portionof power per individual apartment than in the case of stand-alone heating system. The total share ofsuch apartments is, in fact, lower because the statistics does not include the cases of the heatingsystem conversion, which received no subsidy from the Programme.In 1994–2004 the City of Prague contributed to the conversion of solid or liquid fuel-fired heatingsystems into more environmentally sound heat sources (central heating, natural gas, electricity, orrenewable sources) in 38,250 apartments, which represents approx. 8 % of the total number ofapartments on the Prague territory (according to the census 1991).

The sulphur oxides emissions from stationary energy sources account for 95 % of the totalamount of SO2, nevertheless sulphur emissions do not pose a critical issue concerning air pollution.

77 : OIM MHMP


78

Of the total nitrogen oxides emissions on the Prague territory 82 % are traffic related and 4 % go tolow-level emission from small area sources. Local area sources, including the localcombustion of natural gas and solid fuel contribute to the nitrogen oxides concentrations within therange form 5 to 50 % in the downtown with limit-exceeding immission pollution.Finally, it may be stated the Programme of subsidies of the City of Prague to conversion of heatingsystems, along with other programmes for healthier air, has contributed, in not a small extent, to thereduction in pollutants emissions.

C 3.3 Restricted access of heavy vehicles into the central parts of the city

Two zones limiting the access of heavy vehicles to the central parts ofPrague are already established.

In 1999 the first Environmental zone “Restricted access of vehicles over 6 t”covered the areaof 6 km2 of Prague 1 and a central parts of the Prague 2 . Themain aim is to protect Prague historical preservation area from heavy vehiclestraffic. Exceptionally, the acces of heavy duty vehicles is allowed only by a permitissued by City Authority. Gradually the area has been extended to 17 km2.

The area of this zone is identical with the zone “Restricted parking of buses”.Tourist buses are not allowed to stop on the main communication roads and busparking is allowed only on the designated parking areas78 ().

Due to the above mentioned regulations the intensity of heavy load traffic dropped in somecentral parts of Prague up to 80%. The traffic has been diverted to the newly opened parts of the cityring road in the southern part of Prague, designed to abate the negative effects of traffic in the centre.However, the heavy traffic load on the city ring road raised up to 30–50 %.

The combined environmental zone “Limited access of vehicles over 3.5 t” covers area ofPrague 1 and central parts of Prague 2. Exceptionally, parking (outside of designated parking areas)of vehicles over 3.5 t and buses is allowed with a permit issued by local authorities for limited time79.

The expansion of both zones has been tested for area of Praha 4 and Praha 5 neighbourhoodwith the aim to find out what changes occurred in the area after the widening of the EnvironmentalZone restriction for goods vehicles over 6 tons both in v olumes and composition of the haulage andtypes and directions of trips.

A testing survey was conducted in March 2004 on. The travel volume of heavy haulage insidethe area dropped by 11 %. In August 2004 (after launching the Mrázovka tunnels), the EnvironmentalZone restricting the goods vehicles with gross weight over 6 t was extended over a portion of thePraha 5 area.

As from 2007, a new regulation for the combined environmental zone “Limited acess of vehiclesover 3.5 t” will be valid. The access will be restricted for all vehicles not complying with EURO 2standarts.The information campaign about regulation has been already started to enable suppliers and driversadopt their fleets for the new regulation.

C 3.4 Construction of the high-capacity ring road network

A new portion of the City Ring Road has been put into operation in 2003. An impact of divertedtraffic loads to the new portion of City Ring road on on air quality in city of Prague has been evaluatedby ATEM modelling. A study compared the recent development in air quality to the previous situation,when the parts of City Ring Road between Malovanka and Zlichov (tunnels Strahovsky an Mrázovka)were not operational. The traffic load data, speed and congestion data for both versions in the wholeterritory of Prague were simulated by the Institute of Transport Engineering in Prague.

It is obvious, that the City Ring Road, as any other communication, represents a new source ofair pollution in its adjacent area. Simultaneously, the ring road diverts and reduces traffic from otherlocal communications. This is how the ring road can contribute to the air quality abatement in otherneighbouring areas. The aim of the study was to compare these two impacts and evaluate the finaleffect of the operation of the City Ring Road.

The results of evaluation show that:• After the part of city ring road got into operation, lower pollution concentration values can be

observed on a bigger part of the city if compared with the situation without a new ring road 78 http://www.udi-praha.cz/regulace/zona6t.htm79 http://www.udi-praha.cz/regulace/zona3t.htm


79

• The most important reduction of immission concentrations due to the City ring road has beenestimated in the vicinity of the Barrandovsky bridge, intersection Andel and along the streetsfrom Smichov to Strahov

• Improvement in the smoothness of traffic in many communication results in aerial reduction ofimmission loads in the whole centre and on the east part of the city

• Increase of immission loads influenced by the traffic on the city ring road has been evaluatedespecially on the streets connected to the assessed part of the ring road, namely:

• On Patočkova street, part Zlichov-radlicka, Strakonicka street, Barrandov Bridge andSouthern Connection

• A slight increase has been calculated in the vicinity of some other roads, as Podbabská, VHolešovičkách, Argentinská, Radlická streets or Štěrboholská radiála. On some of thesestreets the higher immission load is not only a consequence of a higher difference in trafficloads, but also of a reduction in the smoothness of traffic.

The modelling of spatial distribution of immission loads demonstrated that the area with lowerimmission load due to the traffic on the city ring road is bigger then the area, where the concentrationlevels were raised.

Based on the spatial distribution of the population density in Prague an analysis of the numberof inhabitants living in different areas was made. The analysis showed (Figure 5) that the number ofinhabitants living in area where air quality has been substantially improved due to the city ring road isbigger than the number of inhabitants where air pollution got worse.

IHr NO2Zlepšení

Zhoršení

Figure 8: Comparison of weighted average values of air quality for citizens in Prague

The results of emission and immission assessment proved that the diversion of traffic into the newportion of the City Ring road Zlichov-Malovanka has an positive effect on air quality in Prague. Mostsignificant improvement has been calculated in area of Barrandov and in the centre of Prague. Onopposite, the concentrations have been raised along the ring road and along the South connectionhighway.

IHr BZNZlepšení

Zhoršení

IHr PM10

Zlepšení

Zhoršení


80

D. AIR QUALITY ACTION PLAN FOR PARIS


81

E. RIJNMOND REGIONAL AIR QUALITY ACTION PROGRAMME

E 1.1 Problem outline

The air quality in Rijnmond, just as elsewhere in the Netherlands, has improved over the last 30years. Nevertheless, the air quality in the region at present gives cause for concern.

Air pollution has an adverse impact on public health. Among other things, it can lead to respiratorycomplaints and premature death. In order to prevent such hazardous effects, European air qualitystandards have been drawn up as shown in Table 17. The Air Quality Decree lays down the limitvalues which the air quality must meet based on the European legislation and regulations: The limitvalues apply anywhere in the open air, with the exception of workplaces.

Particles Type Value To be achieved by ExceedancesNO2 yearly average 40 µg/m3 2010 -Particulate matter(PM10)

yearly average 40 µg/m3 2005 -

daily average 50 µg/m3 2005 35 days per year

Table 17: European Air Quality Standards

For particulate matter these took effect from January 2005, those for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) willcome into force on 1 January 2010. The limit for particulate matter is breached on a large scaleacross the region and in spite of anticipated improvement, it is expected that in 2010 the limit valuesfor NO2 will still be exceeded. In order to combat the extensive consequences to public health causedby air pollution, it is particularly important to implement measures at source.

If insufficient progress is made in tackling air pollution, parts of the Rijnmond region are in dangerof becoming ‘closed off'. Air quality regulations pose a threat to plans and projects. Examples includethe second Maasvlakte and the North section of the A 4, as well as smaller-scale building plans.

This issue is high on the agenda of the various administrative bodies in the Rijnmond region. TheROM-Rijnmond Executive Council80 In which the various parties are represented has set up a Topmanagement steering committee on Air, chaired by the Director of the ROM-Rijnmond staff team. Thisstaff team subsequently commissioned DCMR to devise a package of measures for the region withwhich to tackle the problem. This project is carried out in close cooperation with the other parties inthe region and other involved parties (including the business community). The appended report givesthe results of this project.

E 1.2 The air quality in Rijnmond at present

Particulate matter

The concentrations of particulate matter in the region fluctuate around 40 µg/m3. The exclusionof 'sea salt' (an adjustment to the Air Quality Decree in August 2005) means that the limit is onlyexceeded at a limited number of locations. However, large-scale breaches of the 24 hour /daily limitvalue do occur. According to the available models, the daily limit value for particulate matter isexceeded across a significant part of Rijnmond.81

80 Includes representatives from: the Ministries of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment; Transport, Public Worksand Water Management; Economic Affairs; Agriculture; Nature and Food Quality; the Province of Zuid-Holland, the City ofRotterdam, Rotterdam Metropolitan Region, Rotterdam Port Authority, DCMR Rijnmond Environmental Agency and theChamber of Commerce81 A discussion is taking place on the relationship between the results of model calculations and measurements in theRijnmond region. Those involved include the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM),Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP), DCMR, the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment,and local parties.


82

Nitrogen dioxide

In the present situation, the limit value for nitrogen dioxide (which comes into force on 1January 2010) is exceeded primarily along major arterial roads, in parts of the urban centres and inthe Botlek and Pernis industrial areas. The concentrations show a slight downward trend but it isexpected that - if no additional measures are taken - exceedances will still occur at a large number oflocations in 2010, particularly along major arterial roads.

E 1.3 Sources

Air pollution is a problem that also has a trans-boundary component. The air quality inRijnmond is thus only partly determined by sources within the region. By the same token, emissions inRijnmond also have an impact outside the region.

Particulate matter

The diagrams below show the emissions (Figure.8) and the concentrations (Figure.9) ofparticulate matter in Rijnmond. The emissions are the amounts of air pollution which are released intothe air in Rijnmond. The contribution per source is shown in Figure. 10.

Sources PM10

54%

9%

11%

26%

IndustryRoad trafficShippingOther

Figure 9: Contributions from sources to emissions (releases) of particulate matter in the region

If we look at the air quality in Rijnmond (what are the residents of Rijnmond breathing in?) itappears that a large part of the emissions originates from outside the region. Only about 20% of theparticulate matter in Rijnmond is the direct result of emissions in the region. The remaining 80% is'background' levels. Within the 20% contribution from the region, road traffic and shipping form themost important sources. This is shown in Figure 9.

.

Concentrations PM10

4%7%

8%

2%

32%

47%

IndustryRoad trafficShippingOtherBackground foreignBackground Netherlandsand natural sources

Figure 10: Contributions from sources to ambient concentrations of particulate matter in the region


83

The main difference between the contributions to the emissions and to the ambientconcentrations at residential level is the result of the height at which emissions are released. Forexample, industrial sources are a major contributor to the emissions, but due to the high chimney-stacks, the effect on the regional ambient air quality is limited. Conversely, road traffic has a majorimpact on ambient air quality because the emissions are released at a low level.

As a result of the small regional contributions, measures in the region will only be able to havea limited effect on the air quality. Nevertheless, local / regional measures can be worthwhile. In thefirst place, that little 'local / regional' bit may be what is causing the concentrations to exceed the limitsvalues. A limited decrease may be all that is needed to bring concentrations below the limit value.82

Furthermore, local and regional measures will in many cases be aimed at reducing the emissionsfrom incineration processes ('soot'), and 'soot' is the component of particulate matter which is mosthazardous to public health. Finally, in places, local measures can have a much greater impact.83

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Sources in the region contribute largely towards air pollution from nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Theregional contribution is about 80%. The most important sources are road traffic and shipping. Thesetwo sources together contribute around two thirds of the concentrations of NO2 in the Rijnmondregion. Other sources are industry and households.

The diagrams below show the contributions from sources in Rijnmond to the emissions(Figure10 ) and concentrations (Figure11) in Rijnmond:

Sources NOx

47%

20%

24%

9%

Industry/EnergyRoad trafficShippingOther

Figure 11: Contributions from sources to emissions (releases) of NOx in the region

Concentrations NOx

7%

48%

19%

7%

21%

Industry/EnergyRoad trafficShippingOtherBackground

Figure 12: Contributions from sources to the ambient concentrations of NO2 in the region

82 Broadly speaking, an average yearly reduction in particulate matter of 0.18 µg/m3 (i.e. approx. 0.5%) in the modelcalculations corresponds to the daily average limit value for particulate matter being exceeded one day less p.a.83 For example, in Amsterdam the introduction of low-emission zones (the banning of old, highly polluting lorries from the citycentre) has led in places to 20 - 30 % reductions in concentrations of particulate matter.


84

Spatial sections have been constructed for the Rijnmond region showing the various sources ofNO2 concentrations in Rijnmond. These give a picture of the contributions made by each of thesources at various locations in the region. Road traffic is a particularly large contributor along the mainarterial roads; shipping is a major contributor along the waterways and harbour basins, and industrymakes a substantial contribution in the industrial port area.

E 1.4 Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality

On 1 November 2005 the City of Rotterdam published its ‘Approach to Air Quality’. Thisapproach comprises a considerable number of measures aimed at improving the air quality in the Cityof Rotterdam. These measures have all been incorporated into this project. Moreover, coordinationwith the Rotterdam approach is assured since the project manager of Rotterdam’s Approach to AirQuality participated in the Rijnmond Regional Air Quality Action Programme project group.

E 1.5 Regional Air Quality Master Plan; Rotterdam Metropolitan Region and Rotterdam PortAuthority Plans of Approach

In December 2004 the ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council decided on the Air Quality MasterPlan for the Rijnmond region. This includes fourteen measures for the improvement of air quality. Inview of the overlap it was decided to incorporate the elaboration of this in the Air Quality RegionalAction Programme. Moreover, integration is assured since DCMR’s project manager on the MasterPlan also participates in the Regional Action Programme project group.

The project also incorporates the results of the Air Quality Plan of Approach, established 12Oct. 2005 by the Rotterdam Metropolitan Region. The same goes for the Plan of Approach to Air thatthe Rotterdam Port Authority established on 8 November 2005. Again, the project managers for thesetwo plans participated in the Regional Action Programme project group.

E 1.6 Zuidvleugel Randstad

At the Zuidvleugel level, the Province of Zuid-Holland centralizes local and regional authorities’initiatives. The ambition is to achieve a cohesive, coordinated package for the Zuidvleugel. In view ofthe importance to the regional programme of effective coordination with other regions andmunicipalities as well as integration at Zuidvleugel level, during the timeframe of the project theproject manager participated in the provincial air quality core team. In addition, the province has beenrepresented in the project group.

E 1.7 Status and consequences

The package of measures in the present report has the status of the most complete overviewpossible of measures which could be taken in the Rijnmond region with, where possible, an analysisof costs, feasibility, implementation and impact on air quality. Based on the expertise of theparticipants in the project, a suggestion for a prioritization (which measures do the project participantsconsider to be most promising?) has been added to the overview.

The package of measures from the Regional Action Programme provides the administrators inthe region with a basis for reaching agreements through regional cooperation about the measureswhich are to be implemented or further elaborated by the various parties.

E 2. IMPLEMENTATION

E 2.1 Organisation

ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council and Top management steering committee on Air.Due to the problems posed by poor air quality, the ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council hascommissioned DCMR via the regional Top management steering committee on Air to draw up aregional package of measures. In this project a very active contribution has been made by the otherregional parties from the Top management steering committee on Air, notably the RotterdamMetropolitan Region, the Rotterdam Port Authority, the Province of Zuid-Holland and the City ofRotterdam’s Town Planning and Housing department. The commission requires the plan to be soambitious that it will make a serious contribution to resolving the problem of regional air quality.


85

The regional Top management steering committee on Air has also developed other initiatives inthe context of the issue of regional air quality. Specifically, steps have been taken to achieve greateruniformity in measuring and calculating via a 'process and information' task group.

Task groups

The package of measures in the regional action programme has been drawn up primarily byfive task groups (Table 18) chaired by Rotterdam Metropolitan Region, Rotterdam Port Authority andDCMR Rijnmond Environmental Agency.

Task group Chair

Road traffic Rotterdam Metropolitan Region (H.P. de Bruijn)

Shipping Rotterdam Port Authority (M. Prinssen)

Rail traffic Rotterdam Port Authority (T. Hempenius)

Industry DCMR Rijnmond Environmental Agency (H. Knippels)

Households DCMR Rijnmond Environmental Agency (A. de Buck)

Table 18: Package of measures in the regional action programme

The task group chairs have themselves borne the responsibility for putting together the taskgroups and have organised the group meetings. A large number of parties have participated in thetask groups, including central government departments (the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning andthe Environment and the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management) and thebusiness community (CBRB, KNRV, TLN, EVO, Railion, etc.). This applies particularly to the roadtransport and shipping task groups. Appendix 1 gives an overview of the participants in the varioustask groups.

The brief of the task groups is to chart every possible measure for their particular 'source',including a breakdown of costs, impact, feasibility and timeframes.

The five task groups cover the most important sources of particulate matter and NOx in theregion. There are other sources, however, such as the building sector and agriculture. These have notbeen included in the project. Air traffic has also been omitted because it does not make a contributionto the ambient levels of NO2 and fine particulate concentrations. On the basis of the available know-how on emissions (see also figs. 1 to 4), however, the sources distinguished by the task groupsaccount for more than 90% of the emissions in the region.

Project group

The project group receives regular feedback on the activities and results of the task groups. Inaddition to the chairs of the task groups, the project group includes representatives from: Rotterdam’sTown Planning and Housing department (project manager Administrative task Rotterdam), Provinceof Zuid-Holland (in connection with its relationship with the Zuidvleugel conference and integrationbetween the regions) and the ROM- Rijnmond staff team. DCMR (A. de Buck) chaired the projectgroup. During the period /timeframe of the project the project group convened four times. Theorganisation structure is shown in Figure 1284.

84 text from figure: Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment; Zuidvleugel (coordination Province Z-H),Rijnmond: ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council+; Top management steering committee on Air (chair ROM-Rijnmond); MeasuresRegional Action Programme (led by DCMR); Process and Information (Task group (proposed) (led by DCMR); Policy andplanning (1st draft ROM/JPS); Road traffic (led by SRR); Shipping (led by HbR); Industry (led by DCMR); Households (led byDCMR)


86

Diagram C: Organisation structure of the project group

E 2.2 Possible measures

A large number of parties have made a contribution to the five task groups. This applies inparticular to the shipping and road traffic task groups. In addition to the regional authorities, these taskgroups have had active input from central government parties (the Ministry of Housing, SpatialPlanning and the Environment and the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management)and the business community (in the shipping task group in the form of CBRB (inland shipping) andKNVR (seagoing shipping), in the road traffic task group in the form of TLN and EVO (the hauliers andthe shippers respectively (responsible for road traffic’s contribution). In the industry task group, thebusiness community was represented by the trade association Deltalinqs and in the rail traffic taskgroup the business community was also well represented.

In total around 60 people from about 20 organisations provided input in the five task groups.The task groups convened on a number of occasions between August and November.

The substantial input by parties (public authorities and market parties) in the task groups hasmade it possible to gain a broad insight into the various measures that might be taken and theirconsequences. Moreover, the consultation in the task groups has contributed to creating supportamong the parties involved. Consultation between the parties has also contributed to a better mutualunderstanding and provided tools for reaching joint agreements more quickly.

E 2.3 Effect calculations

As far as possible, the measures mapped (or combinations of them) have been assessedaccording to their impact on air quality.

The assessment according to impact was conducted by DCMR. Broadly speaking, the filling inof the models is based on currently available knowledge and data. This has come from a number ofdifferent sources. DCMR was not able to verify all the data during the limited period /timeframe of theproject. Furthermore, the figures used are often fairly rough. For these reasons the assessmentresults may contain considerable inaccuracies. The uncertainties are greatest in the case ofparticulate matter while assessments for NO2 are generally more accurate. In the assessments forparticulate matter the uncertainty is relatively great for the shipping sector. For this sector, use wasmade of emission studies which were conducted between 1994 and 1999. In the Rijnmond region a


87

further study into the extent of these emissions is in progress. It is anticipated that this will lead in thefirst half of 2006 to a better insight into the actual emissions.

E 2.4 Elaboration of communication measures

Some measures focus particularly on using 'communication' as an instrument directed towardsthe residents of Rijnmond, with a view to raising awareness and influencing behaviour. This chieflyconcerns measures in the ‘households’ and ‘road traffic’ sectors. For these two sectors further detailsin brief have been worked out: which communication instruments can best be used? How promisingare they envisaged to be?

E 2.5 Prioritisation

In the project a proposal has been made for the prioritisation of measures. This was devised bythe project group on the basis of insights from the task groups. The aim of the prioritisation was toattain a preselection of 'promising measures' and serves as a preliminary ‘proposal’ to theadministrators for further elaboration and decision making.

E 3 RESULTS

E 3.1 Inventory of possible measures

In total approx. 100 measures have been mapped for the five target groups. These are basedon the know-how of the participants in the task groups. The overviews and measures drawn up pertarget group can be found in appendix 5a to 5e. Broadly speaking, only a limited number of newproposals have emerged. The measures mainly comprise already existing ideas and initiatives. Thesehave been combined in the project, tightened up and further worked out. In view of the large-scaleparticipation of parties involved in the task groups and the active input which has been provided there,it may be assumed that the package of measures provides a fairly complete picture of the activitiesthat can be set in motion in the Rotterdam region to improve air quality. The measures may bedistinguished into:

• technical measures (for example, to be achieved through regulations, financialinstruments or demonstration projects);

• logistical and organisational measures;• measures aimed at the exemplary function of government;• communication/information.

In the measures an attempt has been made to give an indication of the available instruments,costs, effects, responsible parties and the period needed for achieving the goals. In most cases it hasnot been possible to estimate the costs of the measures to be taken. Impact on air quality was morefrequently able to be estimated. Owing to the limited insight into the costs, it has not proved possibleto work out the cost-effectiveness (costs per amount of reduction of air pollution) quantitatively.

E 3.2 Assessing the impact on air quality

Approximately. 20 measures were sufficiently detailed to be able to assess them in terms oftheir effects. The overview in appendix 3 shows the particular measures concerned.

In addition to the measures, a number of scenarios have also been assessed. These scenariosshow what the improvement in the air quality could ultimately be if certain more extensive techniqueswere to be used in a particular sector. These involve:

• Lorry trafficall lorry traffic meets EURO V standards

• Emission reducing techniques particulate matter inland shipping (soot filters):all inland shipping fitted with a filter

• Catalytic converters inland shipping:100% Dutch fleet fitted with catalytic convertersall inland shipping fitted with catalytic converters

• Catalytic converters seagoing shipping:50% foreign ships fitted with catalytic converter


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Within the timeframe of the project it was not possible to estimate the effects of a combinedpackage of measures (what is the total yield if the following package is implemented?).

E 3.3. General findings of the task groups

In view of the differences between the various task groups (composition, problems), and thenature and size of the potential package of measures, each task group followed its own line of action.A brief description of the most important findings is given below.

E 3.3.1 Road traffic

In the 'road traffic' sector no “comprehensive” measures presented themselves. The mainbenefit must come from relatively small projects (a lot of small contributions add up to one big gain). Anumber of actors (problem owners) may (in pairs or as a group) be held responsible in this matter. Inaddition, the measures cannot be seen in isolation. This is why a threefold cohesive approach wasopted for: City measures, Ring road measures and Road haulage measures.

E 3.3.1.1 City measures package

Actors: city / region / central government / vehicle fleet management organisations.Methods: prevent traffic, make traffic less polluting and improve traffic flowPackage of measures:• Small-scale / quick-acting measures (chiefly traffic management) beat large-scale / long-term

measures (tunnels, etc) hands down. Moreover, the small/quick method is a “no regrets”approach. This leads to five groups of interconnected measures:

• Low emission zones: First outline in February ready for the urban area of the MetropolitanRegion, aimed at road haulage (dS+V commissioned by SRR). An important link-up with therouting of road haulage and the problems associated with loading and unloading in the innercities (specified times for loading/unloading etc.).

• Cleaner’ municipal vehicle fleet: By the end of 2005, data on composition of municipal vehiclefleets and replacement investments including those from DCMR, ENECO and HbR (IGWRcommissioned by SRR). Link-up with transport plans of municipal services.

• Clean’ Public Transport: Important exemplary function of the region. First effect inRET/Connexxion permits (2006).

• Clean’ vehicle fleet Metropolitan Region area: This is the ultimate goal: a ‘clean’ vehicle fleetin the Rijnmond region. Across the region and within the R3 framework, agreements withlease companies about upgrading vehicle fleets are already being worked on.

• Communication and Additional Policy

E 3.3.1.2. Ring road measures package

• Actors: chiefly Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management / Ministry ofTransport, Public Works and Water Management. Plus various other road maintenancebodies and other authorities.

• Methods: prevent congestion and promote constant-speed driving.• Package of measures:• Dynamic speed regulation on the Rotterdam diamond arterial route

(Lobby for) road-pricing: Probably not achievable before 2010 (Nouwen advisory committee),but effective in the long term.

• P+R transferia: This also includes the introduction of customised parking rates (parkingpolicy), linked to ‘clean’ vehicles.

E 3.3.1.3. Road haulage measures package

• Actors: hauliers, distributors, shippers, major “consumers”.• Methods: (partially) prevent empty transport, promote ‘clean’ transport, modal shift.• Packages of measures:• Intelligent loading + distribution centres


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• Clean’ vehicle technology: This includes campaigns on soot emissions (included incommunication/peak days).

• Modal shift• Requirements with regard to ‘clean’ vehicles as part of the contracting out of public works

E 3.3.2 Shipping

The measures for shipping have been subdivided into seagoing shipping and inland shipping.Both sectors operate internationally. When measures are taken these should first of all be adopted inregulations and/or supported by subsidy instruments. The subsidy instruments may be of a local,national or European character. For example, the ratifying of international treaties on seagoingshipping (IMO/MARPOL) and, in addition, EU policy/legislation on inland shipping. Various measuresshown in the matrix point to this. A second consideration is the timeframe for achieving effectivemeasures. Most measures cannot be implemented in the short term and will therefore not bring aboutless emissions from shipping in the short term. Furthermore, just as in the other sectors, measureshave the greatest impact on NOx emissions and less on the emissions of particulate matter.

It is not possible to give an unequivocal picture of which measures (based on our currentknowledge of effects) are the most promising for improving air quality. The following list may be usedas a rough guide:1. existing and future policy and legislation2. shore-side electricity for specific categories of ships in the port with high cost-effectiveness

(€/prevented kg NOx of particulate matter)3. develop (end of pipe) techniques4. apply existing (end of pipe) techniques

In points 2, 3 and 4 the combination with financial instruments (incentives and subsidies) has astimulating effect on the sector. The scope of impact and the environmental effect of measures areimportant factors in making choices, in addition to the cost effectiveness of the various measures.Moreover, it is of major importance that there should be a good fit between incentives from the regionand those from central government.

The budget provided by the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment for theinstallation of NOx catalytic converters and soot filters in inland ships is of vital importance toreducing emissions from inland shipping. However, the budget provided will only be sufficient to takethe necessary emission-reducing measures in a part of the Dutch fleet. In order to achieve anadequate improvement in air quality it is essential that the scheme should provide sufficient financialscope to equip the entire Dutch fleet.

E 3.3.3 Railways

In the railways task group, parties from the public sector (regional and central government) andthe business community convened for the first time to discuss the issue of air pollution from rail traffic.Bottlenecks, possible solutions and preconditions were discussed.

The railways are important in bringing about the ‘modal shift’ so desirable for achievingimproved air quality. Moreover, as a result of international source policy the railways will also have tobecome ‘cleaner’. Standardization of emissions from the EU forms the first point of action in this: up tonow, in contrast to goods transport by road, there have been no emissions standards applying to railtraffic for releases of air polluting substances.

Once the Betuwe Railway Line is fully in operation, there will be opportunities for shifting toelectric transport in the long term. This would eliminate emissions of NOx and particulate matter. Animportant element is that the game rules (for entry, use, timeframes and preconditions, etc.) on therailways ultimately have a positive outcome for the ‘modal shift’ towards rail transport. For thesecondary railway lines there are (in the short term) possibilities for cleaner diesel locomotives.

It is only recently that the impact of the railways on local air quality has been focused on. In thisstudy, the effect of the Rotterdam Port Railway on air quality has been calculated, based on thepresent situation. These show that it is not an obvious move to invest heavily in measures to improvethe railways in the short term.

It is desirable that when the anticipated ‘modal shift’ takes place once the Betuwe Railway Lineis fully functional that a further calculation should be made. This should highlight its differences fromroad traffic and concretise the impact of measures on the railways, particularly in the longer termwhen the other modes of transport have become cleaner.


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E 3.3.4 Industry

Since the seventies, industry has attained considerable reductions in its emissions to air. Themajority of point sources (chimney-stacks) are now fitted with emission reducing facilities. In the nearfuture a number of major measures will be taken such as the conversion of the refineries to gascombustion (this results in both a reduction in particulate matter emissions and NOx emissions) andthe implementation of NOx limiting measures in the framework of the NOx emission trade. In thisregion, the latter will lead among other things to the placing of an NOx installation on the E.ON-Maasvlakte power station. Broadly speaking, after taking the above measures industry will satisfy thepresent criteria for the ‘current level of technology’.

The NOx emissions from industry are released via chimney-stacks. The impact of a source onthe concentration at ambient level is thus determined to a great extent by the height of the chimney.The higher the chimney, the less can be perceived at ambient level. In the NOx emission tradesystem, it is left to the market to determine where emission reducing measures should be taken. Eachinstallation has to meet a reference value, the so-called performance standard rate. If a companyreleases too much NOx then it can choose to either buy extra rights or to take measures. Since this isa national system, the regional imposition of extra requirements will be seen as an undermining of thetrade system. This means that it will only be possible to take more far-reaching measures if thegovernment makes available additional funds. The costs of more far-reaching measures come toaround 5-6 €/prevented kg emission.

Major particulate matter emitters are the refineries and the storage and transhipment of dry bulkgoods. The conversion of the refineries to gas combustion will result in a significant reduction in theemissions of particulate matter (approx. 90%). In the recent past, in the storage and transhipment ofdry bulk goods good results (emission reductions on the order of 50%) have been achieved throughadopting crust enhancers and control measures (monitoring). These have not yet been adopted by allthe storage and transhipment companies in the region. Enforcement is being tightened up with a viewto ensuring all companies implement these measures. The costs of other further-reaching measures,such as roofing-in, are disproportionate. Moreover, the greater part of the particulate matter from thedry bulk sector is relatively coarse and therefore probably has a limited impact on public health.

In addition to the storage and transhipment companies, in isolated cases particle filters couldalso be applied to a point source. It needs to be checked whether this fits into the criteria of the'current level of technology'.

E 3.3.5 Households

Households contain two principal sources: central-heating boilers and fireplaces. As far ascentral-heating boilers are concerned, only emissions of NOx are involved. Measures are closelylinked with the energy policy: if households use less heating NOx emissions automatically decrease.The most important measure is to connect up dwellings to residual heat from industry. The first phasein this (connection of 50.000 housing units to residual heat from industry) actually went ahead inNovember 2005. A second phase in which 500.000 housing units will ultimately be connected up is inthe pipeline. Although major investments are involved in this, the costs can be recovered. Theimprovement in air quality in addition to the savings in CO2 emissions offers an argument for workingon the attainment of the second stage of the Warmtebedrijf. As well as connection to residual heat,measures aimed at energy saving in households (measures as part of renovation, information) arealso important.

Fireplaces form the second relevant source. According to national figures, fireplaces accountfor approx.10% of fine particulate emissions in the Netherlands. These figures are not exactly hard,but they nevertheless provide an indication that fireplaces are indeed an important contributor toemissions, particularly in the immediate living environment. In the case of fireplaces, too,communication is an important point of action. The most important measure proposed is that on peakdays (days on which the limit values for air quality are exceeded) citizens should be specificallyadvised not to use their fireplaces. This would be the first step towards increased awareness. Thismeasure forms part of the Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality and may be extended across theregion. A second measure is to not build any facilities (chimney flues) for installing fireplaces.


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E 3.4 Analysis of communication aspects

Measures which involve a communication aspect have been investigated for communicationinstruments which might be deployed. This exercise is limited to the task groups dealing with roadtraffic and households because it is primarily these that contain measures which relate to the public.

E 3.5 Proposal for the selection of ‘promising measures’

In the project an assessment has been made of which measures are the most promising. Thiswas a qualitative assessment carried out on the basis of five criteria:

Criteria for ‘promising measures’• impact on air quality• costs• feasibility• side-effects• timeframe

This selection should be seen as an ‘expert judgement’, based on the broad expertise collectedtogether in the project, making use of the five criteria listed above. It should be noted here that in viewof the problems with air quality (effects on public health and standstill of spatial developments) afurther analysis would have been desirable, which would have looked specifically at:

• the impact of measures on the numbers of residents in the region and their level of exposure;• the possible opportunities offered by the measures in the light of the proposed Air Quality Act

and the local net effects approach included in it.Such an elaboration was not possible within the timeframe of this task, however, partly due to

the uncertainties in the current legislation process: it is still unclear how and on the basis of whichcriteria (exposure, concentrations, emissions) the local net effects approach should take place. Inview of the urgency of the issue it was decided to make an initial proposal for prioritisation using theavailable know-how .

In total 34 measures were designated as ‘promising’. These were divided among the five targetgroups. The ‘promising’ measures include all the measures from ‘Rotterdam’s Approach to AirQuality’. In addition to these measures, however, various other measures have been incorporated.

The selection of ‘promising’ measures means that approx. 65 other possible measures did notreceive that designation. Among these measures there are a number that could be very useful. It iscertainly important not to lose track of these. But in the context of prioritisation, it is advisable in anycase to get to work on the 34 most promising measures.

E 3.6 Elaboration and phasing of ‘promising’ measures

The 34 measures distinguished are at different stages of development. Some can be adoptedimmediately. Some must first be elaborated. Others require a constant effort.

On the basis of their particular phase of development and the timeframe within which effectsmay be expected, the measures may be distinguished into four categories (see Table 19).

Category Feature Achieve measure/ effect No. of measures

Already beingImplemented

Before 2010 5

I Implementation in 2006 Before 2010 6

II Research in 2006If research results arepositive: Implementation in2007 (sometimes in 2006)

Before 2010 17

III Research/lobby aimed at thelong term

After 2010/2020 6

Table 19: Categories of measures


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The tables below (Tables 20, 21 and 22) show the measures concerned. Per table a party is shown inbold. These parties can function in the ROM-Rijnmond Executive Council as main contact person forthe measure concerned.

No. Targetgroup

Measures Impact Costs Administrativetask forRotterdam

Responsible party

2 ‘Clean’ municipal vehicle fleet (+ ‘clean’ vehicle fleetsfrom lease companies)

Exemplaryfunction85

> 2.2 million8 Yes City, municipalities,provincial and localauthorities

3 ‘Clean’ public transport(requirement for grantinga permit)

Local(PublicTransport junctions)

> 1.2 million8 Yes City,municipalities

4 Communication/ additionalpolicy (e.g. phasedtraffic lights)

Local P.M. Yes City, municipalities

6 P&R transferia 86(combined with customised parking rates)

Urbanarea

> 5.5 million87 Yes City, municipalities

8 Requirements with regard to ‘clean’ transport in contractingout local government work

Exemplary function

Yes Rotterdam, local authorities

15 No facilities in new housing for a fireplace chimney flue(to be decided)

Local, new housing locations

- No City,municipalities

Table 20: Category I - Measures

Table 21: Category II – Measures

No Targetgroup

Measure Impact Costs Responsible party Measure ofRotterdamapproach on“Air Quality”

1 RoadTraffic

Low emission zones88 Considerableat local level

> 1.5million89

City, municipalities,hauliers

Yes

5 Dynamic speed regulationalong whole RotterdamDiamond90

Along thediamond

Centralgovernment

Min. of Transport,Public Works and WaterManagement

Yes

11 Companies Tighten licence conditions ofsome companies as regardsemissions of fine particulates cf.BREF/NER

Local (up to afew µg/m3 )

Vary DCMR, Province,companies

No

12 Subsidy for additionalmeasures at some low NOxsources (incl. three powerstations in Pernis and Botlek)

“ High(approx. 50millioninvestment percompany)

DCMR, Min. of Housing,Spatial Planning and theEnvironment, companies

No

85 Substantial impact if private vehicle fleets also become ‘clean’86 Implementation over a much longer period; combined customised parking rates87 Estimate for Rotterdam (for period up to 2010) from Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality88 Might take the form of: banning old lorries from inner cities; tie-in with measures to stimulate intelligent loading anddistribution89 Estimate for Rotterdam from Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality90 Following on from the speed limits already attained on the Terbregseplein/Kleinpolderplein/Overschie section and in relationto the corresponding road network


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No Targetgroup

Measure Impact Costs Responsible party Measure ofRotterdamapproachon“AirQuality”

13 Stimulate quiet/clean/efficientAGVs at container terminals

“ High, willberecovered

DCMR, Min. of Transport,Public Works and WaterManagement (PMR),ROM-R3, companies

No

18 Railways Stimulate research into use of‘cleaner’ diesel locomotivesand soot filters in the port

“ P.M. HbR, Min. of Housing,Spatial Planning and theEnvironment, Min. ofTransport, Public Worksand Water Management,ProRail, producers, leasecompanies

No

20 Refuelling, repairing andcleaning in Rotterdam

Local P.M. HbR, ProRail No

23 Shipping Demonstration project Local HbR,V&W,Min. of Housing, SpatialPlanning and theEnvironment, shipowners

No

24 Certification of inland shipping[stimulate adoption ofemission-reducing measures]

P.M. P.M. V&W, HbR No

25 Shore-side electricity for inlandshipping

Local HbR Yes

28 Demonstration projectsshipping

Local HbR, Min. of Housing,Spatial Planning and theEnvironment, Min. ofTransport, Public Worksand Water Management,shipowners

No

29 Financial instruments in port(expand Green Award)

P.M. P.M. HbR, Min. of Transport,Public Works and WaterManagement

No

30 Shore-side electricity for:- ferries/ short sea craft- cruise ships-

Local HbR Yes

31 Fit port authority vehicles with‘clean’ engines or filters

Exemplaryfunction

P.M. HbR, port police, otherservices

Yes

32 Communicat-ion andinnovation

Broad public campaign Raisingawareness

P.M. ROM, Rotterdam, SRR,local authorities, DCMR,HbR and others

Yes

33 Peak days approach- do not use fireplaces- soot emissions campaigns- reduce max. speed for

ships- spray streets

Locally onpeak days

P.M. Rotterdam, ROM, SRR,local authorities, DCMR,HbR and others(depending on activity)

Yes

34 Experimental area for newtechnologies

- 1million91

Rotterdam, localauthorities, businesscommunity

Yes

Table above is a continuation of the table 20. Measures presented in the table 20 could be furtherinvestigated in 2006 and if the research results are positive converted into a plan of implementation,to be carried out in 2006/2007.

91 Estimate for Rotterdam from Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality


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Table 22: Category III - MeasuresNo Target

groupMeasure Impact Costs Responsible

partyMeasure ofRotterdamapproach on“Air Quality”

14 Companies Promote modal shift(incl. possible point ofattention in landdevelopment grants andcontracts)

Along majorarterial roads

HbR, companies No

17 Railways Electric drive inlocomotives

Local, increasingafter openingBetuwe RailwayLine

P.M. Min. ofTransport,Public Worksand WaterManagementHbR, hauliers,railways

No

19 Lobby to tighten up EUregulations

“ Min. ofTransport,Public Worksand WaterManagementMin. of Housing,Spatial Planningand theEnvironment,HbR, hauliers,railways

No

21 Shipping Lobby to tighten up EUregulations

Considerable - Min. ofTransport,Public Worksand WaterManagementMin. of Housing,Spatial Planningand theEnvironment,HbR

No

22 Research into extendingsubsidies for emission-reducing measures(de-NOx, soot filters)

Considerable Approx.300million

Min. of Housing,Spatial Planningand theEnvironment,HbR,CBRB

No

27 Lobby to tighten up EU /IMO regulations

Considerable - Min. ofTransport,Public Worksand WaterManagementMin. of Housing,Spatial Planningand theEnvironment,HbR

No

Category III Measures can be initiated from 2006 with a view to achieving substantial long-term(>>2010) improvements


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E 4 CONCLUSIONS

1. A large number of measures are possible by means of which a contribution can be made toimproving air quality. These comprise a whole range of measures at different types of sources forwhich various parties have primary responsibility.

2. The greatest improvements are to be attained for air pollution through NO2 . As far as particulatematter is concerned, the air quality can only be improved to a limited extent through measures inthe region. For particulate matter, however, it does apply that small improvements in the airquality can be sufficient to bring levels near to or even below the limit value. In addition, measureswith regard to particulate matter chiefly affect primary particulate matter (in particular sootparticles) which are the most harmful to the public health of the residents of Rijnmond.

3. Broadly speaking, local and regional measures contribute principally to improving local air quality.Within the local and regional measures there is no one 'comprehensive' measure: it is best to takemeasures at various sources.

4. An important effect on the air quality in the region may come from measures at national level andthe greatest result will be achieved through tightening up the EU source control policy (and IMO).

5. In addition, local and regional measures can have a considerable spin-off effect, partly becauseregional incentives can prompt companies to step up the adoption of national subsidy schemesfor the installation of filters or ‘clean’ engines. For example, a measure such as low emissionzones (banning highly-polluting lorries from inner cities) including outside the region lead to areduction in environmental burden. The same applies to an additional, stimulating policy in theregion with regard to sectors such as shipping and railways. There can also be spin-off effects inother areas. Examples include:• trains which run on electricity instead of diesel, will keep their ‘clean’ image far into Europe;• dynamic speed regulation also leads to in a reduction in noise nuisance and an improvement

in the safety situation along the Rotterdam diamond;• measures with regard to oil-fired boilers in refineries and seagoing shipping also contribute to

a reduction in emissions of secondary particulate matter.6. In the short and long term the best results will be achieved in the region using a combined

approach comprising:• a package of local and regional measures;• lobbying central government and the EU for the accelerated introduction of source-based

measures.To this end, a selection of 34 'promising measures' has been made.

7. Using the calculation models currently available (and the level of detail of the input of source datain them) it is not yet possible to ascertain the extent to which this package of measures willresolve future bottlenecks for the air quality in Rijnmond.

8. The measures distinguished are at different stages of development. Some can be adoptedimmediately. Some must first be worked out in detail. Others require a constant effort.On the basis of their accumulated know-how and insights obtained, the project group made anassessment of the most promising measures, based on a number of criteria (impact, costs,feasibility, side-effects and timeframes). These 34 measures are included in appendix 3. They arebroken down into:• 5 measures which are already in the process of implementation.• 6 measures which can be taken in 2006 (in several cases an acceleration of policy already

set in train).• These will yield their effect before 2010.• 17 measures for which research is needed in 2006, on the basis of which – if the research

result is positive – actual implementation can begin from 2006/2007.• These will mostly also yield an effect by 2010.• 6 measures and initiatives which must be set in train aimed at the longer term (in particular

lobbying and research).• These will yield an effect in the longer term (>2010/2020).

9. For many local and regional measures the best results will be obtained in regional orsupraregional cooperation. This will also considerably strengthen the spin-off effects.


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E 5 RECOMMENDATIONS

In response to the research results stated, the project group has come up with the followingrecommendations:

E 5.1. ‘Promising measures’

With regard to the measures to be taken in the region it is recommended to start with theoverview of ‘promising measures’ set out in this report, which is based on a substantive assessmentof the total number of possible measures in terms of ‘impact’, ‘costs’, ‘feasibility’, ‘side-effects’ and‘timeframes’. Moreover, to bear in mind that in addition to these measures, the other measurescharted may also be very useful and should not be forgotten.

E 5.2. Category breakdown

To base the implementation of the measures on a breakdown into three categories:I: measures for which the implementation can start in 2006 which will yield an effect before 2010;II: measures for which further research in 2006 is needed in order to achieve an implementation plan,with a view to putting this into implementation from 2007 in order to yield an effect before 2010;III: other measures (lobbying, research) which will only have an effect in the longer term.

E 5.3 Measures

On the basis of a substantive assessment of the total number of possible measures, an estimateof the timeframe in which measures will yield an effect, and an estimate of the possible timeframe forimplementation, the project group recommends the following:

• To implement the measures from category (section 3.6, table 19) in 2006;• To implement the measures from category II (section 3.6, table 20) in 2006 and, - if the

research results are positive – to convert them into an implementation plan;• To set in train the measures and initiatives from category III (section 3.6, table 21) in 2006

and beyond with a view to achieving longer term (>>2010) improvements.

E 5.4 Responsibilities

The project group recommends that the leading role in the research and implementationprocesses mentioned under point D 5.1. should be allocated to the various parties, and proposesappointing the ‘responsible parties’ printed in bold in the tables above for this role.

E 5.5 Financing

Joint agreements will need to be made with regard to the financing of the implementation ofmeasures from the Regional Action Programme, in so far as the costs of research and/orimplementation of measures cannot reasonably be borne by a single party. The project groupproposes that the project leaders should in the short term draw up a (rough) budget of theimplementation costs of ‘their’ measure as well as a proposal for the division of these costs. Theseproposals will subsequently be included in agreements to be made (with central government amongothers) regarding the financing of the Regional Action Programme.

E 5.6 Calculations

Ensuring the permanent upgrading of the calculation models used including the completedocumentation of the data used. Close coordination of this with the national agencies in this field (ER,MNP, RIVM). In this way, future explorations will be based on the most up-to-the-minute prognosis sothat the best insight will be gained into bottlenecks and possible measures for resolving them. It isimportant that regionally-devised plans should not be included in national prognoses for air qualitybackground levels (to avoid figures being counted twice). This fits in with the initiatives for setting up aRegional Air Expertise Centre.

In addition to upgrading the calculation models, undertaking the implementation ofsupplementary calculations. This applies among other things to measures which have not yet beenassessed (e.g. the introduction of dynamic speed regulations on the ring road), but also for the


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incorporation of planned economic and spatial developments in the calculations. An example of this isthe assessment of the contribution to air pollution caused by the Betuwe Railway Line as soon as thisis running at maximum capacity.

E. 5.7 Synergy between the input from parties and the measures to be taken

With regard to the elaboration and possible implementation of local and regional measures towork on maximising synergy with the measures at national and EU level. To that end, to ensure closecoordination with the business community, non-governmental organisations and central government.

E. 5.8 Close collaboration in the region and working on coordination and integration in thecontext of the Zuidvleugel

The recommendation with regard to most measures is to implement these jointly in a regionalcontext. In addition, it is useful to coordinate with other regions and municipalities in the Province ofZuid-Holland in the framework of an integrated Zuidvleugel approach.

Summary

Despite considerable improvements in recent years, the air quality in Rijnmond is still givingcause for concern. According to the available figures, limit values are being exceeded on a largescale. Air quality can adversely affect public health. The exceeding of the limit values produces a realrisk that spatial and economic developments will be unable to take place. This issue is high on theagenda of the various administrative bodies in the Rijnmond region. This is why the ROM-RijnmondExecutive Council (BOR) has taken the initiative to achieve a package of measures for the region totackle the problem. These must tie in with the existing plans drawn up by parties from the BOR, inparticular Rotterdam’s Approach to Air Quality (published 1 November 2005), the Air Quality MasterPlan developed by the BOR (7 December 2004), the Air Quality Plan of Approach by the RotterdamMetropolitan Region (12 October 2005) and the Plan of Approach to Air by the Rotterdam PortAuthority (8 November 2005). On behalf of the BOR, the ROM-Rijnmond staff team hascommissioned the DCMR Rijnmond Environmental Agency to draw up the package of regionalmeasures.

Five task groups have contributed to creating the package of measures: road traffic (chaired byRotterdam Metropolitan Region), shipping (chaired by Rotterdam Port Authority), railways (ditto),industry (chaired by DCMR) and households (ditto). Within the task groups a large number of partieshave made an active contribution. This applies both to government (local and regional, provincial andcentral) [the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment and the Ministry of Transport,Public Works and Water Management], and to representatives from the business community.Considering the breadth and the great involvement of the participating parties, it may be assumed thatthe package of measures gives a fairly complete picture of the possible measures which could beimplemented through the cooperation of partners in the region. The measures from the plans listedabove have been fully incorporated in the package. Furthermore, every effort has been made toachieve close coordination with other municipalities and regions in the Province of Zuid-Holland underthe umbrella of the Zuidvleugel.

The efforts of the task groups resulted in 100 possible measures. Based on five criteria [impacton air quality, costs, feasibility, side-effects and timeframe], a qualitative assessment was made. Fromthis, 34 measures emerged as ‘promising’. As far as possible the measures have been assessedaccording to their impact on air quality. There is no single local or regional measure which might becalled an absolute ‘corker’. Nevertheless, it has been found that local measures such as theintroduction of shore-side electricity for ships in the port and low-emission zones do have a positiveeffect on the local air quality. Measures which are primarily undertaken at national or EU level andlead to source-based measures, such as the subsidising of filters, road-pricing and a stepped upintroduction of the EURO-V norms have more impact on the regional air quality. These measures canlead (in the long term) to substantial improvements in regional air quality. Moreover, regionalmeasures can provide an important stimulus to the national policy. For example, a measure such aslow-emission zones (banning highly-polluting lorries from city centres) will prompt transportcompanies to accelerate their introduction of ‘clean’ lorries. This will also lead to a reduction inenvironmental pressure outside the region. The same applies to an additional, stimulating policy in theregion with regard to sectors such as shipping and railways.Of the 34 ‘promising’ measures there are:


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• 6 measures which can be implemented immediately;• 19 measures which can be elaborated into measures in 2006 after which (if the result is

positive) they will be ready to be implemented in 2006/2007;• 6 measures which are aimed at the long term (lobbying, research).

It is advisable that:• the ‘leaders’ (the parties who form the main contact in the BOR for the measure concerned)

should, in the short term, draw up a rough budget for their package of measures, including aproposal for the division of costs. These proposals can be used in agreements with centralgovernment about financing.

• parties should implement measures in cooperation with partners in the region. Cooperationleads to measures being taken over a larger area (with a broader impact on air quality), sothat they can be elaborated and implemented more efficiently and can be regarded as a clearand consistent package to the market parties involved. Whenever useful, also work oncooperation with other municipalities and regions under the umbrella of the Zuidvleugel.Cooperation and coordination can considerably reinforce the spin-off effect from local andregional measures.

Efforts should be made to achieve the synergy of measures at local/regional level with those atsupraregional and central government level. Examples include: environmental zoning, ‘clean’ publictransport, ‘clean’ shipping and national support for the communication campaign


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F. CASE STUDY 1: ACCESS CONTROL (ACS) & ROAD PRICING (RP) INROME

CITEAIR – Common Information To European Air

Component 2 – Guidebook for Air Quality Management

Case Studies of Management Strategies

As part of the EU project CITEAIR (Common Information To European AIR) supported throughthe INTERREG IIIC programme, the project partners aim to develop a “Guidebook for EnvironmentalManagement” that will help cities and regions assess their situation, identify their air quality problemsand share information on air quality abatement measures and strategies.This document represents a common template for presenting the case study management strategies.

Title Access Control (ACS) and Road Pricing (RP) in Rome

Brief Description Restricting Access to Rome’s city centre for permit holders and its associatedroad parking policies.

Links & Contacts Fabio Nussio: [email protected](STA – Mobility Agency for Rome)

LongTerm

MedTerm

ShortTerm Comments

Strategy Type X X To be graduated according to the obtained results

AQ Effects PM NOx O3 CO CO2 C6H6 Noise CommentsHighMed X X X XLow

Need of integrated plan tohave stable results

High LowCost ~ €4 million start up costs and €3 million / year operating

costs. €57.5 million / year raised through fines & permits Technology X


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1) Description of Management Strategy

In Rome, modal split is characterised by the dominance of registered private cars (about 2millions) and motorbikes (about 600.000) despite the lack of parking spaces.

The City Administration has thus developed policies aimed at improving mobility, modifying modalsplit in favour of public transport, increasing traffic safety, decreasing air pollution and acousticnuisances, regenerating urban spaces, rationalising public space use, safeguarding citizens health,preserving historical and architectural heritage.

To reach these objectives, the City Administration is implementing long term and short termactivities. In the Urban Traffic General Plan a fundamental role is played by complementary restrictivemeasures on traffic regulation and management, such as articulation of parking fares (moreexpensive parking charges getting closer to the city centre) and access restriction system to the citycentre, including RP policies.

Access control restrictions were first implemented in the city centre of Rome in 1989. The schemewas steadily modified with the biggest change being observed in October 2001 when automaticenforcement of the scheme was introduced. The access control policies are accompanied by flat rateroad pricing (ACS + RP) for the authorised private car users.

The ACS+RP scheme (see Map 1 of ZTL in Rome) is applied to central limited traffic zone (ZTL).The pricing zone has an area of 4.6 km2 and is controlled through 22 entrance gates. The area hostsabout 42 thousand residents and over 116 thousand workers In the scheme access to the ZTL isrestricted on weekdays between 6.30 am and 6.00 pm and on Saturday from 2.00 to 6.00 p.m. topermit holders only. The scheme is full scale, applied to all the citizens.

Map 1: Central Limited Traffic Zone (ZTL) in Rome

Residents of the zone receive two free permits per family group and then pay for any furtherpermits required. Non-residents can receive a permit if they belong to specific categories: doctors,commercial agents, reporters, etc., based on an annual permit which is worth the equivalent of a 12-month public transport card that is 311.47 Euro, while some other specific authorised people pay halffare. This access permits are about 20.000.

Public offices and other private bodies and associations are given each a limited number ofpermits, agreed in advance with the municipal offices. All non-resident owners of a parking space canreceive a circulation only permit. Permits are given to disabled with reduced walking capabilitiescertified by one of the national service doctors. Freight operators with their offices in LTZ or with acontinuous activity in LTZ have received permits to access the area in specific time windows, usingspecial parking slots for loading/unloading vehicles. Time limitations are not valid for transportingfood, medicines, press products and some other freight categories. Further, permits have beendistributed among the operators of public services, such as technological services (water, energy,waste, etc.). In all approximately 200,000 LTZ permits have been issued, of which 28,000 are residentpermits (LTZ resident population 42,000).


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2) Implementation of the Strategy

Legislation and Costs

The City Council of Rome has set objectives to implement sustainable urban development thatinclude suitable mobility options. The policies and activities for long term planning for mobility areoutlined in the “Mobility Integrated Program – PROIMO” and private demand management policies forshort term planning. The ACS+RP scheme complements both these policies and forms part ofplanning strategies for the city’s Urban Traffic General Plan (PGTU – Piano Generale del TrafficoUrbano) and Urban Traffic Plan (PUT – Piano Urbano del Traffico). These objectives have beensupported by EU funded projects most notably through the city’s involvement in the CIVITAS projectMIRACLES.

The Rome application was the first one for automatic ACS+RP scheme in Italy and thegovernment Bodies examined it carefully, establishing the parameters for its operation.

Firstly, the equipment used was submitted to the technical evaluation and approval by thenational Ministry of Public Works (July 1999, approved 26 June 2000). Secondly, the Municipalityapplied for the authorisation by the Public Works Ministry to install and manage the approved system;the request specifies the organisation in charge, and the number and location of the equipped gatesto be installed (approved 21/3/01).

Due to the complexity of the procedures related to the use of such automatic equipment to bemade operational on large scale for the first time in Italy, the Decree obliges to a pre-exercise period.In this period (from August 1st to September 30th, 2001) the system was jointly operated with theUrban Police at each gate to endorse the violations.

At the end of this period, the Municipality proceeded to the fully operational phase starting fromOctober 1st, 2001, according to the recommendations contained in the homologation of the systemand its devices

Organisation, Start Up and Maintenance of ACS+RP

The cost of automating the ACS +RP scheme included 3.8 million Euros for development andstart up and 3.2 million euros per year for operation and maintenance. Some development costs werecovered by EU funding. Revenues from permits and fines amounts to 57.5 million Euros per year. Therunning of the scheme involves 49 people employed by STA (Mobility Agency for the city of Rome)and the Municipality Police. A simplified scheme of the cost and revenues is reported in the followingtable.

The organisation is located in STA and is composed by 20 persons of the Municipality Police,making the final check on the fine, 18 persons working at the complaints department, 1 personsworking on the system monitoring and development and 10 persons working at the citizens front officefor permit management.

Public Perception

The public perception to the new access system (see Figure 13) was assessed through twosurveys carried in 2000 and November 2003 on residents and shop owners in Rome Old Town ZTL.The respondents acceptance of the access control system did not change significantly in the beforeand after scenarios; the only change is represent by a 5% reduction of shop owner perceiving the


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access control system negatively. As expected, residents remained more in favour of the accesscontrol than shop owners.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

2000 2003 2000 2003

Residents Shop owners

Definitely Possibly Just a little bit Not at all

Figure 13: Public Perception figures to the new Access System in Rome

Both categories consider air and noise pollution to be the most serious problem, although trafficcongestion as well as fuel and energy consumption have a significant impact on the Old Townenvironment. According to the residents, the greatest concern is the excessive presence of cars, vansand trucks, but also of motorbikes and mopeds; on the other hand, shop-owners underestimate thepollution caused by tour buses.

Technological Requirements

The ACS+RP scheme installed in the city centre of Rome (see Diagram 3) is based on asystem consisting of four functional elements, On street “gates”, Vehicles On-board unit (OBU) andsmart card, Communication subsystem and the Control Centre.

The access gates comprise two basic components working, in conjunction with the controlcentre, to monitor the access to the historical centre:

• a unit which handles communications between the vehicle (the On Board Unit with smartcard) and the control centre. This unit contains all the relevant information concerningauthorised vehicles. This part of the system is based on the Telepass ™ technologydeveloped and implemented by Autostrade S.p.A., the main national highway operator; theextensively proved reliability of this technology has been the main reason to adopt it in theRome application.

• a second one, a vision unit/television camera, which acquires and process, via an advancedOCR, vehicle plate images in any case of violation.

The OBU, composed of a communication unit and a smart card (the permit), allows users toaccess the automatic services and their permits to be checked without direct identification. It alsoprovides a friendly interface (visually, graphically, and acoustically) which informs the driver that he isactivating an operation and the state of the device.


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Diagram D: Central Access Control System in Rome

The automation of the ACS+RP scheme that led to its successful application was reliant onextensive use of ITS (Intelligent Transport System) technologies based around a traffic control centreinstalled at STA headquarters. The Integrated ITS deployed in Rome, includes a subsystem dedicatedto the automatic access control (ACS+RP) to the city centre. The System installed consists of fourfunctional elements, On street “gates”, Vehicles On-board unit (OBU) and smart card, Communicationsubsystem and the Control Centre. The system currently installed is composed of 22 access gates,enclosing the entire area (6 km2) of the ZTL. The system has high reliability with high MTBF (MeanTime Between Failures) reported. The on-street installations for the system were designed with regardto minimising their visual impacts on the city’s historic monuments.

Problems and Future Developemnets

Traffic congestion due to the high number of 2-wheels vehicles has always been a problem forthe City of Rome, probably due to favourable weather condition. However, since the activation ofACS+RP that banned the access of non authorized vehicle within the ZTL, with the exceptions of 2-wheels and other exempted categories, it has become an even bigger problem. These trends arestrictly related to access restriction policies. Currently, automatic vehicles detection system installedon the electronic gates are not able to detect 2-wheels, to evaluate the number of mopeds andmotorcycles on-filed measurement campaign needs to be performed. The analysis of the BestAvailable Technology (BAT) to control and implement ACS+RP policies for motorbikes andmotorcycles is to be carried out in the running MIRACLES project for the future implementation of newgates for 2-wheels control. In particular the banning of non-catalysed 2 wheelers will be assessed, asSTA and the Municipality of Rome foresees forced changes in the scooter fleet towards electric andcatalysed scooters due to the serious concerns about PM10 emissions from non-catalysed scooters.From the beginning of 2003 the yearly check-up of vehicles emissions to compulsory tune–up wasextended also for two-wheel motorcycles and mopeds through the implementation of the Traffic Act’sso-called "blue badge" for the scooters.

The success of the electronic ACS+RP and its extensions

The necessity of integrated ITS systems in Access Control and Road Pricing applications isgiven by the results of the ACS+RP scheme application. Before the use of electronic system, thepolicy was already set-up, but its application wasn’t achieved. Now the STA centre is ready tointegrate the other ACS+RP schemes expected in Rome in other districts (Trastevere, Villa Borghese)and also San Lorenzo one with a night ACS+RP scheme similar to Trastevere.


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In summary, ITS can give a real support to the effectiveness of the applied measures and to theinformation delivery to the citizens. Introduction of transport measures without ITS infrastructure wouldbe followed by scarce results, at least in Rome.

On the other hand, the application of new technologies in the real world for the provision ofmobility services to the citizens quite often requires a revision of national and local regulations andrules, as well as a re-definition and re-allocation of roles and responsibilities

New EU regulations and fleets control

The new EC Directive on road toll interoperability proposes to combine VPS/CN (VehiclePositioning System with Cellular Network) with DSRC in the short/medium term and to test itsapplicability to buses and coaches from 2008. It focuses on the goal of achieving interoperabilitybetween the different electronic toll systems already in place. VPS systems potentially offer muchmore flexibility in defining or refining the charging system because they use “virtual gantries”.However the requirements for VPS system are very strong, both in terms of signalreliability/certification and in terms of system management. The use of GPS-based positioningsystems is presently not reliable because of the intrinsic positioning error, lack of certification and thenon-continuous availability of the system, discouraging widespread application. Problems could ariseespecially along the cordon where correct position determination is fundamental, where theenforcement procedure cannot accept position errors. Such application of real Road Tolling haspotential future application by integrating Galileo into the VPS technique (GVPS), permitting the issueof temporary permits for trips, time, distance, once the reliability of the system is tested in complexurban situation, especially for specific fleets (tourism coaches, freight deliveries). Hence, it isconsidered necessary to draft technical guidelines that are able to ensure the interoperability amongthese technologies also in urban toll applications like Rome.

3) Effect of the Strategy

Air quality

Since year 2000 (before the ACS+RP operations) many actions have been undertaken toreduce the traffic impacts on air quality including yearly emission control on registered car fleet,renewal of the public transport bus fleet, access limitation to non-catalysed vehicles and an increaseof the Park & Ride provision. In this period, the access restrictions for non-catalysed vehicles in thewhole Rail Ring zone was achieved in the first part of 2003 with results in terms of air qualityimprovements already appreciable.

It is therefore not easy to identify the contribution of the scheme implementation. howeverbetween January 2001 and January 2003 significant improvements in the four monitoring stations areshown in Table 23.

Table 23: Reductions in Air Pollution

In the ZTL the improvement for particulates – the biggest air quality problem for Rome – wereless than expected. This is partly due to the increased use of powered two wheeled vehicles since theintroduction of the scheme.

Traffic

Main observed results of the implementation of the system are a 10% decrease in traffic duringthe day that becomes 20% decrease in traffic during the restriction period, 15% decrease in themorning peak hour (8.30-9.30), 10% increase of two wheeled vehicles and a 6% increase of publictransport. The traffic reduction is shown in Figure 14 and shows impressive the similarity between2001 and 2002.

Station


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Figure 14: Traffic Reduction figures

The possible evening pure RP scheme

The morning peak phenomenon is lower than in the past, while the evening one is the highestof the day and slightly higher than before the activation of the gates. The decrease can be completelyattributed to the activation of the electronic gates, since the traffic outside the restriction window hasremained substantially unchanged.

The lower traffic flows registered during the first year of working ACS+RP system derive mainlyfrom a strong reduction in illegal traffic entering ZTL, which has diminished from 36% before theactivation of the gates to below 10% after 2 years after activation.

The observed data for total mean flow in October 2000 and 2002 (see Figure 15) inside the ZTLper hour showed a new peak around 6 pm for transits towards ZTL. The ACS+RP scheme is switchedoff at 6pm.

Figure 15:Observed data for total traffic mean flow in October 2000 and 2002

This critical phenomenon was analysed: even the application of a limited fare to access in theevening the ZTL could produce an impressive limitation of the “crossing” traffic with limited effects ontraffic entering the ZTL as the destination. Such results can be accepted by the shop owners andretailers in general because only partially affect the people going into the ZTL for shopping/leisure.Thus, the application of an “evening pure Road Pricing scheme” is under discussion by RomeMunicipality.


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Additional Information

The Rome Metropolitan Area (see Map 2), instituted through the National Act 142/90, hostsabout 4 million residents over an area of 5300 km2 and comprises the Rome Municipality (1300 km2).Rome Municipality is further subdivided into 19 districts (Municipi), but from a functional point of viewfive areas can be identified, four internal to the Great Ring Road (GRA, Grande Raccordo Anulare)according to the Urban Traffic General Plan (PGTU, Piano Generale del Traffico Urbano), while thefifth is external to the GRA and extends to the city border; all of them have been identified on thebasis of their general characteristics and the planned modal shift between public and privatetransport.

Map 2: Rome Metropolitan Area

The historical centre (A), corresponding to the restricted access zone (ZTL, Zona a TrafficoLimitato), has an area of about 6 km2 and shows the highest concentration of business activities inRome (21,000 workers/km2): less than 1% of the municipal territory hosts 13% of the total workers,while population amounts to only 2% over the total (Table 24).

Population (CEU, 30/06/1999) and employment (ISTAT, 1991) in Rome

TUpartition

Area(km2)

Population(inhabitants)

Populationdensity(inhab./ km2)

Employment(workers)

Employmentdensity(workers/ km2)

Historical centre 5.7 52848 9272 120950 21219Central area 34.2 333359 9747 300490 8786Semi-central area 114.2 1212514 10617 308909 2705Peripheral area 190.1 578111 3041 131032 689Suburban area 940.6 574146 291 92401 98Whole city 1284.8 2750978 2141 953782 742

Table 24: 1999 Statistical data for Rome


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In Rome, being the capital city of the country, the main activities are administrative, political andservices, including transport and all assets related to tourism: these activities are particularlyconcentrated in the central area, especially in its historical centre. In spite of this concentration ofactivities, a sufficiently developed radial system of public transport services has not beenimplemented. Both pedestrian and public transport shares are only 20% each of the total mobility,while 60% trips are travelled by private transport.

Fleet Composition for Rome

Diagram E: Fleet Composition for Rome

General Asset of Rome Road Pricing Policies

The scheme reported in the Figure 8 shows the general asset of road pricing policies to beimplemented in the city, accompanied by complementary restrictive measures on traffic regulation andmanagement, such as articulation of parking fares: more expensive parking charges getting closer tothe city center; it aims to encourage the use of peripheral inter-modes nodes and access restrictionsystem to the city center.

In addition, the Administration carried out in the last years a deep innovation of local PublicTransport organization. Parallel actions are foreseen as mobility manager, car-pooling, car-sharingand taxi bus services.

Figure 16: Assessment of Road Pricing


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The on-street parking payment strategy in the inner city

In the City of Rome parking is an integral component of the urban mobility system. The basictariff strategy states that the system must provide an adequate price range in terms of parking costs inproportion to the distance from the high demand areas.

Paid parking has become increasingly important, i.e. discouraging people to use cars for"systematic" journeys to the city centre. STA has created paid parking spaces on roads in its innerzones and - following an international Tender for Bids - appointed operational management of parkingspaces to private companies.

In 2002, STA took directly the management of the on-street parking system in Rome, integratedwith general strategy of the Municipality to favour the parking outside the Rail Ring Area with thecreation of off-street low cost parking area connected to the main exchange points of the PublicTransport and the always increasing taxation of on-street parking inside the Rail-Ring, including insidethe two inner zones of Rome.

According to this general strategy, STA increased the off-street parking places outside the RailRing to 12.247 with 29 park and ride areas, as per December 2003, and undertakes to continuouslyimplement new structures along the main railway lines.

STA also coordinates the 250 Auxiliary Traffic Wardens appointed by the Mayor to thepurposes of Paragraph 132, Section 17 of Law 127 of 15 May 1997 (the so-called "Bassanini bis"Law). The job of these Auxiliaries is to control and verify any irregularities in paid parking areas. Theon-street payment is not due on holidays and it is free-of-charge for the residents in each zone andother specific categories, according to the Italian Road Code.

Map 3: On-Street Parking Pricing

On-street parking pricing is based on fixed hourly rates of 1 € for approx. 65.000 parkingspaces distributed in the territory of the Municipality of Rome inside the Rail Ring (see Map 3).

Currently parking policy allow resident citizens having free parking areas with the directconsequence that only the 20 % of parking places is available for paying users.

At city level the availability of parking places for paying users is diffused, and not concentratedwhere would serve, where offices are attracting need of parking (public offices, commerce, etc). Up tonow, the experience acquired has lead to propose modifications to bring to the on-street parkinginside the Rail Ring, in order to improve the conditions of the traffic and environment in the city.

The implementation of a new parking policy is based on the introduction of three differentparking policies and fares (High, Limited, Long Term fares) to be gradually introduced, beginning fromzones that for user characteristics and attractive points can represent a valid experiment of suchinitiative.


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Summary

The dominance of the private car has led to high levels of congestion and pollution, damagingboth the health of the citizens and the cultural heritage of the city.

The City of Rome aimed to reduce congestion and the impact of air pollution through thedevelopment of automated access restriction systems combined with P&R facilities.Parking pricing in city centre was implemented and an improvement of the pubic transport can berecognised.

Cars are restricted from entering the core of the city except for residents and permit buyers..The amortisation is under one year of operation.

During 2001 and 2003 significant improvements of air quality have been detected.As a result of the implemented schemes traffic decreased.


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G. CASE STUDY 2: QUEUE RELOCATION IN LEICESTER




As part of the EU project CITEAIR (Common Information To European AIR) supported throughthe INTERREG IIIC programme, the project partners aim to develop a “Guidebook for EnvironmentalManagement” that will help cities and regions assess their situation, identify their air quality problemsand share information on air quality abatement measures and strategies.

This document represents a common template for presenting the case study managementstrategies.

Title Queue Relocation in Leicester

Brief Description Urban Traffic Control (UTC) gating trials on two radial routes into the cityenabled reduction of traffic queuing and emissions in sensitive areas.

Links & Contacts Nick Hodges, Leicester City CouncilEmail: [email protected], Tel: +44 116 2995690

LongTerm

MedTerm

ShortTerm Comments

Strategy Type x x A trail that has affected utilisation of UTC

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 OthersHighMedLow X X

Comments Low impact found however true impact of SCOOT UTC not evaluated

High LowCost Based on existing traffic management infrastructure in

Leicester Technology X


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1) Air Quality Situation

Leicester is a medium sized city located in East Midlands region of the UK. The city has apopulation of almost 300,000 people, with the greater urban conurbation (Central Leicestershire)serving over 500,000 people. There are no major “heavy” industries in the city, consequently roadtransport is the city’s main contributor to air pollution. For road transport, the city centre is served by 9radial routes, 4 of which to the west of the city provide links to the M1 motorway – the main highway inEngland, running from London to Leeds.

The city centre sits in a bowl hence air pollution is likely to accumulate in the centre. Winds in thecity are predominately from a west and southwesterly direction; hence the motorway and radial routesto the south and west of the city contribute to the city centre’s air quality.

Annual mean air quality objectives for NO2 are unlikely to be met by Leicester. The main problemsfor air quality are roadside locations in the city centre and along main radial routes into the city. Theseareas of the city have been designated Air Quality Management Areas (AQMA) as shown in Figure17.

Cars are the main form of transport into the city centre. The modal share of transport (2003)shows 42.5% people entering the city centre between 0700 and 1900 is by car, 35.9% by bus.Congestion is an increasing problem for the city, with the congestion index rising from 0.7 minutes pervehicle kilometre in 2001 to 1.11 minutes per vehicle kilometre in 2003.


Urban Traffic Management and Control (UTMC) is a programme that is looking at both improvedmethods of traffic management and tools to improve the efficiency of systems. Within this programme,the UTMC03 project has investigated how UTMC methods can be used to control and manageemissions of pollutants from vehicles in urban areas. These could include fiscal measures (car parkcharges), traffic control and enforcement (traffic signal co-ordination), and information provision (trafficbroadcasts).

Spilt Cycle Offset Optimisation Technique Urban Traffic Control (SCOOT UTC) is a long-standing technique to reduce traffic delays in urban road networks controlled by traffic signals.Efficient traffic signal co-ordination, allow benefits to be seen for all emissions.

Within the UTMC03 project, the SCOOT UTC objective function was modified to minimiseemissions rather than delay even if delays reduction contribute to a reduction emissions already.In Leicester two trials were carried out, one testing SCOOT gating and fixed time gating and the othertesting the “Emissions SCOOT” modification.

Gating Trials

For the gating trials in Leicester, the sensitive area was Narborough Road (A5460), a majorradial road into Leicester from the M1 (Junction 21) and M69 motorways to the west of the city and

Figure 17: a) Air Quality Management Areas (AQMA) in Leicester b) Topography of Leicester


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major commuter routes south-west of the city. The restraint operated on the morning inbound peakand relocated queues from the City centre end of the Narborough Road (3-4 lane carriageway nearUpperton Road) to the outskirts near the M1. At this end of the road, the development is much furtherback from the kerbside than in the protected area.

The Narborough Road in Leicester is a major radial that becomes increasingly narrow as itapproaches the city centre. Gating has been used here to restrain traffic at the outer end of the radialwhere there is relatively little pedestrian activity and the houses are set well back from the road.There are service roads either side of the dual carriageway and the houses have appreciable frontgardens. In contrast, the city centre end of the road is single carriageway with buildings close to thekerb so that pollutants are trapped by a canyon effect. The aim is to reduce congestion, and henceemissions of pollutants, at the more sensitive city centre end of the radial. To reduce congestion atthe city centre end of the road it was necessary to create very large queues at the gating point, theBraunstone Lane junction, which lead to complaints from the public. The trial was modified to holdsomewhat smaller queues at the Fullhurst Avenue junction, the first junction inbound from BraunstoneLane and reduce the severity of the restraint at the original gate. Two smaller queues have proved tobe more acceptable whilst still improving conditions at the city centre end of the road. Figure 18shows the site and the two gating points used.

The trial successfully demonstrated a reduction in emissions in the protected area. Emissionswere reduced by between 3% and 8%, depending on pollutant. Reductions in the peak ¼ hour werealmost twice as great as reductions in the average values over the two-hour peak. Since a high levelof restraint was needed to gain these reductions, it was found to be more publicly acceptable to havetwo smaller queues rather than one very large queue. Outbound traffic was delayed more in theprotected area, due to the nature of the two stage signal. An extra stage, allowing traffic out of theprotected area would increase reductions in emissions.

“Emissions SCOOT” trial

This trial was carried out in Region RA in Leicester, which controls the city end of the busy A6London Road. Unlike gating, a change in flow should not result when “Emissions SCOOT” is beingused and so changes in flow must be allowed for.Results are summarised in Table 25:

NORTH

CityCentre

Braunstone LaneSOUTH

Imperial Avenue

Fullhurst Avenue

Pollution Monitor

SCOOT junction

Upperton Road

Figure 18: Leicester gating trial site


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Pollutant Change with “Emissions SCOOT”CO -2%CO2 -1%VOC -2%NOx -1%PM10 -1%

Table 25: Reductions in pollution

None of the changes was statistically significant at the 95% level. It cannot be definitely saidfrom these results alone, that the use of the modified SCOOT will result in a reduction of emissions.The fact that the results are in line with predictions made in earlier simulation tests does provide someconfidence that benefits, although small, are real.

It should be noted that these small benefits are in addition to those much larger benefits alreadyprovided by ‘normal SCOOT’.


Queue relocation is a useful tool to move some pollution away from sensitive areas. However, itrelies crucially on there being suitable areas for the relocated queues. The queues must be relocatedto roads where the pollution from the vehicle emissions is less damaging and the queues arepolitically acceptable. In addition, the relocated queues cannot be too far from the protected area orthe beneficial effect on the protected area will be diluted by other sources of traffic.

Summary

Due to the geographical location and the surrounding highways Leicester’s air quality isaffected. Fiscal measures, traffic and enforcement as well as information broadcast are measures totackle air pollution caused by traffic in Leicester. Relocation of queues as a measure to reduce airpollution was a good working method. By means of traffic density monitoring, cars were rerouted to another road to city centre. As a result there were two less queues instead of one large.


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H. CASE STUDY 3 CONGESTION CHARGING IN LONDON






Title Congestion Charging in London

Brief Description The traffic measure of charging a flat rate to enter central London on weekdaysto reduce congestion has been found to have an effect on air quality

Links & ContactsGreater London Authority (GLA) – www.london.gov.ukTransport for London (TfL) – www.tfl.gov.ukERG Kings College London – www.erg.kcl.ac.uk

LongTerm

MedTerm

ShortTerm Comments

Strategy Type X Not designed as an air quality measure

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 OthersHighMed X X XLow

Comments The effects on emissions has been calculated

High LowCost £320 million start up costs with £64 million pa running

costs. £100 – 110 million pa revenue generated. Technology X


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In 2002, the Greater London Authority (GLA) set out the Mayor of London’s Air QualityStrategy. This predicted that national air quality targets – Air Quality (England) Regulations 2000 –would not be met for annual NO2 concentrations (see Map 4 ) (40 µg/m3 by 31 December 2005) anddaily PM10 concentrations (50 µg/m3 not be exceeded more than 35 times a year by 31 December2004). Both objectives were expected to be exceeded along the major road network and, in addition,the nitrogen dioxide objective is also expected to be exceeded in Central London.

Road traffic is the major source affecting nitrogen dioxide levels in London, accounting forapproximately 60 per cent of emissions, with a further 21 per cent comes from residential andcommercial gas use. Direct and indirect emissions from the city’s main international airport –Heathrow Airport – are also a significant factor for high NO2 levels in west London

Map 4: Predicted annual mean concentration of NO2 for 2005

Exceedences above the target value of 40 µg/m3 are expected in central London and aroundHeathrow Airport. Seventy per cent of PM10 emissions occurring in London are from road sources butare only responsible for a third of the PM10 concentration in the city. The other main sources are fromsources outside London, the production of particulate matter through chemical reactions and re-suspension from roads and construction sites.

The importance of road traffic in achieving good air quality for London is highlighted in theobjectives in the Mayor of London’s Air Quality Strategy. These are:

• Reduce pollution from road traffic through….reducing the amount of traffic & reducing emissions from individual vehicles

• Reduce emissions from air travel through….minimising emissions from aircrafts, minimising emissions from direct activities of theairport, improving public transport use to and from the airport and minimising emissionsfrom road traffic around the airport

• Sustainable Buildings• Reducing pollution from industry and construction

London is a large and rapidly growing city. Its current population of 7.4 million is predicted toincrease by 700,000 over the next 15 years and a similar level of additional jobs is expected to becreated. As the UK’s capital city it is recognized by the national government that, given London’sexisting levels of pollution, achieving both EU and governmental air quality objectives in the capital willbe very challenging. The government advises that the Mayor’s duties for achieving these objectivesneed to be balanced with London’s other priorities.


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The congestion charging scheme for London started in February 2003 as a strategy to improvethe chronic traffic congestion in central London, where congestion is six times worst than any othercity in the UK (2002). It was not planned as an air quality strategy however benefits from the schemein reducing air pollution in an area of London where air quality is poor have been observed.

The congestion charging scheme charges a daily rate for vehicles to enter and travel in the 21square kilometre charging zone consisting of mainly of the whole of the borough City of London andapproximately half of the borough City of Westminster between 7:00 and 18:30 during weekdays. Thisrepresents 1.3% of the total 1579 square kilometre area of Greater London (see Map 5). The schemeis supported by an infrastructure of 203 camera sites, using automatic number plate recognition(ANPR) technology cameras placed on the 174 entry and exit points into the congestion zone and inlocations within the zone.

In anticipation of the implementation of congestion charging 300 extra buses were provided in thecharging zone to deal with the expected transfer of people to public transport from private vehicleswhen travelling into the zone (20,000 people per day). The extra bus space was expected to provide20% more spaces than the rise in demand. London’s extensive underground tube system was alsoexpected to adequately cope with the increasing demand (2% increase in passenger numbers,equivalent to one extra person per tube carriage).

Vehicles driving in the charging zone during the charging period are charged a flat rate of £perday. Vehicles exempt from the scheme include licensed taxis and minicabs, buses, motorcycles,vehicles for disabled persons including “blue badge” holders and vehicles with 9 seats or more.Residents in the charging zone – of which approximately 40,000 households own a car – are entitledto a 90% discount of the charge (£2.50 for one week compared to a full charge of £25 for non-residents).

Payment of the congestion charge can be made by telephone, online, mobile phone textmessaging, at various retail outlets and petrol stations inside and outside London and at self servicemachines located in car parks within the charging zone. The charge must be paid before 10 pm on theday of travel. If the charge is not paid by 10pm on the day of travel, but is paid between 10.00pm andmidnight, there is a £5 surcharge on the standard charge (i.e. a total of £10). If the charge is not paidby midnight on the day of travel, an £80 Penalty Charge Notice (PCN) will be sent to the registeredkeeper of the vehicle. This is reduced to £40 if paid within 14 days. After 28 days the penaltyincreases to £120.If a vehicle has more than three outstanding and unrepresented PCNs, then thevehicle can be clamped and/or removed until the cost of the PCNs plus appropriate release fee havebeen paid. In practice this is likely to be 3 X £120 PCNs + £125 release fee (+£15 per day dailystorage), i.e. minimum of £485 at the Pound, or 3 X £120 +£45 release fee, totalling £405 to remove aclamp

Map 5: London congestion charging area


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Opinions on the Scheme

London’s Congestion Charging Scheme was implemented and run by the Greater LondonAuthority (GLA). This body was restructured in 2000, becoming more autonomous from nationalgovernment, including an elected mayor with power to manage the city’s transport system and theraising of taxes to fund this. The manifesto of the successful mayoral candidate – Ken Livingstone –included Congestion Charging, however before implementation the scheme was unpopular with notonly local opposition politicians but also with the national government.

The charging zone is situated mainly in the boroughs of City of London and City ofWestminster. It is an area that would be familiar to all visitors to London, as it contains numerousmajor tourist attractions, some of Central London’s major retail and leisure districts and the offices ofmany international companies and financial institutions.

In the charging zone over 80% of the business units employ less than 10 people, whichtogether contribute to approximately 15% of the zone’s employment. Large businesses (employing300 people or more) represent a small proportion of business units but employs 35% of the people inthe zone. The major employment sectors are Finance and Business activities.

Consultation process by Transport for London and surveys by various interest groups werecarried out. In general the scheme was unpopular with smaller businesses and car drivers. Generally,large businesses were in favour or neutral to the scheme.

Cost and Revenue of the Scheme

Initial start up costs for the scheme was £320 million with estimated running costs of £64 millionper year. Scheme was expected to raise £1.3 billion over ten years (£130 million per year). Onaverage, TfL report 400,000 non-residential, 90,000 residential and 40,000 fleet payments per week,generating revenue of around £100 –110 million per year.

By law profits from congestion charging must be re-invested into London’s transportinfrastructure.

Technology Used

The system employed to capture and process this information combines the best and mostreliable technology available, chosen specifically to match the needs of this particular scheme. Thepower of the system is derived from integrating many standard computer servers on to one system.This type of distributed architecture is typical of large-scale websites, allowing for the necessaryprocessing power and speed without reverting to large and expensive computers and having theability to improve the system if needed by sourcing more 'off the shelf' boxes and adding them on tothe existing architecture.

A network of 203 enforcement camera sites, not just on the boundary of zone, but sitedthroughout the zone. At all entry points to the charging zone except cul-de-sacs. There are a further10 Mobile Patrol Units which will be despatched to different locations within the charging zone forenforcement purposes. These cameras use high quality video-stream (analogue) signals to AutomaticNumber Plate Recognition (ANPR) computer system, with an estimated capture rate of 90% within thecharging zone. The 203 enforcement camera sites contain 254 colour cameras and 434 monocameras.

All captured images are streamed back in analogue to the ANPR system which pumps out adata block showing the exact time and date that the images were taken. Images from both the colourcamera and the mono camera along with the information from the ANPR reader are then stored asback-up in case the information needs to be compared. The main hub site where the camera dataarrives is located in central London. The congestion charging system has been designed so that allthe systems involved in capturing the images store data in this main centre. No image will travel morethan 20 kilometres from any point within the charging zone. Further storage is available at the back-upsite. There are an additional 25 ANPR 'lap-top' units that are deployed at fixed camera locations in theevent of communications failure to these locations. They will operate in the same way as the normalANPR system but will be localised at the communication cabinets on the streets. They will bedeployed when there is a communication failure and the media will be collected manually from thecabinet. These units are ruggidised Industrial Computers with custom cards to capture and readnumber plates at a full 50 f.p.s frame rate.


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All images are automatically matched against the database of those who have registered topay; those who have done so are discarded. All payment data is stored at two data centres justoutside the M25.

The ANPR examines a video camera feed of the vehicle and identifies the best snapshot fromwhich it can read the number plate. The collection of images captured from the video feed isapproximately 100Kb in size, and the system was designed with the capability of handling an averageof a quarter million vehicles per day. The system itself is scaleable so that it can be easily expandedto accommodate any significant traffic volume growth by adding 'off the shelf' components.For those who have not paid the charge, all images are sent to the WORM drive (Write Once ReadMany). Each image is encrypted and digitally signed at the first point of capture to prevent anymodification to the original image. This is to ensure there is a complete evidence trail in the event ofany disputed penalty charges. Images of number plates, belonging to those who have not paid toregister by midnight, will then be manually checked against DVLA databases for penalty notice to beissued.

64 additional monitoring camera sites provide supplementary traffic monitoring over and abovethat provided by the enforcement network consisting of 60 colour cameras and 68 mono cameras.Enforcement cameras are also available for monitoring outside charging periods and only inemergencies during charging periods.


Air Quality

By reducing the overall volumes of traffic within the charging zone, and increasing the efficiencywith which it circulates, congestion charging has been directly responsible for reductions ofapproximately 12 percent in emissions of NOx and PM10 from road traffic within the zone (24-hourannual average day).

Traffic changes on the Inner Ring Road are estimated to have resulted in very small changes toemissions of NOx and PM10 from road traffic, of less than plus/minus 2 percent respectively. Bothhere and in the charging zone, beneficial changes to the emissions performance of the vehicle fleetbetween 2002 and 2003 provide additional ‘background’ benefits.

Traffic

Within the charging zone road traffic flows have decreased by 15 per cent and mean dailytraffic speed has increased by 20 per cent (from 19 km/h to 23 km/h). Congestion in the chargingzone has been reduced by 30 per cent. Car trips into the central charging zone has reduced by65,000 – 70,000 per day. Of these trips no longer crossing into the charging zone, 50 to 60 percenthave transferred to public transport. Between 20 and 30 percent have diverted around the chargingzone and the remaining 15 to 25 percent have made a variety of other adaptationsChanges in vehicle km traveled in the charging zone shows an increase in buses (+20%), an increasein taxis (+13%) and a decrease in cars (-29%) and heavy goods vehicles (-11%). Bus usage hasincreased inside and outside the congestion charging zone.

Although increased traffic has been observed on the Inner Ring Road, these increases aresomewhat smaller than expected by Transport for London and are not leading to significantoperational problems on this key route

There is no evidence of systematic increases in traffic outside of charging hours on weekdaysor weekends in response to the introduction of the charge. There is no evidence of systematicincreases in traffic on local roads outside of the charging zone in response to the introduction of thecharge.

A rise in bus passengers has been observed during charging hours (+34%) in the first year ofcongestion charging. In the same period the number buses during the charging period has alsoincreased (+27%). In the first year of congestion charging underground patronage fell (-8%) forpassengers exiting at stations in the charging zone during the morning peak. A network-widereduction (-6%) in Underground patronage was also observed in the same period


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Public Perceptions

Opinions on Congestion Charging have been varied. Generally those living within the chargingzone are positive about the scheme than those living in Inner London but outside the charging zone.

People surveyed living within the charging zone generally believe since the introduction of thescheme congestion, public transport availability and reliability, noise and pollution have improved. Ofthe survey group one third believe the scheme was bad for local business, however generally fewstrong opinions were expressed on the scheme’s effect on local business and employment. In factthere seems to be little correlation between London’s economic progress and congestion charging.The scheme is seen to be affordable by most frequent travellers surveyed – 6 in 10 – compared withapproximately a quarter who are finding it difficult to afford.

Appendices - Additional Information

The information above has been summarised from reports produced by the Greater LondonAuthority, Transport for London and Environmental Research Group Kings College Londonthat are now available on their websites. Further information can be found in the following documents:

• Cleaning London’s Air; The Mayor’s Air Quality Strategy, Greater London Authority,September 2002

• Congestion Charging; Update on Scheme Impacts and operations, Transport forLondon, February 2003

• Central London Congestion Charging Scheme; Impacts Monitoring – First AnnualReport, Transport for London, June 2003

• London Congestion Pricing; Implications for Other Cities, Todd Litman, VictoriaTransport Policy Institute, February 2004

• Central London Congestion Charging Scheme; Impacts Monitoring – Second AnnualReport, Transport for London, April 2004

• Central London Congestion Charging Scheme; Impacts Monitoring – Summary Review,Transport for London, January 2005

• The impact of congestion charging on vehicle emissions in London, Sean D. Beevers &David C. Carslaw, Atmospheric Environment, 39, 2005, 1-5

Summary

Road traffic is the main cause affecting NO2 and PM10 levels in London whereat HeathrowAirport is responsible for those high levels in the western area. Due to the fact that London’s airquality is 6 times less than in other European countries congestion charging system for Londonstarted in 2003 to improve the traffic congestion in central London. The system operates with camerasthat computerise data (pictures) into a database supported by ANPR system that allows controllingthe access of vehicles into the congestion charging area. Vehicles are charged with 6 [£] per day andthis payment can be done by different, handy varieties. Is the charge not paid an 80 [£] PenaltyCharge Notice will be sent to the registered keeper of the vehicle.

Introducing this scheme had the effect that congestion charging has been directly responsiblefor reductions of approximately 12 [%] in emissions of NOX and PM10. Furthermore the main dailytraffic speed has increased and congestion within the charging zone was reduced. Not to be sneezedat are the increasing transported passengers with public transport and the reduction of cars as well asheavy goods vehicles. Public perception was accomplished due to public transport availability andreliability as well as noise and pollution reduction.

The costs of this scheme are amortised within 3-4 years.


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I. CASE STUDY 4: 80 KM/H SPEED LIMIT ON A13 MOTORWAY INOVERSCHIE, ROTTERDAM






Title The 80 km/h speed limit on the Motorway A13 in Overschie, Rotterdam

Brief Description A heavy policed 80 km/h speed limit has been imposed on the urban part of theA13 through Rotterdam’s Overschie district

Links & Contacts

Final report (in dutch, with english summary): Wesseling et al. 2003.(http://www.dcmr.nl/media/LUC/R2003-258.pdf )Van den Elshout et al. 2003. Deliverable 8.8, Annex C.(http://heaven.rec.org/Deliverables/WP8%20Demonstration/HEAVEN%20-%20%20D8.8%20-%20Demonstratior%20Rotterdam%20-%20Annex.pdf )

LongTerm

MedTerm

ShortTerm Comments

Strategy Type X Pilot scheme, however there are plans to expandscheme

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 OthersHigh X XMedLow

Comments Effects on emissions and roadside concentrations measured.

High Low

Cost Infrastructure €1.5 million, maintenance €0.2 million paTechnology X


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The Rijnmond area is located on the west coast of the Netherlands in the province of “Zuid-Holland” and includes the city of Rotterdam and the harbour industrial area. The Rijnmond area is anadministrative co-operation of eighteen municipalities in the field of spatial planning, housing,economy, employment, transport, environment, health care, etc. The Rijnmond area consists out ofthe following 18 municipalities: Albrandswaard, Barendrecht, Bergschenhoek, Berkel and Rodenrijs,Pernisse, Bleiswijk, Brielle, Capelle aan den IJssel, Hellevoetsluis, Krimpen a/d IJssel, Maassluis,Ridderkerk, Rotterdam, Rozenburg, Schiedam, Spijkenisse, Vlaardingen, Westvoorne.

Living, working and recreating in the Rijnmond area have been concentrated is a relatively smallarea: 1,2 million people live in an area no larger than 800 km. In this scarce space metropolitanelements as well as rural elements can be found. Naturally all modes of traffic, especially motorisedtraffic, have a great impact on environment and spatial occupation. The region is considered to be theeconomic motor of the Netherlands due to the presence of one of the largest harbours in the world,large-scale industry and about 22.000 medium and small companies. About 80 large industrialconcerns can be found in this area, for example oil refineries, chemical plants, metallurgical factoriesand power plants. Companies for Petro- chemical products, transport and storage functions, handlingand incineration of waste materials are amply represented. Moreover the Rijnmond areaaccommodates concentration areas for (glass) horticulture and areas have been reserved for natureand recreation. All these activities cause a substantial movement of people and goods. Although theair quality in the Netherlands generally complies with the legal standard for NO2 close to the mainroads air quality tends to be a problem.

Due to the harbour, industrial complexes and the motorways situated close to residential areas,air pollution in the Rijnmond area is a problem. In addition to local pollution sources, air pollution isalso conveyed to the region from the rest of the Netherlands and from neighbouring countries. The airarriving from the south and east tends to be polluted even before it reaches the Rijnmond area and itis fairly clean if it arrives over the sea directly from polar regions. Local pollution is related to humanactivity within the Rijnmond area. This concerns industrial and domestic emissions and increasinglyvehicle exhaust fumes. Industry, traffic, shipping and the households all contribute to the air pollutionproblems in the area. In the past 30 years considerable progress has been made, mainly due to thereduction of industrial emissions. Recently the pace of progress is very slow because technicalinnovation is partly nullified by the increase of both industrial production and traffic intensity.

Although in the Netherlands the air quality generally complies with the legal standards, close tothe main roads, air quality tends to be a problem.. Despite the fact that each individual car isbecoming considerably less polluting, total vehicle emissions are decreasing only slowly due toincreased traffic intensity. Traffic is hard to regulate but there are rules for fuel quality and engineefficiency. As a consequence, inner-city lead, SO2 and benzene have gone down. Three-way catalyticconverters, which remove nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons from the exhaust fumes, have made amajor contribution. Apart from technical innovation and promoting public transport, the spatialseparation of housing and traffic is one of the few options to limit human exposure to poor quality air.The Air quality in the vicinity of busy roads is dependent on the local situation (for example trafficintensity; traffic flow; partitioning persons- and lorry traffic; distance to the road). Along severalmotorways the air quality standards from the EU directive for PM10 and NO2 have been exceededwithin a distance of up to 100- 300 m from the road. Short-term solutions for these situations aresought in traffic-measures, which contribute to lower emissions by traffic on the motorway.


Research has shown that traffic moving at a constant, moderate speed emits less air pollutantscompared to traffic with frequent speed fluctuations or driving 120 km/h or more. Constant speeds canbe achieved by enforcing a “keep your lane” policy or by fixing the maximum speed for all vehicles tothe maximum of the heavy trucks.

In order to improve the air quality in the Rotterdam district Overschie, a pilot experiment has beenconducted on the national motorway A13 (see Map 6). As of May 11th, 2002, the maximum speed hasbeen reduced from a 100 to 80 kilometres per hour in the area where the motorway passes throughthis district. The 80 km speed limit is only successful if it is heavy policed. So in addition to new roadsigns a system taking pictures of vehicles entering and leaving the zone and calculating the averagespeed was put in place. The system is connected to an automated fining system for people driving toofast. Capturing chances are close to 100%.


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Map 6: A13 and A20 in Rotterdam

A “trajectory-control” system was set up over a 3-km stretch of the A13 in Overschie. So inaddition to new road signs a system taking pictures of vehicles entering and leaving the zone andcalculating the average speed was put in place. The system is connected to an automated finingsystem for people driving too fast. Escape chances for offenders are close to 0%. The area consistsout of 6 to 8 lanes of traffic and several accesses and exits. Research into the impact of the 80km/h-measure on the air quality of Overschie has been performed by TNO in co-operation with the DCMR(Environmental Protection Agency Rijnmond). As the concentrations of the air pollutants NO2 andPM10 exceed the air quality standards more emphasis was laid into research on these two pollutants.

The motorway passes through the middle of a traditional, village-like city district where problemsremain (spatial planning, noise) even if the air quality problem could be solved. The measure taken istherefore not a permanent solution but it helps reducing the air quality and noise problems a smallamount.


Political Support and Legislation

The Ministry of Traffic and Water Management and the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planningand Environment introduced the measure in May 2002. The Ministry of Justice was involved as well todetermine the height of fines, how trajectory control would proceed, etc. The local surroundinggovernments were involved as well, as the outcome of the pilot was very important for them. TNONetherlands Research Organisation and DCMR EPA performed research on the impact of themeasure.

Costs

The infrastructure is estimated at € 1.5 million and yearly maintenance: € 0.2 million. Thescheme initially generated a lot of income through fines though this money goes straight to thetreasury and cannot be used to repay the investments. Four more sites are currently (2004) underconstruction in the Netherlands. Different companies have been invited to make a design and thecosts are likely to come down.


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Support from the public and Business Communities

The public in the surrounding areas supports the measure. In fact public pressure from localcitizens groups was essential in convincing national politics that measures are needed to beadopt.80% of the people in the surrounding neighbourhoods supports the measure. People notice alarger effect to the air quality and noise pollution than can be measured or explained. The conceptionof road-users to the effects measure on congestion and driving time differs considerably. A majority ofpassenger car drivers think there is less congestion. A majority of the lorry drivers think there is morecongestion. Police and the road administrator do not report a real difference in congestion. Over traveltime the opinion of the road users differs. About 30% of the car drivers and 40% of the lorry driversthink there is an increase in travel time due to implementation of the measure.

Technological and Infrastructure

This measure is fast to implement. Changes to infrastructure are minimal. What needs to bebuilt is a “trajectory control system”. The speed on the section is controlled by this system. Thismeans that camera’s are strategically placed over the whole section to measure the speed of a carthroughout the section. Because of this the speed on the section is more constant.

An important aspect of the speed measure is controlling the speed limit of 80 km/h. This iscarried out by co-operation between the Ministry of Traffic and water management, the publicprosecution office and the Rotterdam Rijnmond police department. As a control system an automatictrajectory control system was chosen. During the first weeks after implementation of the measureabout 6000 people per day were caught speeding. After a while the amount of “speeder” hasstabilised at about 700 to 800 on a working day and 1000 to 1100 on a weekend day ( see Figure19). The amount of speeders is less than 1% of the total traffic stream.

Continuous monitoring of NO, NO2 and PM10 was performed at three different locations inOverschie: the first location is located approximately 500 m to the west of the A13 (“backgroundlocation”), the other locations are located respectively 50 m and 20 m to the east of the A13 (see Map7).

Figure 19: Speed limits


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In addition to these continuous active measurements, so-called passive measurements wereconducted between April 2002 and February 2003 at more than 30 locations in Overschie. The resultsof which provide information on the spatial resolution of the air pollution in Overschie.

The TNO hour-to-hour line source model was applied to compute the contribution of trafficemissions at the A13 to the air quality in Overschie.


Effect on air quality

Trajectory speed control has been effective in reducing the fluctuations in traffic speed on theA13 right across Overschie and also in not exceeding the limit speeds (especially during the night). Sotraffic flows more efficiently though Overschie even while the number of vehicles has increased. Themeasure is estimated to reduce the traffic emissions when compared to the same traffic intensity, with15-25% for NOx and 25-35% for PM10.

Measurements of the NO2 and PM10 concentrations on locations at 50m and 200m east of theA13 in Overschie indicate that the air quality has improved during westerly winds for NO2 with 5 µg/m³(50m) and 3 µg/m³ (200m), and for PM10 with 4 µg/m³ (50m) and 1 µg/m³ (200m). These resultsillustrate that the 80 km/h measure has a positive impact on the air quality in Overschie.

Model calculations were used to assess the effect of the on the contribution of the A13 to the airquality in Overschie as well as the impact on the total air quality. The reduced contribution of the A13on the air quality in up to 200-m distance is approximately 25% for NO2 and 34% for PM10. Theimprovement of the total air quality at this distance was calculated as 7% for NO2 and 4% for PM10.

The reduction of the emissions is due to the fact that the catalytic converter performs bestunder constant conditions. Emissions increase briefly but sharply immediately after speed changes asthe engine/catalytic converter system needs to readjust to the new situation. Modern vehicles withincreasingly sophisticated engine management systems minimise these readjustment emissions sothe beneficial impact of the measure depends on the fleet composition and is likely to be reduced inthe future.

It should be noted that the findings are highly specific for the emission conditions (e.g. fleetcomposition, emission factors) of the Overschie situation. Elsewhere impacts might be more or lesssubstantial. Especially fleet composition and fleet age heavily influence the emissions and thereforethe likely impact of this measure.

Map 7: Location of monitoring stations


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Additional Information

Information concerning the weather conditions and the traffic flow intensity on the A13 wereobtained respectively from the Meteorological services (KNMI) and the Roads department (RWS).TNO Automotive provided emission factors specifically derived for the A13 traffic before and after themeasure. The results provide information on the spatial resolution of the air pollution in Overschie(see Table 26).

Passenger cars and small vans Large vans Heavy trucks

Fuel type diesel: 35 % 65 % petrol 100 % diesel 100 % dieselAverage fleet age 2.5 years 3.5 years 2.5 years 5 yearsAverage emissions (g/km):CO 0.898 1.261Hydro Carbons 0.111 0.415NOx 0.468 6.220PM 0.029 - 0.201

Table 26: Average traffic characterisitics A13 Overschie 2001

Local air quality consists out of the sum of background concentration and the contribution of thelocal sources. At the site 50 m to the east of the A13 the distribution of the NO2 concentration isapproximately as follows: 25 % is caused by emission sources outside of the Rijnmond region (large-scale background), 25% is caused by sources within the Rijnmond region, this region includesRotterdam (regional background) and approximately 50% is determined by local traffic emissions. So,even without traffic on the A13, only 50% improvement in air quality for NO2 can be obtained.

Summary:

Rijmond is the whole area around the city of Rotterdam including the harbour industrial area.Due to the geographical location of this area as well as industrial complexes and motorways airpollution is conveyed to the region and the rest of the country respectively from neighbouringcountries. Salt particles from the surrounding sea are responsible for a higher background PM10.Technical innovations like the integration of catalytic converters made up a major contribution tacklingNOX out of the exhaust gas. Along the motorways the air quality standards from the EU couldn’t beachieved. Therefore a “keep your lane” policy was installed. Moving at a constant, moderate speedemits less air pollutants compared to traffic with frequent speed fluctuations. Fixing the maximumvelocity for all vehicles to the maximum of heavy trucks can set through this policy combined with a“trajectory control” system. Strategically placed cameras send information to the system thatcalculates the average velocity a vehicle covers a distance and if the driver is too fast the system’sautomated fining system will bill a fine to the permit owner. This infrastructure is not be amortiseddirectly because the receipts go to the treasury directly. This measure is fast to implement and theexpected changes to infrastructure are minimal.

As a result of this measure a reduction by 30 [%] for NOX and PM10 was achieved.


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J. CASE STUDY 5: USE OF SECTION 106 BUILDING REGULATIONS INGREENWICH






Title Use of Section 106 building regulations (Greenwich)

Brief Description The Borough is encouraging developers – through regulations – to includemeasures such as low emissions areas in their building schemes.

Links & Contacts Andrew Whittles (Greenwich Borough Council):[email protected]

LongTerm

MedTerm

ShortTerm Comments

Strategy Type X Schemes aimed at encouraging a culture of air qualityabatement amongst businesses and developers

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 OthersHighMed X X XLow

Comments Hard to assess: Long term urban development culture affected

High LowCost Minimal / Zero: Costs of air quality abatement measures

and infrastructure are passed on to private developers Technology X


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It is estimated that up to 1600 people can die prematurely each year, due to the health problemscaused by breathing London’s’ polluted air. London’s air had long been pollutes. As recently as the1950’s the capital was frequently engulfed in smogs. Since then government clean air regulations, theclosure of coal fired power stations and increasing use of central heating rather than coal to warm thehouses, has insured smogs are no longer a problem in London.

Pollution is now less visible, but is still damaging to peoples health. Today most pollution inLondon comes from road traffic.

The boroughs are legally required to review air quality in their area, assess their ability to meetgovernment targets, and produce air quality action plans to improve air quality where these targetsare not likely to be met.

Busy roads such as the A2 and A102 Blackwall Tunnel, as well as significant industry anddistribution activities, has prompted the borough of Greenwich to declare its entire area an Air QualityManagement Area.

Greenwich Council carried out a 3 stage review and assessment of air quality in the boroughbetween 1998 and 2000, as part of the duties under Part IV of the Environment Act 1995. The aims ofthe review were:

To assess current pollution levels in respect of the pollutants and standards laid down in the AirQuality Regulations; and where there was concern in respect of a pollutant.

• To predict future levels of the pollutant against the objectives laid down in the Air QualityRegulations; and where it is likely that a pollutant will exceed these standards and objectives

• To identify areas where the public are likely to be exposed for a significant period of time

The results of the review and assessment showed that Government objectives for nitrogendioxide (annual average) and PM10 particulates (24 hour average) were likely to be breached next tomajor roads in the borough. (see Map 8 )

The council declared the borough an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) in 2001. The councilwere then legally obliged to prepare an action plan to improve air quality and carry out a further(Stage 4) review and assessment.

The initial findings of the draft Stage 4 review show that local road transport contributes 28-80%towards NOx concentrations. For PM10, road transport accounts for 5-40% of emissions, depending onlocation, with approximately 60-95%, arising from background sources. Action plan measures:Transport Strategy, Land Use Planning, Vehicle Emissions Enforcement, Fleet Operations, GreenTravel Plans, Energy & Housing Services, Corporate Procurement, Industrial Regulation, StatutoryNuisance, Construction Site Dust Control, Air Quality Monitoring and Research, Information &Education.


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Map 8: Greenwich


Declaring the Borough of Greenwich an AQMA has given borough planners some strength whendealing with development proposals. Greenwich Council understands that the planning system has avital role to play in ensuring that land use and other resources are used more sustainable.Regeneration has presented an opportunity to further the Council’s aim of sustainability, and inparticular that of air quality improvements with air quality management measures incorporated into allsignificant planning approvals. Greenwich Council does not see air quality as a bar to developmentbut a bar to poor quality development. In this sense it is noticeable how developers contemporarythinking being applied at the planning stage. This approach has seen Greenwich take lead in Londonin seeking air quality improvements through the planning process. Greenwich uses the planningsystem to improve air quality, whether it be through low emission zones or extracting cash fromdevelopers to fund air quality monitoring equipment through section 106 planning agreements.Greenwich has been instrumental in using such conditions to help improve air quality, it has enteredinto an agreement with the Royal Mail that all its service vehicles will be Euro III by 2006.


106 planning agreements

106 agreements are those where the developer enters into a legal agreement to fund ororganise initiatives that are necessary to make a development acceptable. The section 106


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agreement deals primarily with a range of community benefits, covering employment and training,affordable housing, health and social support. Section 106 agreements provide scope to enforceplanning conditions to mitigate the impact of emissions. Section 106 planning agreements arefrequently used by planners to secure benefits from developers- and increasingly to fund air qualitybenefits. Through 106 building regulations measures such as a low emission zone to prevent the mostpolluting vehicles from using the bridge, and a tolling mechanism that encourages the use of the leastpolluting vehicles can be secured.

The south-east London borough is behind a whole lot of eye catching and ground breakinginitiatives.The provisional go ahead to the huge redevelopment of the Greenwich peninsular will include bold airquality provisions and a developer-funded low emission zone. Much of the peninsular developmentsite is above air quality objective levels.

Greenwich is obliging the dome developers to set up a low emission zone that will be separate,but complimentary, to any central London emission zone that might be agreed

The zone will see resident parking spaces allocated to only euro-4 vehicles, regulated througha controlled parking zone. Because of the 18 year building phase, there will be many restrictions onconstruction traffic. The air quality provision will be imposed on the developer through conditions and106 planning agreements

An increasing number of agreed planning policies that are produced by local authorities, areendorsing the use of 106 planning agreements to fund air quality monitoring and emission reductioninitiatives.

However 106 agreements are controversial as they are often seen as planning bribes- a form ofpayment to the council for granting permission that should perhaps be refused.

For developments in or adjacent to areas where air quality objectives are unlikely to be met andwhere the impact cannot be adequately mitigated by condition (i.e. where there is still a residualimpact), a section 106 planning obligation will be sought for. The planning obligation (which will berelated to the scale of residual impact on air quality) will be directed towards measures designed toimprove air quality in the area. In the absence of adequate mitigation and/ or a planning obligation thatoffsets the impact on air quality, planning permission should be refused.

Advice on planning obligations:

• Necessary• Relevant to planning• Directly related to proposed development• Fairly and reasonably related in scale and kind to the proposed development• Reasonable in all other respects


Section 106 agreements could be used for a number of emission reducing initiatives as well asfund air quality monitoring equipmentIt is now commonplace for developers of larger projects, especially those in areas of poor air quality,to fund air quality monitoring through 106 agreements. But more frequently, section 106s are beingused for bolder and more imaginative schemes that will improve air quality, directly or indirectly.

Greenwich uses the planning system to improve air quality, whether it be through low emissionzones or extracting cash from developers to fund air quality monitoring equipment through section 106planning agreements.

In Greenwich, air pollution is also being included in planning application for the warrendevelopment at the Royal Arsenal.Among other things the scheme will have a low emission zone which will likely oblige all commercialtraffic associated with the scheme to Euro 4 standard, initially moving to Euro 5 and 6 at given futuredates.There are also low emission proposals for the Thames Gateway Bridge. Greenwich’s approval issubject to a section 106 agreement that will include a provision for a low emission zone on bridgeopening in 2012 based on Euro 4 technology. Measures will have a wider impact than just the bridgeitself. Unlike most measures to reduce traffic a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) would exclude the mostpolluting vehicles that do not comply with set emission standards from entering an area of pollution


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concern, whether by voluntary agreement with bus and freight operators or based on the enforceableexclusion of certain categories of vehicle.

The Millennium Dome is the latest high profile development using such agreementsimaginatively. This huge development has just won the go ahead, and includes detailed section 106agreements designed to mitigate the effect of the development when finished, and during its 18yearconstruction phase.

Greenwich sees three key air quality issues arising from the development

• The impact of the construction of the development on air quality;• The exposure of residents of the site to poor air quality;• The impact of the completed development on air quality.

Increased vehicle emissions will come directly from the residents’ cars, and the increasedcongestion they create.

But this can be mitigated, says Greenwich, with a low emission zone set up through a section106 agreement. The zone is proposed to have conditions such as:

• All commercial vehicles accessing the site to conform to Euro 4 emission standard. This standardwill be tightened to Euro 5 at a future date, possibly 2010.

• Residential parking allocation will be reserved for Euro 4 standard vehicles, with a lesser standardfor social housing provision (possibly Euro 2). Again, these standards should be tightened at afuture date, possibly 2010. Exceptions would be made in terms of disabled parking and couldalso be considered for vintage cars etc.

• Commercial parking allocation, including the Dome Arena, should give priority, in addition todisabled allocation, to Euro 4 emission standard vehicles, multi-occupancy and vehicles of 1 litreengine size or less.

• Bus operators will be encouraged/required to introduce Euro 4 standard vehicles on routesservicing the Peninsula.

Greenwich Council and the developers will work with Transport for London in examining thebenefits of a complimentary low emission zone on the A102(M)/Blackwall/Silvertown Link crossings.

Greenwich accepts air quality will worsen, but says: “Wider potential benefits will accrue from theimplementation of a low emission zone in terms of the accelerated uptake of cleaner vehicletechnology, both in the borough, regionally and nationally.”

The community benefits because it gets affordable housing and local labour is used.The vehicle fleet improves, a better air quality monitoring network is set up, a low emission zone andthe benefits go beyond the scope of the designated area.

• Greenwich Council will continue to require ameliorating measures such as green transport plansand vehicle fleet improvement via section 106 planning agreements

• Greenwich Council will continue to seek financial contributions for air quality monitoring in theborough via section 106 planning agreements

Examples of practical planning conditions and section 106 agreements include

• Encourage companies to invest in clean fuel fleets, secure bicycle parking (and changingfacilities);

• Promote improvements in public transport, walking and cycling;• Specify numbers of parking spaces;• Targets for the proportions of employee trips made by public transport;• Encourage companies to operate environmental management systems and air quality strategies,

and encourage the implementation of green travel plans• Explore a requirement for operators to monitor or model emissions from their premises, practices

or activities;• Potential requirement of developers to monitor air quality prior to, and following development;• Potential requirement of developers to install air conditioning in residential property developed in

the most polluted locations


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• Restricting or prohibiting the use of specific classes and types of vehicles as well as monitoringthe maintenance and emissions testing of the fleet;

• The control of air quality impacts during the construction phase.”

Summary

As it mentioned in Case Study #3, most pollution in London is caused by road traffic. Theborough of Greenwich was declared to an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA). Different ActionPlan measures as a variety of actions were set through and Greenwich uses the planning system toimprove air quality, whether it is through LEZ or extracting cash from developers to fund air qualitymonitoring equipment through section 106 planning agreements. With Royal Mail all the servicevehicles will be Euro III standard by 2006. In consequence of 106 building regulations AQ Monitoringwill be funded, especially air quality equipment.

This scheme will have a LEZ which will likely oblige all commercial traffic associated with thescheme to Euro 4 standard, initially moving to Euro 5 and 6 standard. The installation of a LEZ wouldexclude the most polluting vehicles that don’t comply with set emission standards.


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K. CASE STUDY 6: ATMOSPHERIC PROTECTION PLAN FOR ILLE DEFRANCE


Component 2 – Guidebook for Air Quality l Management




Title Atmospheric Protection Plan for Ile-de-France Region

Brief Description Air quality action plan for Paris and its surrounding region for 2010. The effectof these strategies in the Ile-de-France

Links & Contacts Airparif: www.airparif.asso.fr

LongTerm

MedTerm

ShortTerm Comments

Strategy Type X Plan for 2010

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 OthersHigh XMed XLow

Comments The effects on ozone are difficult to assess

High LowCost The plan includes a range of strategies including

implementation of legislation. Technology


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Beyond the specific episodes of air pollution, the Ile-de-France region suffers from chronicexceedences of the air quality objectives relating in particular to nitrogen dioxide and ozone.

For nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in background location, the annual mean French objective (40 µg/m3),which will also constitute the European limit value in 2010, is not respected in the heart of theagglomeration corresponding to Paris and a portion of the surrounding areas. Near the automobiletraffic, the exceedence of the air quality objective is observed on all the stations of the monitoringnetwork, and relates to a very broad portion of the regional road network (see Figure 20).

The target value relating to ozone (O3) (120 µg/m3 on average over a 8 hours period) requiredby the EU Daughter Directive 2002/3) is also not respected over the whole of the Ile-de-France area,particularly during the year 2003 and in a chronic way on the rural areas.

For the suspended particles (PM10), the air quality objective (30 µg/m3 on annual average) isachieved in the Ile-de-France region in background location but was not respected in 2003 atroadside. In addition, the future evolutions will lead to the lowering of the reference values for thispollutant, which remains particularly sensitive as shown by different recent studies


Within the framework of the development of the Plan of Protection of Atmosphere (PPA), theRegional Direction for Industry, Research and Environment (DRIRE Ile-de-France) entrusted toAIRPARIF the evaluation of the quality of the air in the Ile-de-France region expected for the year2010, taking into account the strategies to control atmospheric pollutants that have already beenengaged and supplementary measures suggested within the framework of the PPA. The question thatarises, in particular, is to know if the predicted intensities of reduction of the emissions make itpossible to respect for the regional territory, the target values for the quality of the air at year 2010thus satisfying the objective of the Plan of Protection of the Atmosphere.

The evaluation of the quality of the air at the year 2010 was undertaken for the two pollutantswhich do not respect in a chronic way the air quality objectives, namely nitrogen dioxide (NO2) andozone (O3). The evaluation of the impacts on the concentrations in particles (PM10) could not becarried out taking into account the complexity of the physico-chemical phenomena brought into playas well as absence of national prospective scenarios concerning the evolution of their emissions.

The first stage of work consisted in working out the inventory and the spatial distribution of mainatmospheric pollutants emissions for the three base cases: the year 2000 being used as the baselineyear, the year 2010 that takes into account the strategies of control already engaged on national or

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Neuilly-sur-SeineParis 12èmeAubervilliers

Ivry-sur-SeineParis 13ème

Paris 1er les HallesLa DéfenseSaint-DenisParis 6ème

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BobignyCachan

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VersaillesGarches

MontgeronMelun

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µg/m3

stations urbaines

Objectif de qualité : 40 µg/m3

Valeur limite 2010 : 40 µg/m3

stations périurbaines

stations trafic

stations rurales régionales

Figure 20: Monitored Annual Average for Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) at traffic, urban, semi-urban and ruralstations in the Ile-de-France region


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regional scales and the year 2010+PPA that takes into account the complementary regionalmeasures proposed in the Plan of Protection of the Atmosphere of the Ile-de-France region.

The following stages are related to the modelling of the concentrations in NO2 and O3 for thethree base cases for two different meteorological years (rather good dispersive conditions like thoseencountered in year 2000 or in year 2002; and rather poor dispersive conditions and hightemperatures in summer like those of the year 2003) on the basis of the different emissions scenarios(2000, 2010 and 2010+PPA).

To conduct these different stages, Airparif made use of its decision support system (DSS)developed within the framework of the Heaven European project.


Predicted base case emissions for 2010

The predictions for 2010 were built taken into account the evolutions of emissions which couldbe foreseen based on European, national or regional regulations already “in the pipe”, in particular:

• the large burning plants (GIC) which will have to respect certain limit values of emissions by2010 (EU Directive GIC of the 13/10/01);

• the waste treatment incinerators with a reduction in the limit values for NOx emissions at 200mg/Nm3 which must be met by the end of 2005 (transcription of the EU Directive 2000/76);

• the gasoline distribution equipments which will have to be equipped with systems of recoveryof the vapours of NMVOC from the tanks and, for those equipments distributing more than3000 m3/year, of complementary systems to recovery of the vapours of NMVOC from thepumps (transcription of the EU Directives “stage I” and “stage II”);

• the reduction in the emissions of NMVOC at the industrial and domestic levels by the moreimportant use of paintings in aqueous phase or low content of solvents (EU Directive 99/13“COV/solvents”);

• the regional rail traffic emissions reductions, coming from the re-motorization of 30 dieselengines by 2010;

• the airport activity with the assumption of a maintenance of the emissions between 2000 and2010 (source: General Direction of the Civil Aviation);

• the road transport emissions evolutions with the natural technological turn-over of the runningfleet, the predicted increase of almost 11% of the regional traffic volume and the increase ofthe part of light duty vehicles and two wheelers in the running fleet (source: RegionalDirection of the Equipment of the Ile-de-France region).

Predicted base case emissions for 20 with the implementation of the PPA

The complementary measures aimed at reducing the emissions suggested within the framework ofthe PPA were transcribed in the emissions calculations of the base case “2010+PPA”( see Figure 21)in the following way :

• waste treatment incinerators located in the so-called “sensitive NOx area” should meet by theend of 2010 a limit value for NOx emissions at 80 mg/Nm3 (instead of 200 mg/Nm3) ;

• -closure of certain power stations from Electricity of France and changing the operation modeof one power station ;

• -equipment of low-NOx burners for all the renewed individual boilers;• -Equipment of all gasoline distribution equipments delivering more than 1000 m3/year of a

system of vapour recovery of the NMVOC from the pumps;


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• Reduction of 30% by 2010 compared to 2000 of the emissions of NOx of the rail traffic in Ile-de-France by an optimization of the conditions of operating of engines;

• taken into account of a fall of road traffic corresponding to the realization of part of themeasures registered in the Plan of Urban Mobility.

The other actions under consideration in the PPA could not be assumed in the evaluation of theemissions for the base case “2010+PPA” (example: levelling off of the NOx emissions of all mobilesources for the large companies, areas of activities, communities or administrations).


Predicted base case concentrations for 2010

The intensities of reduction of the NOx emissions estimated for the base case 2010 (-32%)should allow an important fall of nitrogen dioxide levels on the Paris and its suburbs by 2010. Thisimprovement of the quality of the air relating to the NO2 should appear both in terms of maximareached and in terms of surface area exceeding the limit value. The reduction in the maximum valuefor annual average concentration on the Paris and its suburbs (except sector of Roissy) would bearound 17µg/m3 leading to a maximum value around the limit value (38 to 44 µg/m3 according toweather configurations by 2010 to compare with the maximum values of 55 and 62 µg/m3 in thebaseline cases).

Taking into account uncertainties associated with the methodology which has been used, it isnevertheless advisable to remain careful as for the respect of the limit value. The risks of exceedencewould indeed remain relatively high on Paris and its suburbs, in particular for the years with baddispersive meteorological conditions. The surface concerned with a risk higher than 25% to exceedthe limit value would vary at base case year 2010 from 95 to 634 km2 according to weatherconditions, these surfaces varying from 746 to 1007 km2 for the baseline situations.

The cumulated intensities of reduction of the emissions of NOx and NMVOC estimated for thebase case 2010 should allow an important fall of the occurrence of the exceedences of the Europeantarget value relating to ozone for the protection of human health (120 µg/m3 over a period of 8 hours

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Duty vehicles> 3.5 tons

Agriculture

Personal vehicles

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Air trafficOther mobile sourcesProduction of energy

Burning (industrial, domestic,tertiary)

Waste treatment

Roa

d Tr

affi

c161,4 kt

109,9 kt

98,8 kt

Base case 2000 Base case 2010 Base case 2010+PPA

- 31,9 %

- 10,1 %

- 38,8 %

NOx (kilotons/year)

Figure 21 The effect of 2010 and 2010+PPA measures on NOx emissions in the Ile-de-France region


136

in average). The number of hours of exceedence of this value should thus fall from 15% to 0% inParis, from 35% to 15% on the suburbs and finally from 60% to 35% on the rural areas. The lowerimpact on urban areas can be explained by the occurrence of two phenomena acting in an oppositeway:

• on the one hand, the important reductions of emissions of precursors (NOx and NMVOC) by2010 should cause a drop in the photochemical production of ozone, and this on the whole ofthe Ile-de-France region ; the maximum ozone concentrations reached during sunny daysshould thus drop;

• in addition, in urban area, ozone produced in the afternoon will less quickly be consumed bythe NOx emissions in evening and in the early morning (because of fall of the NOx emissionspredicted by 2010): the number of hours of exceedences should thus drop less in the denseNOx emissions areas that in rural areas.

Predicted base case concentrations for 2010+PPA and the benefits of the PPA

The complementary reductions to the emissions of NOx (-10,1%) associated to the PPAmeasures would allow a gain up to 4 µg/m3 on the annual average concentrations of NO2 on certainsectors of the agglomeration. A benefit of about 3 µg/m3 would be in particular recorded on Paris andits close suburbs, areas where the exceedence of the limit value would still be expected in 2010, inparticular for the bad dispersive meteorological conditions in the base case 2010. The benefitprimarily concentrated on the most problematic areas, makes it possible to very clearly decrease(from – 10 to – 20 %) the risk of exceedence of the limit value relating to the NO2 in the dense heartof the Paris and its suburbs. It does not allow nevertheless, for all the weather configurations, toensure the respect of the limit value (40 µg/m3) (see Figure 22). In particular, for meteorologicalconditions like those of year 2003, exceedences of the limit value would probably be recorded even

with the set up of PPA measures in background location (maximum of 43 µg/m3 in Paris and its closesuburbs except sector of the Roissy Charles de Gaulle international airport). For such a year, the areaof the Ile-de-France region with a risk of exceedence greater than 25% could still reach 502 km2. Forthe years with good dispersive meteorological conditions, the PPA should make it possible to respectthe limit value: maximum concentration in the agglomeration (except sector of Roissy) about 35µg/m3 and area with a risk of exceedence greater than 25% very limited (43 km2 in the Ile-de-Franceregion including only 9 km2 in Paris and its outskirts). For such years and by supposing the integralrealization of the measures of the reduction planned, the PPA would thus prove decisive for the airquality in background locations.

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Personal vehicles

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- 39,0 %

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Two wheelers

Solvent uses

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Figure 22 The effect of 2010 and 2010+PPA measures on NMVOC emissions in the Ile-de-France region


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Problems to remain – Roadside and Air Traffic

One must be aware that the evaluations of the quality of the air at year 2010 shown so farrelate to background pollution and not to the situation close to the pollutant emissions such as alongthe major road axes. It is extremely probable that the limit value relating to the NO2 would still beexceeded on most road traffic sites by 2010, even with the implementation of the PPA (Figure 23). Astudy carried out by AIRPARIF within the framework of the PRQA has indeed shown that a reductionof 70 to 80% in NOx emissions compared to the baseline situation would be necessary to make roadsites compliant.

A fall of about 45 to 55% of the NOx emissions near the principal road axes of the Paris and itssuburbs could be foreseen by year 2010, which will not be sufficient to respect the limit value relatingto the NO2 in several situations of traffic proximity.

The sector of the international airport of Roissy Charles of Gaulle presents a specific behaviourat the regional scale but comparable with that of the international airport of Heathrow. The fallemissions is very limited in this sector by 2010 does not allow notable evolution of the NO2concentrations.

Summary:

The Ille-de-France region is polluted with NO2, NOX and O3 therefore the French ministryentrusted to Airparif the evaluation of air quality in this region. The inventory and the spatialdistribution of main atmospheric pollutants emissions for three base cases were worked out. Thesecases consider large burning plants, waste treatment incinerators, the airport and road transportemissions as well as a more detailed subdirectory. By means of waste treatment, burning and vehiclereductions, NOX can be reduced dramatically within 2000 and 2010 in all three studies.

Evolutions of annual average concentrations for NO2

Good dispersive meteorological conditions

Bad dispersive meteorological conditions


NO2(µg/m3)

Limit value 2010

Evolutions of annual average concentrations for NO2

Good dispersive meteorological conditions

Bad dispersive meteorological conditions


NO2(µg/m3)

Limit value 2010

Figure 23 The effect of 2010 and 2010+PPA measures on annual average concentrations of NO2 in the Ile-de-Franceregion.


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L. CASE STUDY 7: AIR CLIMATE PLAN FOR BRUSSELS






Title Air Climate Plan for Brussels

Brief Description Plan for meeting Brussels’ targets for air quality and climate change for 2010

Links & Contacts www.ibgebim.behttp://www.ibgebim.be/francais/pdf/air/planac_complet.pdf

LongTerm

MedTerm

ShortTerm Comments

Strategy Type X

AQ Effects of Strategy PM NOx O3 CO C6H6 SO2 CO2 OthersHigh X XMed X XLow

Comments

High LowCost

Technology


139

K 1 Air Quality Situation92

Brussels-Capital (capital of Belgium and also a European capital) numbers more than 950,000inhabitants (1998). (Area: 161 km2, Average population density per km2: 5,900)Since it is a major national and international administrative center, the number of commuters inBrussels has increased by 100% in 20 years. Brussels has effectively become the country's leadingsource of employment: it offers almost 636.000 jobs.

The diurnal population of the Brussels – capital region reaches 1.300.000 people.From 1990 to 2001, in the Brussels – Capital region, power consumptions increased with 19%

in the housing sector, 13% in the tertiary sector and 11% for transport.Brussels has no heavy industry. Emissions mainly come from car traffic, heating and a number

of other miscellaneous sources. The following observations were made during the drafting of the 2002Air-Climate Plan:

Transport is the main culprit of air quality deterioration. It is the source of 91% of carbonmonoxide (CO) emissions, 89% of hydrocarbon (HAP) emissions, 57% of nitrogen oxide (NOx)emissions, 44% of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions and 19% of carbon dioxide (CO2)emissions. These pollutants are part of the problems relating to tropospheric ozone peaks (NOx andVOC) and greenhouse gases (especially CO2).

Heating generates 70% of CO2 emissions, 84% of SOx emissions and 84% of dust emissions.It is therefore the biggest source of greenhouse gases in Brussels.

Industry, given its limited importance in Brussels, contributes little to air pollution. Only a fewindustrial activities emit pollutants, e.g. print shops, car body repair shops, etc., which mainly emitsolvents (COV). If these activities are poorly managed, then can contribute locally to the deteriorationof air quality. These installations are required to apply for an environment permit containing technicalprovisions that the operator must comply with to ensure that his activities or installations are not anuisance or a danger to the neighbourhood and do not harm the environment.

Incineration installations, the main one located at Neder Over Hembeek, release dioxins andheavy metals.

Household consumption is the cause of 28% of solvents emissions, originating in productssuch as paints, glues, varnishes, etc. Solvents contribute to the formation of tropospheric ozone.While it is difficult to know the exact contribution of households to transport-related emissions, travelfrom home to the workplace accounts for a relatively large share.

Brussels’s most notably reasons for air pollution are incineration, car repair shops, servicestations, dry cleaning, print shops and other sectors that use solvents, without overlookingrefrigeration facilities, which emit substances that deplete the ozone layer.

On 13 November 2002, the government of the Brussels Capital Region adopted its Pland’amélioration structurelle de la qualité de l’air et de lutte contre le réchauffement climatique (Plan forstructural air quality improvement and global warming abatement). This plan, dubbed the Air-ClimatePlan, brings together measures designed to improve ambient air quality and diminish the emission ofgreenhouse gases by the year 2010.

European directive 2001/81/CE fixes the ceilings of emissions thus to be reached from in 2010for each Member State ( see Table 27)..

Pollutants Emissions in 1990 in ktons Aim to reach in 2010 in ktonsSOx 372 99(-73.4%)NOx 339 176(-48.1%)NMVOC 324 139(-57.1%)NH3 95 74(-31.0%)

Table 27: Emission Limits for Belgium

92 http://www.ibgebim.be


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Undertakings have been made at international and European levels and, in light of the Brusselsair pollution situation, responsibilities have been assigned in Belgium. The Brussels government haspledged to reach the following targets:

• In terms of air quality, the priority targets seek to reduce emissions of ozone precursors (COVet NOX), benzene emissions (linked to petrol), fine particulates (PM10 and PM2.5) andpolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (mainly linked to the combustion of diesel and heating oil);

• In terms of the amount of pollutants emitted in the Brussels Capital Region, the quantifiedtargets for reducing emissions by 2010 in relation to 1999 emissions are included in the table15 below.

The Plan determines for each sector a certain number of actions that must lead to significantreductions of emission of atmospheric pollutants. See table 28 below.

Pollutants Totalreductionto reach in

2010comparedto 1990 in

tons and %

Reductionexcept

transport tobe reached

in 2010compared to1990 in tons

and %

Reduction oftransport tobe reached

in 2010compared to1990 in tons

and %

Totalreductionto reach in2010comparedto 1999 intons and %

Reductionexcepttransport tobe reachedin 2010compared to1999 in tonsand %

Totalreduction toreach in2010compared to1999 in tonsand %

CO2 -300.679(-7.5%)

-243.354(-7.5%)

-57.325(-7.5%)

-656.976(-15%)

-550.970(-15.5%)

-106.006(-13%)

SOX -3.124(-68%)

-2.669(-65.6%)

-455(-86.7%)

-570(-27.9%))

-458(-24.7%)

-112(-61.5%)

NOX -4.321(-44.6%)

-791(-20.9%)

-3.530(-59.8%)

-2.610(-32.7%)

-405(-11.9%)

-2.205(-48.2%)

COV -7.307(-58.2%)

-2.533(-38.8%)

-4.774(-79.4%)

-5.199(-49.8%)

-1.833(-31.4%)

-3.366(-73.1%)

POPs ofwhich

dioxanesHAP

largest possible reduction

Heavymetals largest possible reduction

Substancesimpoverishing the layer

of ozone

Banishment

Fineparticles largest possible reduction

Table 28: Reduction Targets of Brussels Capital Region

Any reduction of consumption of fuels or energy obtained will at the same time have a directeffect on a reduction of the emissions of several pollutants. This is why the Plan will be a sectoralplan, by great sources of emission, rather than a plan proposing of the specific actions to eachsubstance.

K 2 Description of Management Strategy

The Brussels Institute for Management of the Environment, IBGE was put in charge of monitoringand combating air pollution. The IBGE's main mission is to:

• collect data;• draw up and coordinate the implementation of strategic sectoral plans;• grant environment permits and ensure that legislation is respected;• take firm action to raise awareness and provide information.

In 2001, the Research Laboratory in Environment of the IBGE manages a network which counted10 telemetric stations and 35 sampling stations distributed on the territory of Brussels Capital region in


141

order to be able to characterize all the situations of reference. The network of measurement ofBrussels functions in real time gives a dynamic image of the air pollution and makes it possible toinform the public quickly.The Plan’s measures have been divided into several action areas:

• Reducing emissions generated by transport, a big source of urban pollution, through thetechnological improvement of vehicles and a policy to reduce motorized traffic. This entails the regulation of parking, plans to displace companies and improvements in public transport,among others.

• Reducing emissions from energy consumption in buildings, which are leading sources ofgreenhouse gases, by introducing a policy on the Rational Use of Energy. (RUE)

• Promoting renewable energy.• Reducing emissions from industrial activities via a policy for technological progress and the

use of products that generate less pollution. This involves regulations on the use of solvents-base products in companies that release volatile organic compounds.

• Reducing emissions from individual incineration and the household use of solvents(uncontrolled emissions).

K 2.1 TRANSPORT

K 2.1.1 Reduction of the road traffic volume by• Incentives to reduce the use of the car• Encouraging the use of less polluting modes of transport• Parking policy

K 2.1.2 The fall of the road traffic emissions by:

• Support and diffusion of the technological improvements of the vehicles (cleanvehicles)

• Management of circulation (speeds and flows of traffic) viewing less air pollution

K 2.1.3 Actions on the behaviours of displacements aiming at a less pollution

To control congestion and to reverse the evolution of the traffic, Brussels region Capital willfollow an ambitious policy, in order to support the use of other means of transport, by offering acredible alternative to the use of the private car:

• To promote a new culture of displacements, and to choose more respectful modes ofthe environment; from 2002 to 2010, the modal share of two wheel vehicles shouldpass from 1 to 10%, thanks in particular to the creation of cycle roads;

• Creation of pedestrian roads;• To increase the offer of public transport (quantitative and qualitative);• To promote the more rational use of the car: through sharing, Co-conveyance,• To promote the acquisition and the use of clean vehicles.

In addition, with the start-up of the RER, the Brussels-Capital region intends to improve itswithin mobility, and this with the modal transfer of car towards the RER; the Area thus hopes to returnon a level of traffic lower by 20% than the situation of 1999. With regard to goods traffic, Brussels-Capital region will take care to ensure better organisation of flows in transport, and will follow a policyof encouragement of the modal transfers in favour of rail, water way and of inter method water-rail-road; the Area of Brussels-Capital will also continue the development of the port of Brussels.

K 2.2 INDUSTRIAL SECTOR

Six industrial sectors were identified to be the subjects of a thorough study of their atmosphericemissions. This choice results from the crossing between the activities likely to generate pollutantsand the activities represented well in Brussels: they are service stations, dry cleaning, printing works,body, incinerators, and the fitters of air conditioning systems. The domestic uses of solvents, by theirimportance in the emissions, are also taken into account. Incinerators are responsible for emissions ofmany pollutants, the other sectors primarily of COV.


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On the other hand the systems of air conditioning contain fluorinated gases which underminethe layers of ozone or which have an effect of greenhouse. Moreover, generally of the concreteactions will have to be carried out to limit the emissions of COV and substances attacking the layer ofozone. The incinerator remains however an important gas transmitter for purpose of greenhouse(11,5% of CO2 and 17% of the CH4 emitted in the Area) and of precursory pollutants of theozoneº(10% from Nox and 12% of the NMVOC emitted in the Area).

K 2.3 SYSTEMS OF AIR CONDITIONING

Systems HVAC (Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning) a bad refrigerating installation operationinvolves emissions by escapes of cooling agents of which hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC),fluorobromocarbons (halons) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFC). The HCFC contribute to the thinning ofthe stratospheric layer of ozone. They appeared to replace CFC which have a potential of thinning ofthe layer of ozone more raised and of which the use was limited for this reason by the Protocol ofMontreal (1987). The HFC are fluorinated gases mentioned again in the list of greenhouse gases inthe Kyoto Protocol. Belgium must reduce the emissions of here 2008-2012 (by report/ratio at 1995 forfluorinated gases for purpose of greenhouse). The inventory of the emissions reveals that the use andthe emissions strongly increase. This phenomenon is due mainly to a progressive abolition of the useof the substances impoverishing the layer of ozone in various applications for which the HFCconstitute an alternative.

K 2.4 USE OF SOLVENTS

The domestic use of solvents accounts for 23% of the total emissions of COV of the Area. Inaddition to this significant part of the emissions of COV, this pollution is important because of itsdiffuse character. The content solvent of the domestic products is of federal competence. Howeverthe administrations have the possibility in their schedules of conditions of requiring that the productsused for the realization of work of painting or maintenance be free from solvents or contain somelimited quantities. The use of "burn-all" by the households is as with it a problem of local pollution anddiffusion (without control, any type of waste can be burned there under conditions of bad output ofemissions of high pollutants). The marketing of these "small domestic incinerators" is a federalcompetence.

K 2.5 EXPOSURE INTEGRATED

Regulations as regards integrated exposure of the population constitute one of the priority axesas regards improvement structural of the quality of the air. This axis concretises the strategies ofBrussels of the NEHAP (National Environmental and Health Action Plan) within the framework of theair. They fall under a total strategy, which integrates the concerns of health related to the environmentin a concept of development durable.

The regulations as regards integrated exposure of the population constitute one of the priorityaxes as regards improvement structural of the quality of the air. This axis concretizes the strategies ofBrussels of the NEHAP (National Environmental and Health Action Plan) within the framework of theair. They fall under a total strategy which integrates the concerns of health related to the environmentin a concept of development durable.

K 3 Implementation of the Strategy

K 3.1 The concerns and intentions of the population

That it is in term of choice of residence or disadvantages of living downtown, the environmentalquality comes at the head from the concerns expressed by the Inhabitants of Brussels. By way ofexample, a survey of July 1998 highlights that 38% of the questioned people mention the air pollutionis the most alarming environmental problem in Brussels and 75% of the people questioned point tomotor vehicle traffic as the principal cause. Moreover, they are said generally ready to personallyapply a certain number of rules aiming at improving quality of the air in Brussels like respecting thespeed limits and adopting a non aggressive control (73% completely ready). With regard to themeasures to be taken, the questioned people favour largely an increase in the public pressure on themanagement of the automobile traffic, except with regard to the taxation.


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K 3.2 Effect of the Strategy

K 3.2.1 Housing sector

The best scenario is Voluntarism scenario 2 – BAU 3 (Business as usual). It supposes aconstant increase of housing number and a stabilization of consumption by imposition of the standard(see below.)

K 3.2.1.1 Improvement of the insulation

• Placement of aluminium foils behind the radiators (25% of the residences with centralheating)

• Replacement of the electric heating by gas heating (50% of the residences heated toelectricity)

• Regular Maintenance of the oil-fired boilers (50% of the residences heated to fuel oil)• Replacement of 30 % of boilers more than 20 years old.• Use of a solar heater for the production of domestic hot water (2% of the residences)• Replacement of incandescent lamps by "economic" lamps (50% of the residences)Replacement of the refrigerators and the refrigerators by Class A appliances (50% of the

residences, see Table 29)

Is the aim reached? Distance from the aim to reach in 2010SO2 Yes 5.02%NOx without un-NOx No -5.99%NOx with un-NOx Yes 11.76%NMVOC No -26.56%CO2 No -7.75%

Table 29: Replacement of the refrigerators and the refrigerators by Class A appliances (50% of the residences)

K 3.2.2 Transport sectorA reduction of 20% of the traffic (voluntarist scenario) in 2010 compared to 2000 is necessary in

order to respect the standard of emission CO2 envisaged by the Air Plan, and this by taking inaccount of the starting assumptions. The Table 30 below shows the whole of the emissions ofpollutant for 2010 related to the voluntaries scenario and also shows that a reduction of 20,1 % of thetraffic makes it possible to achieve all the goals of emissions of the pollutants.

Totalemissionsby transport(road,railway andriver)

1990 2000 Scenario2010“ralenticlassique”CO2standard

AimBrussels2010

Evolution2010/2000

Scenario2010/1990

AimBrussels2010/1990

Aimachieved?

SO2(t) 525.72 161.55 48.53 70 -69.96% -90.77% -86.68% 4.08%yes

NOx(t) 5900 4437.4 2300 2380 -48.17% -61.02% -59.66% 1.36%yes

CH4(t) 300.01 219.24 50.07NMVOC(t) 6014.9 4080.5 937.53 1246 -77.02% -84.41% -79.29% 5.13% yesCO(t) 41951 25368. 7092.68CO2(kt) 764.33 826.12 706.99 707.01 -14.42% -7.5% -7.5% 0.00% yesN2O(t) 23.70 78.52 83.45NH3(t) 5.23 71.5 78.76Zn(kg) 232.80 256.62 216.64 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yesNi(kg) 16.30 17.96 15.16 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yesCu(kg) 395.76 436.26 368.29 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yesCr(kg) 11.64 12.83 10.83 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yesCd(kg) 2.33 2.57 2.17 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yesPb(t) 12.62 0.47 0.82 <1990 74.67% -93.52% 0.00% 93.5% yesHAP’S-POP’s(t)

7.00 5.92 2.16 <1990 -63.47% -69.11% 0.00% 69.1% yes

Dioxine(g) 0.21 0.03 .01 <1990 -65.94% -95.02% 0.00% 95.0% yesSe(kg) 2.33 2.57 2.17 <1990 -15.58% -6.94% 0.00% 6.94% yes

Table 30: emissions of pollutant for 2010 related to the voluntaries scenario


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Summary

Brussels has no heavy industry therefore emissions mainly come from car traffic, heating and anumber of other miscellaneous sources. The biggest source of greenhouse gases is heating. Thegovernment of the Brussels Capital Region adopted a plan to improve air quality that brings togethermeasures to improve ambient air quality on the one hand and on the other hand a diminishment ofgreenhouse gases by the year 2010. A reduction of the emissions caused by cars could be achievedby technological improvements, speed and traffic-flow-control as well as promote cycling and increaseof the offer of public transport. The usage of clean vehicles can take a contribution to enhance the airquality in Brussels. In the light of goods traffic, transport via rail respectively the utilisation ofwaterways will be focused. Furthermore in other sectors where emissions are occurred thegovernment has different rudiments to tackle emissions.


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M. CASE STUDY 7: Shore power Fishing Port of Scheveningen






Title Shore power Fishing Port of Scheveningen

Brief Description

Author(s) Felix van der Meijden, Department of City Management, The Hague

Links & Contacts

LongTerm

MedTerm

ShortTerm Comments

Strategy Type

AQ Effects PM NOx O3 CO CO2 SO2 Other CommentsHighMedLow

High LowCost

Technology


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Shore power Fishing Port of Scheveningen

A major contractor wants to develop new facilities on the northern quay of the Fishing Port ofScheveningen (Map 9), in conjunction with the local authority. These facilities originally included short-stay rental apartments, shops and an underground parking.The major fishing companies (Jaczon and Van der Zwan) as well as United Fish Auctions haveexpressed their desire to have additional warehouses (cold storage) and quay facilities for loading andunloading the fishing vessels. These facilities would be integrated in the existing plans for the areaconcerned.At present the northern quay has no usage because of limited space (present buildings are located 3meters from the waterfront). New facilities would require the demolition of these buildings.

Compliance to noise regulations is a decisive issue in terms of project feasibility. The shippingvessels are equipped with deep freeze storage facilities on board. The power for the refrigerationsystem is provided by a diesel engine driven generator. A typical engine will have a capacity of 800kW. The diesel engine runs 24 hours a day.

Acoustical research has demonstrated that the allowed sound exposure levels on the façade ofadjacent living dwellings will be greatly exceeded, when these vessels are at berth and operational.A sound barrier is not feasible because of its sheer size (19 meters high). The existing quay will looseits functionality to a great extent. Aesthetics are also a major drawback (the local population will neveraccept such a solution).

The most suitable alternative is shore-connected electricity also known as cold ironing. Thefishing vessels will have to be modified, if the project is carried out, to accommodate for the supply ofelectricity from the quay.

The cold ironing project is closely related to the development of the northern quay. Taking intoaccount the time required for designing the whole project and the many procedures involved,construction will not start before 2008, assuming the decision to proceed with the project is taken.Based on estimates by GTI Marine and Offshore and the Energy supplier (Eneco) the constructiontime will take 2 years.

Map 9: Fishing Port of Scheveningen

Geographic scope

The environmental and subsequent health effects of cold ironing are local in their nature. Noisereduction can be achieved by simply creating sufficient distance between the source and the object(living dwellings) that needs protection. Obstacles (other buildings) act as sound barriers.

FishingPort


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The Fishing Port is part of a larger highly urbanised area also referred to as the ‘DeltaMetropolis’. The background concentrations of the pollutants in the city have their origin in theindustrial areas of Rotterdam (refineries and petrochemical plants93) and from the sea (shipping in theNorth Sea and natural sources). The Hague hardly has any industry. Most of the local emissions aretraffic related. Household heating is mainly the remaining source.

To determine the socio-economic feasibility of cold ironing only the local airborne emissionsand their effects are therefore considered. When considering noise and air quality the area of impactis the port and its surrounding residential areas.

When assessing the effects on climate change (carbon dioxide emissions form the ships) thecity as a whole is the area of impact. The explanation is found in the city’s CO2-neutral policy.

Implementation of the Strategy

Include factors such as:• Legislation used / required,• Costs and revenue of scheme• Political and public opinions of the issues and support for the scheme• Technological requirements for the scheme• Problems and / or future developments for the management strategy

Legislation

The North Sea has been identified in MARPOL Annex VI (entered into force on 19 May 2005)as a SOx Emission Control Area. This means that at least one the following conditions shall befulfilled94:

• the sulphur content of marine fuels, used by sea-going vessels while being in theSOx Emission Control Area, does not exceed 1.5%;

• the use of an approved exhaust gas cleaning system to reduce the ship’s totalSOx emission, including both auxiliary and main propulsion engines, to below 6g/kWh or

• the use of another technological method to reduce SOx emission to below 6g/kWh.

The European Commission drafted a “European Union strategy to reduce atmosphericemissions from seagoing ships”, COM(2002) 595 final. This has led to a proposal for a revision ofDirective 1999/32/EC regarding the sulphur content of marine fuel.

The Commission proposal did not initially include any provisions for exemptions to the portrequirement (0.1% sulphur when operating at berth). For shore-side electricity an exception was madein the second reading of the proposal (article 4b). The justification for the amendment is cited below:

The use of low-sulphur marine gas oils in ports is a matter of high priority, andderogations/exemptions should be avoided to the largest extent possible. The use of shore-side electricity significantly reduces air and noise emissions in ports and should therefore bepromoted.

Technological requirements for the scheme

One of the requirements for the Fishing Port was the flexible use of the quay since the reefervessels do not have a fixed berth. This a major difference with regard to existing shore power facilitieslike Göteborg.

The design discussed below is part of a feasibility study performed by Koppies & Stevens PortManagement Consultants, in cooperation with GTI Marine & Offshore and Ecorys.

The shore supply of electricity is universal (6kV, 60 Hz) using cable reel towers extending7 meters above the quay. An electro-hydraulic tensile mechanism keeps the electrical cable tight,adjusting for vertical displacement of the ship relative to the quay caused by changes in vessel weightduring (un)loading and tides.

93 Emissions from high stacks get attenuated under influence of the wind but contribute, in reduced concentrations, to the

background pollution in a wide area (hundreds of kilometers from the source).94 The proposition is part of an amendment in 2000. The North Sea will be formerly designated as an SOx Emission Control

Area, when the amendment enters into force, on the day Annex VI becomes effective.


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The cable reel towers have a horizontal reach of 15 meters, 60 degrees to each side of thequay. The electrical connection to the ship is made using high-voltage plugs. A fibre glass wireintegrated with the cable provides for the necessary data between the vessel and thetransformer/switchboard (for example the required frequency). The locations of the towers areillustrated in the diagram 6.

Two stations consisting of a transformer, switchboard and frequency modulator are planned,one on each side of the Fishing Port. One of the stations is fed by the main electricity supply from theenergy provider (primary station). The other station is connected to the primary station by a 10 kVcable. This solution is the most cost-effective and provides some degree of redundancy.The best solution is to integrate the primary station with the new superstructures that are plannedalongside the new quay.

The total power supply for each station is 3 MW. This capacity is based on the requirements ofthe largest vessel and the simultaneous presence of ships - of all sizes - needing shore power supply.A rotating modulator provides the necessary conversion from 10 kV with a frequency of 50 Hz to 6 kVat a frequency of 60 Hz. A 10kV/6kV transformer provides the voltage for those ships using thestandard 50 Hz, common on land.

Costs and revenue of scheme

Facilities and buildings requiring more than 2.4 MW of electrical power need to be fed from amain power station, using a 10 kV high voltage cable. Considering the peak power requirements ofthe vessels, using shore power simultaneously, the use of the existing electrical infrastructure in theport is not permitted.The nearest (and most accessible) main power station, operated by energy supplier Eneco, is locatedapproximately 1,500 m from the primary transformer. The power station must be equipped with a mainconnection to supply the shore power electrical network, which requires an investment of € 229,000.

The energy supplier is responsible for the main connection. Considering the high powerdemand for the shore power facilities it is conceivable that the secondary power station hasinsufficient capacity. Since the energy supplier is legally bound to provide adequate capacity, thecosts of such an expansion do not need to be considered for the cost-benefit analysis of this project (Table 32).

new quay

existing cold storage

Diagram F: Tower locations


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The shore power electrical network involves a high voltage cable between the transformers andfrom the transformers to the cable reel towers. The total costs of the cable infrastructure are € 484120(in 2005 prices).

The 10 kV cable between the transformers and part of the 6 kV cables from the transformers tothe cable reel towers are running parallel (about 65%) which will reduce the unit costs of excavation.The lower costs of canalization are also possible as a result of the construction work for the new quay.The cables can be buried during the process of building the quay. Part of the cable will be laid inexisting quays. The cost of that section (about half the total length) will be higher but less costly thanthe main power cable because of the lack of obstacles and the absence of other undergroundinfrastructure.

GTI Marine & Offshore was responsible for the electro-technical design of the facilities and thecost estimates for transformers, switchboards and cable reel towers. The design includes 8 reel cabletowers which allows the use of shore power on any berth location within the Fishing Port ofScheveningen.

No Part Unit Price Quantity Costs

1 Transformers and switch boards € 2.990

2 Cable reel towers € 60 8 € 480

3 High voltage containers placed onreefer vessels while at berth

€ 85 8 € 680

4 Permanent ship modifications € 110 15 € 1.650

5 Main power supply Eneco € 229

6 Cable infrastructure € 484

Total € 6.513

Table 31: Investments in thousands of euros (2005 price level)

Depending on the destination of the fishing vessels time at sea varies from 3 to 5 weeks. Berthtime is approximately 1 day for every week at sea. Together these vessels remain approximately 700days a year at berth. This includes the use of the new quay.

The annual combined electricity consumption of the reefer vessels is 10 GWh (see Table 31).The variable costs are based on the peak tariff of approximately € 0,060 per kWh (from 07.00 - 23.00hours) and a night tariff of € 0,030 per kWh. The average price for the use of electricity is estimatedat € 0,0437 per kWh. In addition the power user pays a charge of € 0,00112 per kWh for themaintenance of the electricity network.

The fixed costs for the use of electricity are based on the available capacity of 6 MW and themaximum average monthly power consumption, estimated at 50% of peak capacity.

The number of running hours of the auxiliary engines will be considerably reduced when shorepower is used while the ship is at berth. This will affect the frequency of engine maintenance. Basedon estimates by the ship-owner the maintenance costs will decrease by € 4 per running hour. In 2013,based on 700 days at berth (all vessels) the savings will amount to € 69.000.

The ship modifications could result in loss of cargo space. The use of non-permanent electricalequipment onboard (containers) aims at preventing loss of cargo space. Further investigation isrequired (each reefer vessel must be considered separately) to provide the answer. The possible lossof operational income resulting from reduced cargo space is mentioned as P.M. in the cost-benefitanalysis.

The direct costs associated with the use of shore power and the savings resulting from reducedfuel consumption and maintenance are shown in Table 32.


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Costs (-) 2010 2013

Electricity• Fixed• Variable

€ 202.000€ 189.000

€ 202.000€ 474.000

Operational costs € 38.000 € 95.000Maintenance costs• Annual• major servicing

€ 10.000 € 10.000€ 23.000

Crew training € 3.000 € 3.000

Total € 442.000 € 807.000

Savings (+)

Reduced fuel consumption € 337.000 € 843.000

Reduced engine maintenance € 45.000 € 69.000

Total € 382.000 € 912.000

Net operational results - € 60.000 € 129.000

Table 32: Direct annual expenditures shore power Fishing Port of Scheveningen

In the first year the costs of using the shore power facilities exceed the benefits. From 2013onwards the operational costs of shore power are lower than the use of the auxiliary engines onboard.During the transition period some of the vessels still need to be modified to allow for connection to theshore power facilities. As soon as all reefer vessels make use of shore power the reduced costs offuel and maintenance outweigh the costs of electricity consumption. In this calculation the price of gasoil was assumed to remain high (price based on bunker market in November 2004) during the lifespanof the project. The higher refining costs for 0,1% sulphur content in the marine fuel has also beentaken into account (based on BeicipFranlab study).

Effect of the Strategy

The feasibility report by Koppies & Stevens Port Management Consultants has taken the use of4 new additional ships into consideration as a result of the use of the new quay. Assumptions havebeen made with regard to the size of these vessels and average time spent at berth.

No independent research was conducted to determine the specific emissions of the reefer shipsin the Fishing Port. This is a costly and time-consuming procedure. A study by Environ for the Port ofLos Angeles has shown that emissions of vessels within a single category may differ greatly.Furthermore the emissions at the time of the reference year (2010) would not compare to presentmonitoring data. The use of readily available average emission factors provided by a recent extensivestudy [Entec, 2002] for the European Commission seemed the obvious choice. These emissionfactors are differentiated in several ways:

• ship categories, based on the LMUI* Code;• location (at sea, manoeuvring and in-port);• engine (slow, medium or high speed diesel) and fuel type;• origin and destination port.

For determining the emissions in the Fishing Port of Scheveningen the data for vesselsbelonging to LMUI (Lloyd’s Marine Intelligence Unit) Code B11 for in-port operation was chosen. Thisdifferentiation takes the emission of the auxiliary engines into account.

It should be noted that the actual annual reduction of emissions will decrease during thelifespan of the shore power facilities. Gas oil with a 0,1% sulphur content will be in use in the portstarting from 2010. Ships built after 1 January 2000 need to comply with the IMO NOx Code (basedon MARPOL Annex VI). The new nitrogen dioxide limits will apply to 3 ships calling at the port ofScheveningen. Based on a rated speed of 1800 rpm the NO2-emission of the auxiliary engines onthese vessels may not exceed 10 µg/m3. This is lower than the emission factor used in the Entec-study. A number of ships will be replaced, further reducing the annual emissions.

The socio-economic benefit of reducing 1 kg of each of the main pollutants is listed in Table 33.


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PollutantEmission[g / kWh]

Valuation[€ / kg]

SO2 12,2 3,7

NOx 13,4 8,6

PM10 0,8 184Table 33: valuation of airborne emissions95

Similarly the socio-economic benefit of reducing 1 dB(A) of noise for each resident living withinthe exposed area was determined. Based on literature the value was set at € 21.

This data was then used to make the cost-benefit analysis shown in Table 34. The Net PresentValue covers the entire lifespan of the facilities (15 years). As stated before the emission data issomewhat inflated. This is particularly the case for the SO2 emissions. PM10 values have anuncertainty between 20 and 50%.

In thousands of euro’s Basic20% lowerinvestment

costs

20% higherinvestment

costsNet Present Value (NPV) € 26.123 € 26.617 € 25.629Economic Internal Rate of Return(EIRR) 36,4% 43,0% 31,7%

Financial Internal Rate of Return(FIRR) 1,2% 1,6% 1,0%

Table 34: Cost-Benefit Analysis shore power Fishing Port of Scheveningen

Conclusions

The project is technically feasible but requires a large investment in order to provide the flexibleuse of shore power facilities. As a result the project is not financially feasible. The cost-benefitanalysis shows that in socio-economic terms, the investment is feasible, even when taking variousuncertainties into account.

95 CE, 1999 (valuation data corrected to 2004 price level)


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GLOSSARY

A AACS Access Control SchemeANPR Automatic Number Plate RecognitionAPP Air Protection PlanAQAP Air Quality Action PlanAQD Air Quality DirectiveAQMA Air Quality Management AreaAQMAP Air Quality Management Action PlansAQR Air Quality ReportAQRA Air Quality Review and AssessmentC CCAQI Common air quality indexCNG Compressed Natural GasCOW Common Operational WebsiteD DDCMR Regional authority that carries out air quality monitoring for municipalitiesDTI Department of Trade and IndustryE EEMS Environmental Management SystemG GGVB Grazer VerkehrsbetriebeH HHCC Hampshire City CouncilI IIBGE Organization which is responsible for the environment and energy in BrusselsIPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and ControlITS Intelligent Transport SystemL LLCPD Large Combustion Plant DirectiveLEZ Low Emission ZoneLPG Liquefied Petroleum GasLTZ Limited Traffic ZoneN NNECD National Emissions Ceiling DirectiveNMVOC Non methane volatile organic compoundsP PPM Particulate matterR RRP Road PricingRSO Rape-Seed OilRUC Road Usage ChargingS SSCOOT Spilt Cycle Offset Optimisation TechniqueT TTDMS Traffic Demand Management StrategyTMB Barcelona Metropolitan TransportTMC Technical Management CommunityTNO Netherlands’s Research OrganisationTNO The Netherlands Research OrganisationTRL Transport Research LiabilityTSS Transport System SectorU UUCO used cooking oilUTMC Urban Traffic Management & ControlV VVPS/CN Vehicle Positioning System with Cellular Network


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