air quality management framework for india
TRANSCRIPT
Stakeholder Analysis of Air Quality Management Framework in India
Major Project Report
Submitted by:
Radhika Kapoor
In partial fulfilment for the
Degree of MBA (Business Sustainability)
Submitted to:
Department of Policy Studies
TERI University
10, Institutional Area,Vasant Kunj
New Delhi, INDIA
June 2012
DECLARATION
This is to certify that the work that forms the basis of this project ―Stakeholder Analysis of Air
Quality Management Framework in India‖ is an original work carried out by me and has not
been submitted anywhere else for the award of any degree.
I certify that all sources of information and data are fully acknowledged in the project report.
Radhika Kapoor
Date: 21-06-2012
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Radhika Kapoor has carried out her major project in partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the degree of Master of Business Administration in Business Sustainability on
the topic ―Stakeholder Analysis of Air Quality Management Framework in India‖ during March
2012 to May 2012. The project was carried out at Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation, New
Delhi, India.
The report embodies the original work of the candidate to the best of our knowledge
Date: - 21-06-2012
Mr. Kunal Sharma
(External Supervisor)
Senior Programme Officer
Climate Policy
Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation
Munirka, New Delhi- 110067
India
Dr. Kaushik R. Bandyopadhyay
Dr. Prateek Sharma
(Internal Supervisor)
Assistant Professor
Department of Policy Studies
TERI University
Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070
India
Associate Professor and MBA Programmes Director
Department of Policy Studies
TERI University
Vasant Kunj, New Delhi - 110 070
India
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Apart from my efforts, the success of this project depends largely on the encouragement and
guidance provided by many others. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the
people who have been instrumental in the successful completion of this project. The project
at Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation offered me both a learning experience, as well as a
glimpse into the real world.
For their inspiring and valuable guidance, I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to my
supervisors Dr. Prateek Sharma from TERI University and Mr. Kunal Sharma from
Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation, who were not only my mentors but also my
companions for the journey towards a successful project. I sincerely thank both of them for
their constant mentoring, support and encouragement.
I would also like to take this opportunity to thank Dr. Suresh Jain and Dr. Kaushik Ranjan
Bandyopadhyay from TERI University for their invaluable support.
Lastly, I would like to express my gratitude to my God for blessing me and to my parents for
being my role models and my mentors for life. Thank you for always believing in me. I
dedicate my work to you.
Radhika Kapoor
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
ABSTRACT v
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Sources of air pollution in India .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Vehicular Pollution ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Industrial Air Pollution ................................................................................................................. 2
1.1.3 Domestic Sources of Air Pollution ............................................................................................... 3
1.2 Regulatory Approach towards Control of Pollution ........................................................................... 4
1.3 Air Quality Management in India – An Overview .............................................................................. 4
2.0 OBJECTIVES 8
3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 9
4.0 METHODOLOGY 10
5.0 OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS 11
5.1 Stakeholder mapping of the Air Quality Management Framework .................................................. 11
5.2 Environmental Pollution Prevention Laws in India .......................................................................... 14
5.3 Stakeholder – Indian Judiciary .......................................................................................................... 16
5.3.1 The role of Judiciary in Environment Protection ....................................................................... 16
5.3.2 Supreme Court‘s intervention in improving the air quality in Delhi: A case study ................... 17
5.3.3 Review of the role of the judiciary in environment matters ....................................................... 20
5.4 Stakeholder- Ministries Involved ...................................................................................................... 21
5.4.1 Ministries involved directly in the Air Quality Management framework .................................. 21
5.4.2 Ministries involved indirectly in the Air Quality Management framework ............................... 37
5.5 Stakeholder - Government Agencies................................................................................................. 38
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5.5.1 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) ................................................................................... 38
5.5.2 State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB) ...................................................................................... 56
5.5.3 Environment Pollution (Prevention Control) Authority for the National Capital Region (EPCA)
............................................................................................................................................................. 57
5.5.4 Loss of Ecology (Prevention and payments of Compensation) Authority for the State of Tamil
Nadu..................................................................................................................................................... 59
5.5.5 Planning Commission ................................................................................................................. 59
5.5.6 Other Government Agencies (Indirectly Involved) .................................................................... 59
5.6 Associations ...................................................................................................................................... 60
5.6.1 Indian Association for Air Pollution Control (IAAPC).............................................................. 61
5.6.2 Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM)............................................................... 61
5.6.3 Suzlon Powered PALS (Pure Air Lovers Society) ..................................................................... 62
5.6.4 Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) ...................................................................................... 62
5.6.5 Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) ........................................ 63
5.6.6 ASSOCHAM (The Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India) ....................... 63
5.6.7 The Partnership for Clean Indoor Air (PCIA) ............................................................................ 64
5.6.8 Review of Associations .............................................................................................................. 64
5.7 Academic and Research Institutes..................................................................................................... 64
5.7.1 About .......................................................................................................................................... 65
5.7.2 Review of the Work of Academic/ Research Institutes .............................................................. 66
5.8 Non-Government Organisations ....................................................................................................... 66
5.8.1 Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) ............................................................................... 66
5.8.2 The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) ............................................................................... 68
5.8.3 Clean Air Initiative – Asia (CAI- Asia)...................................................................................... 69
5.8.4 Development Alternatives (DA) ................................................................................................. 70
5.8.5 Other NGOs ................................................................................................................................ 71
5.8.6 Review of NGOs ........................................................................................................................ 71
5.9 International Agencies and Bilateral Organisations .......................................................................... 72
5.9.1 World Health Organisation (WHO) ........................................................................................... 72
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5.9.2 Health Effects Institute (HEI) ..................................................................................................... 72
5.9.3 World Bank (WB) ...................................................................................................................... 73
5.9.4 United States Environment Protection Agency (US EPA) ......................................................... 74
5.9.5 Global Environment Facility (GEF) ........................................................................................... 77
5.9.6 Advisory Services in Environmental Management (ASEM) ..................................................... 80
5.9.7 Other International organisations working in this domain ......................................................... 81
5.9.8 Review of the role of International/Bilateral Organisations ....................................................... 81
5.10 Media Stakeholders ......................................................................................................................... 81
5.10.2 CMS ENVIS Centre ................................................................................................................. 82
5.10.3 Other Important Media Stakeholders ....................................................................................... 82
5.10.4 Review of the role of Media ..................................................................................................... 82
5.11 Website ............................................................................................................................................ 83
5.11.1 IFMR pollution map ................................................................................................................. 83
5.11.2 UrbanEmissions .Info ............................................................................................................... 83
5.12 India Inc. Stakeholders .................................................................................................................... 84
5.12.1 About ........................................................................................................................................ 84
5.12.2 Review of the work by India Inc. ............................................................................................. 84
6.0 CONCLUSION 85
6.1 Recommendations ............................................................................................................................. 85
6.2 Proposed Air Quality Management Framework for India ................................................................ 89
6.3 Limitations ........................................................................................................................................ 91
7.0 REFERENCES 92
8.0 APPENDIX 95
8.1 Annexure I: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) (Revised in 1994 & 1998).......... 95
8.2 Annexure II: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (Revised in 2009) ....................................... 96
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ABSTRACT
India is a developing economy faced with the grappling challenge of balancing economic development with
environmental and social wellbeing. Amidst all the other pressing environmental concerns, air pollution is surging
ahead to be one of the most daunting environmental threats the country faces today. Air pollution is not only an
environmental issue but also has mortality related health implications for human beings. Therefore, India is under
immense global and national pressure to improve the air quality and address this issue with seriousness.
Despite the urgency, the piecemeal approach of the government in tackling the problem is leading to un-sustained
short term benefits and fragmented air quality management framework. Air is a public good; hence, identifying and
understanding its multi-stakeholder base and their contribution to the AQM framework is quintessential in building a
robust Air Quality Management framework for the country.
The project – ‘Stakeholder Analysis of Air Quality Management in India’, is an attempt to provide a comprehensive
commentary on the present ‘Air Quality Management’ framework in the country.
The broad objective of this report was to identify the various stakeholder organisations in the air quality management
domain in India, determine the activity domain of these organisations, identify existing overlaps and inter-linkages
between them, assess their efforts in relation to their stated objectives to analyze the shortcomings in the system, and
thereby, make concrete recommendations while proposing a lean AQM framework for the country.
This project report provides a holistic overview of the current status of the air quality management framework
prevalent in the country while citing useful insights on the major initiatives undertaken by key stakeholders in this
domain. This analysis is the first ever study to have been undertaken in this field with the sole objective of facilitating
greater understanding of the framework in India and to study potential areas of development with regard to
strengthening the system. Further, the in depth analysis of the framework laid the foundation stone for proposing an
improved Air Quality Management Framework for India. The robust framework proposed is the first ever attempt to
diagrammatic represent all the stakeholders of the AQM network and is of immense significance to all the stakeholders
actively involved in improving the air quality in India.
Keywords: Air Pollution, Air Quality, Air Quality Management Framework, Stakeholder Analysis
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Role and Responsibility of CPCB .............................................................................. 40
Table 2: Research and Academic Institutes working on Air Quality Management ................. 65
Table 3: Summary table of recommendations .......................................................................... 85
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Major Polluting Industries in India ............................................................................. 3
Figure 2: Stakeholder Mapping of Air Quality Management in India ..................................... 13
Figure 3: Organisation Structure of CPCB .............................................................................. 41
Figure 4: Air Quality Monitoring Network in India ................................................................ 46
Figure 5: Proposed Air Quality Management Framework for India ........................................ 90
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AQM Air Quality Management
ACF Advocacy Coalition Framework Abbreviations used
MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest
MoST Ministry of Science and Technology
MoSRTH Ministry of Shipping, Road, Transport and Highways
MoES Ministry of Earth Sciences
MoP Ministry of Power
MoH&FW Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
MoPNG Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
MoUD Ministry of Urban Development
MoCI Ministry of Commerce and Industry
MoC Ministry of Coal
MoHI&PI Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Industries
MNRE Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
SPCB State Pollution Control Board
NGT National Green Tribunal
NEP National Environmental Policy
EIA Environmental Impact Association
CREP Corporate Responsibility for Environment Protection
ETS Emission Trading Scheme
UGC University Grants Commission
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
ICAR Indian Council for Agriculture Research
ICMR Indian Council for Medical Research
ICSSR Indian Council of Social Science Research
CEPI Comprehensive Environment Pollution Index
CETP Common Effluent Treatment Plant
NEPTRI National Environment Protection Training and Research Institute
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
SACEP South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme
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ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
UNCED United Nations conference on Environment and Development
CSD Commission on Sustainable Development
GEF Global Environment Facility
ESCAP Economic and Social Council for Asia and Pacific
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation
LRTAP Long –Range Transboundary Air Pollution
NEAMA National Environmental Appraisal and Monitoring Agency
C&AG Comptroller and Auditor General
IT Information Technology
IMD Indian Meteorological Department
IITM Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
SAFAR System of Air Quality Forecasting and Research
NEERI National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
CRRI Central Road Research Institute
SCOE Standing Committee on Implementation of Emission Legislation
EPA Environment Protection Act
NAMP National Air Quality Management Programme
SPM Suspended Particulate Matter
RSPM Respirable Particulate Matter
EPCA Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority
ARAI Automotive Research Association of India
IIP Indian Institute of Petroleum
NIOH National Institute of Occupational Health
WHO World Health Organization
ILO International Labour Organization
CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety
US EPA United States Environment Protection Agency
NTPC National Thermal Power Corporation
CERC Central Electricity Regulatory Commission
RPO Renewable Purchase Obligation
PCRA Petroleum Conservation Research Association
xiii
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standard
BS Bharat Stage
CPA Critically Polluted Area
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency
PPAC Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell
TIFAC Technology Information Forecasting Assessment Council
RAPIDC Regional Air Pollution in Developing Countries
IAAPC Indian Association for Air Pollution Control
SIAM Society for Indian Automobile Manufacturers
CII Confederation of Indian Industries
FICCI Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
ASSOCHAM Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India
PCIA Partnership for Clean Indoor Air
IIASA International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
IUAPPA International Union for Air Pollution Prevention
Environmental Protection Associations
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Air pollution has been a major source of concern for India, a developing economy, which is
struggling to strike a balance between development on one hand and environment protection
on the other. To this effect, India recognises the fundamentals of sustainable development as
the cornerstone for sustained economic progress of a nation and is working towards addressing
the all important issue of air quality management. This report is the first ever attempt to
provide an in depth analysis of the air quality management framework of India. This
report undertakes a comprehensive review of all the stakeholders, directly or indirectly
affecting the system and identifies potential areas of improvements for a robust air
quality management framework for the country. The ultimate aim of this report is to
design a lean and robust air quality management framework for India which will help
India achieve its mission of better air quality..
1.1 Sources of air pollution in India
In India, outdoor air pollution is restricted mostly to urban areas, where automobiles are the
primary contributors, followed by pollution in industries and thermal power plants. Apart from
rapid industrialization, urbanization has resulted in the emergence of industrial centres without
a corresponding growth in regulatory capacity and pollution control mechanisms in the
country. The high influx of population to urban areas, increase in consumption patterns, and
unplanned urban and industrial development has further aggravated the problem of air
pollution. Sources of air pollution in India can be primarily categorized under the following
three headings:
1. Vehicles
2. Industries
3. Domestic sources
1.1.1 Vehicular Pollution
Vehicular pollution is one of the most significant sources for increase in the emission load of
various pollutants into the atmosphere. Following are identified to be the main factors leading
2
to increased vehicular pollution:
1. Poor vehicle design
2. Old vehicles
3. Inferior fuel quality and fuel adulteration
4. Inadequate mass rapid public transport infrastructure
5. Inefficient travel demand, traffic management and capacity planning.
6. Poor road and railway infrastructure
7. Uncontrolled growth of vehicle population in urban sprawls
8. Inadequate inspection and maintenance facility
1.1.2 Industrial Air Pollution
There are many reasons for increased industrial air pollution in the country. Listed below are
few of the reasons responsible for increased emission from industrial sources:
1. Poor quality of fuel (coal, diesel, petrol, fuel oil)
2. Toxic and hazardous air pollutants emission from chemical industries (pesticides, dye
and dye intermediate, pharmaceutical etc.) specially located in industrial states
(Gujarat, Maharashtra, A.P. And Tamil Nadu)
3. Use of high ash coal for power generation
4. Inadequate pollution prevention and control system in small/ medium scale industry
(S.M.S) (brick kiln, foundry, stone crusher etc.)
5. Poor compliance of standard in small/ medium scale industry
6. Large number of polluting diesel ‗Gensets‘ operating in commercial area
Figure 1 illustrates the major air polluting industries as depicted by report of India (Swedish
Energy and Environment Technology in India Program)1.
1 Original source : CPCB
3
Figure 1: Major Polluting Industries in India
1.1.3 Domestic Sources of Air Pollution
Mainly four different types of cooking fuels are used in this country: biomass fuel (Wood,
cow - dung cake, agricultural waste, coal etc.); liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); kerosene and
a mixture of these. The primary source of indoor air pollution from domestic sources is
through burning of biomass for cooking. Liquid and gaseous fuels such as kerosene and
bottled gas, although not completely pollution-free, are many times less polluting than these
unprocessed solid fuels. Burning such fuels produces large amounts of smoke and other air
pollutants in the confined space of the home a perfect recipe for high exposures. About 95%
of the rural population in India still relies primarily on biomass fuels (dung, crop residues,
and wood)2 (Smith, 2000). It is the burning of these fuels which leads to indoor air pollution.
It has been estimated that about half a million women and children die each year from indoor
air pollution in India.3(Smith, 2000)
2 Smith KR. Inaugural article: national burden of disease in India from indoor air pollution. Proc Natl Acad Sci
U S A 2000 ; 97 : 13286 - 93 3 Smith, K.R. Indoor air pollution implicated in alarming health problems. In: Indoor Air Pollution – Energy and
Health for the Poor. Newsletter published by World Bank, p.1, 2000
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1.2 Regulatory Approach towards Control of Pollution
India has been following the ‗Command and Control‘ (CAC) approach for constraining
polluting activities from each source by setting uniform standards for technologies, processes
and emissions. By enforcing standards and regulating the emissions, the government seeks to
abate pollution, while this approach is effective to keep the pollution under control; however,
it doesn‘t provide any incentive for the polluter to stop polluting. It has been observed
through several empirical studies that CAC approach is sub-optimal as it doesn‘t account for
social costs in entirety i.e. they do not in general yield optimal pollution-abatement outcomes
which equate the social marginal benefit of abatement with its social marginal cost (Sajal
Ghosh) 4
A number of economic instruments have been introduced to internalize the external costs of
pollution, make the polluter pay, and at the same time minimize the cost of a given level of
abatement under given conditions with regard to production and abatement costs. Tradable
permits, emission and effluent charges, subsidies for competitive outputs, and sustainable
environment friendly inputs are all examples of ‗economic instruments‘, combination of
which along with taxes not only generate revenue but also provide incentives for
environmental improvements. India is looking forward to formulate the suitable combination
of these instruments to both penalize the polluter and incentivize pollution abatement.
1.3 Air Quality Management in India – An Overview
Air, being a public good, has numerous stakeholders which form part of its quality
management framework. Due to its public character, air is also subject to a number of
negative externalities or the ‗free rider effect‘, as it is both non-exclusive and non-rivalrous to
all. It is for this reason its protection is vital and a framework for its management
quintessential. The air quality management framework germinated with the enactment of The
Air (Prevention and Control) Act 1981 and The Environment (Protection) Act 1986, which
were enacted for safeguarding the environment. The scope for development of this
framework was provided in both these acts. Ever since, the ‗Air Quality Management
Framework in India‘ has been constantly evolving.
4 Background Paper Prepared for The Atlantic Council of USA Paper by Sajal Ghosh CII on ‗Sustainable energy
policies for clean air in India‘
5
The intent of the sovereign to tackle air pollution with both hands is clearly underlined in the
twelfth plan approach paper of the planning commission, which states that ―continuous
improvement in ambient air quality must be achieved through regulatory control over
emissions, increasing awareness about civic liability, using state-of-the-art technology and
global best practices so as to achieve the standard set by the National Ambient Air Quality, by
the end of the Twelfth Plan. Policy intervention should facilitate industrial symbiosis with
respect to environmental pollution based on the principle ‗polluter must pay‘‖.
Air pollution if not controlled, is all set to become the most daunting environmental challenge
yet to be faced by India, given its poor air quality management framework. In proof of the
statement above, Environmental Performance Index5 2012 ranking of countries, conducted by
environmental research centers at Yale and Columbia University, ranked India last in the
indicator on ‗Air (effects on human health)‘.The dismal result of India in this ranking
suggests the prevalent toxic air conditions in India which will lead to future health
implications. The World Health Organization has found that due to the poor air quality,
‗Acute Respiratory Infections‘ were one of the most common causes of deaths in children
under 5 in India, and contributed to 13% of in-patient deaths in paediatric wards in India.6
This situation re-emphasises the pressing need to counter the detrimental effects of air
pollution by strengthening the incompetent air quality management framework in the country.
AQM aims to maintain the quality of the air that protects human health and welfare but also
provides protection of animals, plants (crops, forests, natural vegetation), ecosystems,
materials and aesthetics, such as natural levels of visibility. AQM is a tool which enables
governmental authorities to set objectives to achieve and maintain clean air and reduce the
impacts on human health and the environment. Governmental authorities, in collaboration
with other stakeholders, can determine the individual steps of the implementation of this
process according to:
local circumstances with respect to background concentrations of air pollutants and
technological feasibility;
cultural and social conditions; and
financial and human resources available.
5 http://epi.yale.edu/epi2012/countryprofiles
6 http://www.searo.who.int/en/Section313/Section1519_10854.htm
6
An effective AQM strategy is dependent on a number of factors. These include emission
inventories, air quality monitoring networks, air quality prediction models, exposure and
damage assessments, as well as health and environment based standards. Along with these
factors are a range of cost-effective pollution control measures and the legislative powers and
resources to implement and enforce them.
In the wake of long term health impacts of air pollution, India‘s intent has been to enhance its
scale and scope in the field of air quality monitoring and planning; its capacity to monitor and
assess the problem of air pollution remains abysmally weak, which impedes nationwide
planning and action. The monitoring data available provides a very fragmented picture of the
status of air quality in our cities. On a nationwide scale, very few criteria pollutants are
monitored on a regular basis, making risk assessment difficult. The planners and the policy
makers in India do not have a complete understanding of the whole range of local situations to
assess the exposure levels. Therefore, poor data quality, weak institutional capacity to assess
pollution sources and the absence of an effective legal framework for air quality management
are the reasons for ad hoc and fragmented planning.
The ambient air comprises various particulates and gaseous pollutants, such as NOx, SOX,
CO, Ozone, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH), Respirable Suspended Particulate
Matter (RSPM) and a variety of other volatile organic compounds (VOCs), some of which
could be severely detrimental to health of humans, plants and animals.
According to the CSE Report on ‗Managing Air Quality‘, the overriding concern for India
today is the very high levels of particulate matter (PM) of different size fraction, coming from
various sources. A joint report of World Health Organization‘s (WHO), United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) among others called Air Pollution in Megacities of Asia,
2002, shows that since 1990, there has been a consistent increase in PM10 levels across the
Asian region, which shows a distinct regional pattern. The Boston-based Health Effects
Institute (HEI) reports that annual mean PM10 levels tend to be higher in lower-income south
Asian — mainly Indian — cities compared to middle or high-income Asian cities, including
Bangkok, Busan, Hong Kong and Seoul.
The effects of inhaling particulate matter that have been widely observed in humans and
animals include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, birth defects, and premature death.
The size of the particle is a main determinant of where in the respiratory tract the particle will
7
come to rest when inhaled. Because of their small size, particles on the order of ~10
micrometers or less (PM10) can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs such as the bronchioles
or alveoli. Larger particles are generally filtered in the nose and throat via cilia and mucus, but
particulate matter smaller than about 10 micrometers, referred to as PM10, can settle in the
bronchi and lungs and cause other health problems. The health risk assessment of the various
pollutants is an important research topic which still needs to be studied in detail.
Therefore, it has become important to reinforce the air quality monitoring framework in cities
to assess the risk of air pollution, to formulate appropriate policies to control it and to create
awareness and sensitise people towards the health implications of this grave issue.
In the past, there have been several researches to strengthen the environmental framework and
address the issue of air pollution by conducting monitoring studies, source apportionment
studies, emission inventories, reviewing the ambient air standards, dispersion modeling, health
impact studies, pollution control strategy study, etc. However, there exists no research study
which identifies all the stakeholders of air quality management in the country, provides a
holistic review of these stakeholders - their initiatives and roles in the system, identifies gaps
and existing inter-linkages between the various government and non- government actors and
recommends future course of action for improvement of the framework on air pollution control
in the country. This research paper addresses all the above stated issues to formulate a
comprehensive commentary on the consolidated present day air quality management
framework of the country and proposes a lean AQM framework for the country.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
To prepare a comprehensive inventory of stakeholder organisations , directly or
indirectly involved with air quality management in India
To study the activity domain of various organisations and identify existing overlaps
and inter-linkages
To review the present framework and provide recommendations for all the
stakeholders
To recommend a lean air quality management framework based on the review
9
3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Analysing the AQM policy framework of the country required an in depth study of all the
government and non-government actor-stakeholders of the system. To gauge government‘s
orientation towards the issue of air quality management, an extensive scrutiny of the 11th
five
year plan, planning commission‘s approach paper for 12th
year plan, recommendation report
on environment for 12th
plan was carried out. Subsequent to which, CPCB‘s Annual Report
2011 was analysed. ‗National summary report on air quality monitoring, emission inventory
and source apportionment study for Indian cities‘ produced by CPCB was studied to
understand the current state of affairs of the emission inventory regime in Indian context.
Further, to understand the AQM framework in the country, the CAI-ASIA‘s report on air
quality in India, CAI- Asia and ADB Report on Urban Air Management were reviewed
thoroughly. This report provided a bird‘s eye view of the system prevalent in the country. To
understand the civil society perspective on this contentious issue, report by CSE-‗Managing
Air‘ was read. Health Effect Institute‘s report on Public Health and Air Pollution in Asia
(PAPA) project, which aims to understand the short term exposure to air pollution and daily
mortality in two Indian cities, was also synthesized to gauge the health risks associated with
air pollution.
To better understand the policy, institutional and regulatory framework of the AQM in India
various reports was analysed. Report on ‗Evaluation of CPCB by IIM Lucknow February
2010‘, critically analysed the functioning and structure of CPCB. It identified various
institutional capacity as a big restraint in the functioning of the regulatory body.
Parliamentary Standing Committee on Science and Technology, Environment & Forests
(Rajya Sabha Committee), 192nd report on functioning of central pollution control board.
The Public Accounts Committee of Parliament‘s 57th
report tabled on April 27th
2012 in the
Lok Sabha was also studied to understand the review of MoEF‘s functioning by the
committee.
Based on the above literature review and assessment - analysis, conclusions and
recommendations were made for making the AQM framework more robust and a lean
framework was proposed.
10
4.0 METHODOLOGY
To comprehensively analyse the present-day framework of air quality management in India,
various stakeholder groups were identified, on the basis of their contribution to the AQM in
the country. Subsequently, organisations in these stakeholder groups were selected on the
basis of the prominence of their impact on the framework of the country. The initiatives of
these organisations in the domain of AQM were listed, while identifying their roles, inter-
linkages and areas of overlap in the system. An exhaustive review of the organisations and
stakeholder groups was carried out. The critiqued assessment provided the basis for
conclusions and recommendations of the report.
Various reports in relation to air quality management, produced by government and non-
government actors were accessed and analysed. Information on public domain was assessed
for all the stakeholders, to understand their roles, identify existing overlaps and prepare a
comprehensive commentary on their initiatives, through the medium of ‗world wide web‘.
Air quality experts at TERI University were also consulted personally for their expert
knowledge in this domain. Based on the information collected above, feedback for a lean air
quality management framework for India was formulated.
11
5.0 OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS
5.1 Stakeholder mapping of the Air Quality Management Framework
Stakeholders were mapped in groups according to their profiles and roles played in this
sector. Given below is a brief description of the categorized clusters:
1. Judiciary: Judiciary forms an all-important organ of the AQM framework. It ensures
that both the executive and legislative bodies perform their roles as expected. It is
empowered to provide justice in times of conflict while safeguarding the interest of
the environment and the fundamental rights of the citizens of the country at large.
Judicial stakeholders in AQM in India comprise- The Supreme Court, High Courts,
District Courts, National Green Tribunal, and National Environment Tribunal.
2. Ministries Involved Directly: These Ministries are the most prominent stakeholders of
the AQM India framework. They are directly responsible in the decision making
process for forming policy mandates in this domain. They undertake communications
within themselves for formulating standards for air pollution control and thereby
impact the system substantially. Ministry stakeholders directly involved comprise -
MoEF, MoES, MoSRTH, MoH&FW, MoS&T, MoP and MoPNG
Ministries Involved Indirectly: These Ministries as not as significant in impacting the
framework as the ones listed above. However, they supplement the work of the
ministries directly involved in the decision making and impact the decision making
indirectly. Ministry stakeholders indirectly involved comprise - MoUD , MoCI ,
MoC, MoF, MoHIP, MoM, and MNRE
3. Government Agencies Involved Directly: Prominent executive bodies performing the
role of regulators/policy planners for air pollution prevention, prevalent in both the
centre and the state were identified. These agencies play an active role in AQM in
India. Stakeholders identified under this domain are – CPCB, SPCBs/PCCs, Planning
Commission, EPCA, IMD, State Environment and Forest Departments
Government Agencies Involved Indirectly: These executive agencies assist in air
pollution prevention in an indirect way. Stakeholders identified under this domain are
– BEE, PPAC, TIFAC, and Municipal Corporations
4. Academic and Research Institutes: These comprise institutes which enrich the AQM
framework through their specialised research knowledge in technical, health and
policy related fields in relation to Air Quality/Air Pollution.
5. Non-Governmental Organisations: Various Non-Government Organisations and civil
society organisations have contributed to the evolution of the air quality management
12
framework of India. These NGOs have been engaged actively in policy advocacy and
community engagement/outreach and campaigns development in this field. Their
presence strengthens the network to a large extent.
6. Media Houses: Several media organisations have undertaken responsibility on
engaging in environmental issues which impact the society at large. The
communication outreach efforts by these organisations are concerted to this end.
7. Associations: The associations are representatives of a consortium of
enterprises/industries/individuals working towards a common developmental cause.
The voice of the associations is powerful as it speaks for a large representative sample
of people. Associations play a pronounced role in the AQM framework of India.
Stakeholders identified in this cluster are – IAAPC, SIAM, FICCI, CII,
ASSOCHAM, PCIA, PALS
8. International Agencies / Bilateral Organisations: Various international organisations,
bilateral agencies, etc actively engage in aiding the development of AQM framework
in the country. They provide resources such as financial aid, technical expertise, etc to
assist India towards sustainable development.
9. India Inclusive (India Inc.): Indian, Multinational private corporate organisations and
publically owned Private Sector Undertakings (PSUs) together comprise the India Inc.
These stakeholders contribute immensely to the growth of the country in terms of
adding to India‘s GDP. However, being responsible corporate citizens, they do take
steps to promote better air quality as a part of their environment protection mandate or
as a part of their corporate social responsibility exercise. A few of these prominent
stakeholders working on preventing and abating pollution have been identified as
follows- 3M, Suzlon, Bayer Crop Science, Bharat Forge, HPCL NTPC, Shree
Cements, Tata Motors, Reliance Industries , Escorts Group, Shell, Hira Group, SAIL,
Jindal Steel, IOCL Ltd.
10. Websites: There are many websites promoting ways to reduce or monitor air
pollution. However, we identified two such websites which are aiding development in
AQM in India, namely - urbanemissions.info and IFMR sponsored
indiapollutionmap.org.
These stakeholder groups provide a holistic understanding of the Air Quality Management
framework of the country. Figure 1.2 depicts this stakeholder mapping in a diagrammatic
format.
13
Active Media Houses:
IFEJ, national geographic, CMS – Envis,
ET, BT, TOI, HT, FE, NDTV, CNN-IBN,
Down to earth, India together, India carbon-
outlook, India Environment Portal, etc
Ministries Involved Directly:
MoEF, MoES, MoSRTH, MoH&FW,
MoS&T, MoP, MoPNG
Ministries Involved Indirectly:
MoUD , MoCI , MoC, MoF, MoHIP,
MoM, MNRE
Research Institutes / Universities:
NEERI, IITM Pune, IIT Kanpur, IIT-M,
IIT- B, IIT-R, IIM Lucknow, BAARC,
JNU, NPL, NIOH, ARAI, IIP, NIPFP, IIT
D, IIT G, NIMH Nagpur, CSIR-IITR,
IRADe, CPR, PCRI-Haridwar, CIRT,
CRRI- CSIR, TERI University, etc
Medical Hospitals/Research Institutes:
AIIMS, ICMR, Lakeside Medical Centre &
hospital, Chittaranjan National Cancer
Institute, PHFI, Heart care foundation of
India, KEM Hospital, PGIMER, Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar Institute – Rotary Cancer
Hospital, University College of Medical
Sciences Delhi, Translational Health
Science and Technology Institute, etc
NGOs Involved:
CAI- Asia , CSE, TERI, Paryavaran
Suraksha Samiti (PSS), NEWS,
kalpavriksha, Vatavaran, etc
Judiciary: Supreme Court of India, High
Courts, District Courts, National Green
Tribunal, National Environment Tribunal
International Agencies Involved: WHO, UNEP, HEI, ADB, WB, USEPA, USAID, GEF, IUAPPA, GIZ-ASEM, APSF, EMBARQ,
AECEN, ICCT, JICA
India Inc.: 3M, Suzlon, Bayer Crop
Science, Bharat Forge, HPCL NTPC,
Shree Cements, Tata Motors, Reliance
Industries , Escorts Group, Shell, Hira
Group, SAIL, Jindal Steel, IOCL Ltd.
Associations Involved: IAAPC, SIAM,
CII, FICCI, ASSOCHAM, PCIA, PALS
Government Agencies (Indirectly):
PPAC, BEE, TIFAC, Municipal
Corporation
Government Bodies/Agencies
(Directly):
CPCB, SPCB, PCC, EPCA, Planning
commission, PCRA, IMD, State
Environment & Forest Department
Major
Stakeholders - Air
Quality
Monitoring,
Controlling and
Regulation
Websites : Urban Emissions. Info, IFMR
Pollution Map
Figure 2: Stakeholder Mapping of Air Quality Management in India
14
5.2 Environmental Pollution Prevention Laws in India
A comprehensive list of all environmental laws concerning pollution abatement and
environment protection in the country, along with their short descriptions are as follows:
Indian Penal Code 1860: Chapter XIV of Indian Penal Code containing Sections 268 to 290
deals with offences affecting the public health, safety, convenience, decency and morals. Its
objective is to safeguard the public health, safety and convenience by causing those acts
punishable which make environment polluted or threaten the life of the people.
The Factories Act 1948 (Amendment in 1987): The Act was the first to express concern for
the working environment of the workers. The amendment of 1987 has sharpened its
environmental focus and expanded its application to hazardous processes.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974: Article 252 of the Act
provided for the establishment of Pollution Control Boards in the Centre and at the State
levels. Under Section 3 of the Act, Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Pollution
was instituted for promoting cleanliness of streams and wells in the different areas of the
States.
The Water (Pollution Prevention and Control) Cess Act 1977: The Act was adopted by
the parliament to provide funds for the Central & State Pollution Control Boards. The Act
empowers the Central Government to impose a Cess on water consumed by industries listed
in Schedule-I of the Act.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981: The Act provides for prevention,
control and abatement of air pollution including noise pollution and to establish Pollution
Control Boards at the state level for this purpose. It entrusts the power of enforcing this act to
the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board).
The Environment (Protection) Act 1986: This an umbrella Act which authorizes the central
government to set standards to protect and improve environmental quality, control and reduce
pollution from all sources, and prohibit or restrict the setting and /or operation of any
15
industrial facility on environmental grounds. It also confers enforcement agency with
necessary punitive powers to restrict any activity detrimental to environment
The Motor Vehicles Act 1988 (Amendment in 2000): The Act sets standards for anti-
pollution control devices. It also permits the use of eco-friendly fuel including Liquefied
Petroleum Gas (LPG) in vehicles.
The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991: The Act provides for public liability insurance
for the purpose of providing immediate relief to the persons affected by accident occurring
while handling any hazardous substance and for matters connected therewith.
The National Environmental Tribunal Act 1995: This Act has been created to award
compensation for damages to persons, property, and the environment arising from any
activity involving hazardous substances.
The National Environment Appellate Authority Act 1997: The NEAA (National
Environment Appellate Authority) has been created to hear appeals with respect to
restrictions of areas in which classes of industries etc. are carried out or prescribed subject to
certain safeguards under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) 2000: Under this Act, rules
have been laid down for the regulation of production and consumption of ozone depleting
substances.
The National Green Tribunal Act 2010: Under this Act, National Green Tribunal was
instituted on 18th
October, 2010 for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to
environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources including
enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and compensation for
damages to persons and property and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. It
is a specialized body equipped with the necessary expertise to handle environmental disputes
involving multi-disciplinary issues. The Tribunal is not bound by the procedure laid down
under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, but is guided by principles of natural justice.
16
5.3 Stakeholder – Indian Judiciary
India's unitary judicial system is made up of the Supreme Court of India at the national level,
for the entire country and the 21 High Courts at the State level. These courts have jurisdiction
over a state, a union territory or a group of states and union territories. Below the High Courts
are a hierarchy of subordinate courts such as the civil courts, family courts, criminal courts
and various other district courts7. The Supreme Court, High Courts, District Courts, National
Green Tribunal and National Environment Tribunal, are all a part of the Judicial framework
in India, for safeguarding the natural environment and protecting the human well-being
associated with it.
Curbing environmental pollution has been one of most compelling concerns of countries
across the globe. India recognises this grave concern and seeks to protect and preserve the
environment from pollution while ensuring that any such act of damage done be punishable
under the law of the land.
To reaffirm its commitment towards environment protection, India was party to ‗The 1972
Stockholm Declaration‘ which placed the contentious issue of environment protection,
promotion and conservation on the official agenda of international policy and law. India,
being one of the participants and signatories to this conference, undertook the following steps
in the direction of the protection and promotion of environment in order to comply with the
resolution and principles of the Stockholm Conference:
1. Constitution 42nd Amendment Act, 1976
2. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
3. Air (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act, 1981
4. Environment Protection Act, 1986
5.3.1 The role of Judiciary in Environment Protection
The constitution of the country empowers the judiciary to resolve disputes/conflicts, affirm
that the laws enacted are in conformity with the constitutional provisions and ensure
satisfactory implementation and compliance to the laws enacted by the legislature by both the
executive and the public at large. The role of judiciary in India has become more pronounced
in the recent past in resolving environmental disputes, as there have been numerous instances
7 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_High_Courts_of_India
17
of claims and counter-claims over the contentious issue of management of natural resources
which have led to judicial interventions in the environmental domain. The incompetence of
the state agencies and their rather laggard decision making process have forced the civil
society and citizens at large to approach the courts for suitable remedies regarding their
grievances on environmental matters. Therefore, the judiciary in the country plays a very
important role in environmental governance process.
5.3.2 Supreme Court’s intervention in improving the air quality in Delhi: A case study 8
The Supreme Court‘s involvement in policies to curb air pollution in Delhi began with public
interest litigation brought to the court by M.C. Mehta in the form of a petition no. 13029 filed
December 17, 1985. Concerned about rising levels of air pollution and the government‘s
apparent lack of interest in dealing with this growing problem, Mehta asked the court to
direct various government ministries and departments to implement the Air Act of 1981 in
Delhi.
In 1986, in response to Mehta‘s petition, the Supreme Court directed the Delhi administration
to file an affidavit specifying the steps it had taken to reduce air pollution. As a result of the
court‘s involvement, the Delhi administration and the central government started to pay
attention to the problem of air pollution. After Mehta‘s petition to the court, several new
environmental laws were enacted, as were policies to curtail tailpipe emissions from vehicles
and to move polluting industries from Delhi. However, these policies were rarely
implemented, and those that were can be characterized as largely piecemeal. There was no
evidence of a comprehensive plan to tackle the growing problem of air pollution.
In early 1991, responding to the ever growing pollution concerns, the court asked MoEF to
set up the first of what turned out to be three statutorily based authorities charged with the
responsibility of devising policies to curb air pollution in Delhi. But the court was also
motivated by its own recognition that the matters before it were highly technical, and
therefore beyond its area of expertise. The court needed a group of experts to assess the
issues and advise it.
The first of these committees was constituted in March. The court explained its purpose in an
extended judgment dated March 14, 1991. This committee came to be known as the Saikia
Committee, after its chairman, former Justice K.N. Saikia, who had recently retired from the
8 The case study has been developed from the Discussion Paper on ―Who changed Delhi‘s air?‖ by Urvashi
Narain and Ruth Greenspan Bell (http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/10466/1/dp050048.pdf)
18
Supreme Court. Other members of the committee were M.C. Mehta, N.S. Tiwana (then-
chairman, CPCB), and S. Girdharlal (representative of the Association of Indian Automobile
Manufacturers). The court directed the committee to (i) assess technologies available for
vehicular pollution control elsewhere in the world and in India; (ii) assess low-cost
alternatives for operating vehicles at reduced pollution levels in Indian metropolitan areas and
make specific recommendations on the administrative and legal regulations required for
implementing these alternatives; and (iii) make recommendations on how vehicular pollution
could be reduced in both the near term and the long run.
One of the Saikia Committee‘s first recommendations was to phase out leaded petrol in Delhi
by April 1, 1992 (Saikia Committee on Vehicular Pollution, 1991). The committee also
recommended the use of CNG as an alternative vehicular fuel for three reasons: it polluted
less, cost less, and was more widely available in the country than petrol or diesel.
In September 1994, Parliament passed the Motor Vehicles Amendment Act to promote the
use of alternative fuels, such as batteries, solar power, and CNG. Motorists using these
alternative fuels were not required to obtain permits from the state transport authorities and,
for a specified period, were allowed to determine their own freight, fares, and hours of
operation.
On the recommendation of the Saikia Committee, on August 12, 1994, the Supreme Court
mandated the phase-out of leaded fuel in Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, and Madras by April 1995
and for the entire country by April 2000 (court order, October 21, 1994). The deadline to
supply unleaded petrol in Delhi was met on time. During this period the Supreme Court also
ordered that the sulphur content in diesel supplied in Delhi be reduced from 1% to 0.5% by
April 1, 1996, and to 0.25% by April 1, 1998 (Environment Pollution (Prevention and
Control) Authority, 2001). This was the first time that the Supreme Court issued fuel quality
specifications. Starting in 1996, the Supreme Court began to act to force the government to
implement its relocation policies for large and heavy polluting industries from Delhi.
The city‘s air quality nevertheless continued to deteriorate, and on November 8, 1996, the
Supreme Court issued a suo moto notice to the Delhi government to submit an action plan to
control the city‘s air pollution (Agarwal et al., 1996). In 1996 and 1997, in response to direct
orders of the Supreme Court, both the Delhi government and the central government finally
developed action plans to curtail pollution in Delhi. These were the first comprehensive
policies on air pollution control.
The Delhi government responded to pressure from the Supreme Court and in October 1997
developed a policy to phase out old vehicles and encourage the use of CNG. But with
19
elections looming, it withdrew this policy on February 4, 1998. Once again the Supreme
Court stepped in and forced the Delhi government to act on the policy it had announced. On
December 3, 1997, MoEF issued the ‗White Paper on Pollution in Delhi with an Action Plan‘
(Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 1997).
On January 7, 1998, soon after the release of the white paper, the Supreme Court directed the
central government to set up the third of the statutory committees established under Section
3(3) of the Environment Protection Act. This was called the Environment Pollution
(Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA). According to Harish Salve, who acted as amicus
curiae to advise the court in the Delhi litigation, EPCA was set up directly in response to
government complaints that the Supreme Court was exceeding its authority and making
policy decisions in place of the government.
EPCA was asked to monitor the progress of the white paper, develop new policies to curb
vehicular air pollution, and serve as a fact-finding body for the court. EPCA believed that
more drastic measures were needed to reduce pollution, including the use of CNG, and that
the conversion of buses, taxis, and autos could take place without significant additional cost
to vehicle owners. It suggested that any additional costs could be met through state subsidies.
EPCA‘s plan was converted into a mandate by the Supreme Court in its order dated July 28,
1998. As a direct result of this order, over the course of the next four years, the commercial
vehicles of Delhi were gradually converted to CNG. Progress was uneven for a variety of
reasons, including the availability of CNG fuelling stations, parts, and buses, and the
reluctance of various key players at critical points. There were rough patches. When bus
operators who had failed to order CNG buses or convert to CNG were not allowed to operate,
the public expressed its concern through strikes and protests. And various high-level
commissions and committees made last-minute efforts to head off the Supreme Court‘s
orders. The court refused to reconsider its basic decision, however, and as a result had to
referee such issues as which sectors had priority access to CNG supplies in case of shortages.
Non-complying diesel buses were subject to fines, and by December 2002, all diesel city
buses converted to CNG.
In hindsight, The Supreme Court proved itself to be sufficiently above the day-to-day
pressure of politics that it could stand firm on the remedies recommended to it by EPCA, and
at the same time it made some reasonable, short-term adjustments to adapt to various realities
during the difficult transition to CNG. This combination of steadfastness and adaptability
helped ease a complicated political and economic shift. Therefore, the court‘s important
contribution was to push the government in two significant ways: to implement existing
20
policies and to develop new policies to deal with air pollution which led to a stark positive
difference in Delhi‘s air quality.
5.3.3 Review of the role of the judiciary in environment matters9
While understanding the role of judiciary in environmental governance, scholars have
concentrated on judicial review power and thereby attributed judicial intervention to the
failure of other organs in performing their conventional duties (Pal 1997; Thakur, 1997,
Ramesh, 2002). They argue that the intervention of the judiciary in environmental
governance is a part of the constitutional duties of the Court to uphold the rule of law,
enforcement of individual rights and protecting the propriety of the Constitution. The
interventions have been largely confined to removing structural impediments to the
implementation of environmental laws, which has provided a space for judicial intervention
in environment protection. In such circumstances, the Courts have assumed the affirmative
executive powers of issuing directions, appointing commissions, collecting and verifying
information, monitoring and supervising the running of public institutions to discharge their
Constitutional obligations for the protection and improvement of environment. The relaxation
of the locus standi principle and encouraging petitioners to bring environmental litigation by
the apex court has been hailed as one of the most important factors for the evolution of
environmental jurisprudence in India (Deshpande, 1992; Sathe, 1999; Jariwala, 2000; Desai
and Muralidhar, 2001).
Of late however, this process of Judicial intervention in environmental governance has been
see as a violation of the principle of separation of power and against the spirit of democracy.
By usurping the role of existing agencies and directing policies through its orders it has been
argued that the Court risks making decisions that may not be the most efficient solutions to
the cases that come before it. The most important criticism against the judicial intervention in
environmental litigation has been its failure to ensure the implementation of its directions
which has been viewed as a kind of challenge to the legitimacy of judicial intervention
(Dembowski , 1999; Desai and Murlidhar 2001).
9 Various parts of the report on "Environmental Governance and Role of Judiciary in India" by Dr. Geetanjoy
Sahu of Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC) ,Bangalore have been included in this section
(http://www.isec.ac.in/Environmental_%20governance_%20and_%20role_%20of_%20judiciary_%20in_%20In
dia.pdf)
21
The most important positive implication of allowing the third party (NGOs or public spirited
people) to appeal before the court on behalf of the affected party due to environmental
degradation. It is the Court‘s attempt to bring justice to the door step of the common man, for
whom recourse is a costly exercise.
In summary, the intervention of judiciary in resolving environmental disputes has led to
evolution of several new principles in the environmental governance process. The innovative
methods such as entertaining post cards as litigation, allowing third party to file petition, spot
visit, taking suo motu action against the polluter, deciding compensation both for
environment and affected party, applying international environmental principles to domestic
environmental problems have widened the scope for justice and recognition of the values of
the environment and awareness among people about their environmental rights and duties.
However, most of these methods have neither been followed consistently nor institutionalized
to make a long term impact on environmental governance process. The Court must
institutionalize the methods in the form of guidelines to ensure consistency and predictability
in the remediation process. Also, the court must safeguard against judicial activism turning
into judicial adventurism and therefore, must be cautious of the implications of interfering in
the affairs of the other organs of the state.
5.4 Stakeholder- Ministries Involved
5.4.1 Ministries involved directly in the Air Quality Management framework
5.4.1.1 Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
The Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) is the nodal agency in the administrative
structure of the Central Government for the planning, promotion, co-ordination and
overseeing the implementation of India's environmental and forestry policies and
programmes. The primary concerns of the Ministry are implementation of policies and
programmes relating to conservation of the country's natural resources including its lakes and
rivers, its biodiversity, forests and wildlife, ensuring the welfare of animals, and the
prevention and abatement of pollution. While implementing these policies and programmes,
the Ministry is guided by the principle of sustainable development and enhancement of
human well-being. Ministry formulates policies and enacts legislation at the national level.
22
Apart from headquarter at New Delhi there are six regional offices at Bangalore,
Bhubaneshwar, Shillong, Bhopal, Chandigarh and Lucknow.
The Ministry of Environment Forests (MoEF) has adopted a comprehensive National
Environmental Policy (NEP) 2006, based on overarching guiding principles that include
among others right to development, environmental protection as an integral part of the
development process, environmental standards setting, the precautionary principle and
polluter pay principle, preventive action, economic efficiency, and equity. For abatement of
pollution in general and air quality management in particular, various actions have been
suggested which inter-alia include an integrated approach to strengthening of monitoring and
enforcement of emissions standards for both point and non point sources, preparation of
action plans for cities to address air pollution, promotion of R&D, formulation of national
strategy for urban transport and energy conservation.10
The Ministry co-ordinates with other
key ministries to formulate regulatory framework for air pollution control under The Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and The Environment (protection) Act, 1986.
CPCB essentially works under the aegis of MoEF.
The Ministry also serves as the nodal agency in the country for the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme
(SACEP), International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and for the
follow-up of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).
The Ministry is also entrusted with issues relating to multilateral bodies such as the
Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), Global Environment Facility (GEF) and of
regional bodies like Economic and Social Council for Asia and Pacific (ESCAP) and South
Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC) on matters pertaining to the
environment.
The Ministry takes responsibility for the following international
treaties/declarations/conferences which deal with environmental pollution, to which India is
already a signatory member:
1. Agenda 21
2. The Stockholm Declaration 1972
3. United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
10
http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/wg_envtal.pdf
23
4. Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL) (London, 1978)
5. Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer(Vienna, 1985)
6. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (Montreal, 1987)
7. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Rio de Janeiro, 1992)
8. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
9. Helsinki Protocol to LRTAP (Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution) on the
Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 percent
10. Sofia Protocol to LRTAP(Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution) concerning the
Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or their Transboundary Fluxes (NOx
Protocol)
11. Geneva Protocol to LRTAP(Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution) concerning the
Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds or their Transboundary Fluxes
(VOCs Protocol)
12. Male Declaration on Control and Prevention of Air Pollution and its likely trans-
boundary effects for South Asia under the SASEP ( South Asia Co-operative
Environment Programme)
During the XIth
Plan, an outlay of Rs. 235 crore was planned for pollution abatement out of
the total allocation of Rs. 10000 crore for MoEF‘s planned body of work for the duration of
2007-201211
.
5.4.1.1.1 Initiatives and projects undertaken by the Ministry for Air Quality
Management
The Ministry has undertaken various initiatives/projects and environment protection
authorities for encouraging pollution abatement across sectors, for the country as a whole.
Listed below are the most prominent initiatives undertaken by MoEF in this field:
1. Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 2006: The Ministry mandates
environmental clearance as a mandatory obligation for various developmental
activities undertaken in the country. Air pollution is one of the prominent agendas on
11
http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/enf/wg_envr.pdf
24
the EIA notification; the clearance certification for which can only be obtained by the
CPCB/SPCBs.
2. Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection (CREP): MoEF launched
the charter on CREP in March 2003 with the purpose to go beyond the compliance of
regulatory norms for prevention & control of pollution through various measures
including waste minimization, in-plant process control & adoption of clean
technologies
3. Capacity Building For Industrial Pollution Management: The project is also
expected to build the technical capacity of select SPCBs for undertaking
environmentally sound remediation of polluted sites
4. National Award for Prevention of Pollution - This award was instituted in 1992 and
is given to 18 large scale industrial units and 5 small scale industrial units annually for
meeting pollution prevention goals and taking substantial and consistent steps for
environmental improvement. The award consists of a trophy, a citation and Rs.
100000 each.
5. Pilot Emission Trading Scheme(ETS): The Ministry of Environment and Forests
(MoEF) has initiated a pilot emission trading scheme in Gujarat, Maharashtra and
Tamil Nadu in the hope that these states may begin to meet the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS). It is based on the cap-and-trade market mechanism.12
6. Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (CEPI) for estimation of
pollution load for Industrial Clusters13
: CEPI is a rational number to characterize
the environmental quality at a given location which captures the various health
dimensions of environment including air, water and land. Industrial Pollution
Abatement through preventive strategies
7. Industrial Pollution Abatement through Promotion of Clean Technology and
Preventive Strategies: This scheme is an amalgamation of the three on-going
schemes viz. Environmental Audit, Adoption of Clean Technologies in Small Scale
Industries and Environmental Statistics and Mapping, which have been continuing
since eighth Five Year Plan.
8. Environmental Management in Heritage Pilgrimage and Tourist Centres
including the Taj Protection: The objective of the scheme is to prevent
environmental degradation of the area of heritage or pilgrimage importance through
12
http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/towards-an-emissions-trading-scheme-for-air-pollutants.pdf 13
http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/Industrial%20Clusters_env_assessment.pdf
25
proper management and to implement schemes relating to protection of Taj Mahal. In
the first phase of Taj protection, 10 projects with a total cost of Rs. 221.21 crore were
approved. The scheme was kept on hold pending its independent appraisal during the
11th Plan. The Ministry has accepted the post evaluation report of NEERI, Nagpur. In
order to revive the scheme in 12th Plan, the U.P Government has been requested to
prepare a Comprehensive Environment Management Plan (EMP) to be integrated
with various sectoral projects on the lines of EMP drawn by NEERI in their post
evaluation report.
9. Common Effluent Treatment Plan: The objective of this scheme is to provide
financial assistance to the small scale industries in clusters to establish/upgrade
Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs) for enabling them to comply with
environmental discharge standards.
10. National Green Tribunal (NGT): The tribunal is for effective and expeditious
disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and
other natural resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to
environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property
and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. It is a specialized body
equipped with the necessary expertise to handle environmental disputes involving
multi-disciplinary issues.
11. Establishment of Environment Protection Authorities:
I. Loss of Ecology (Prevention and Payment of Compensation) Authority for the
State of Tamil Nadu to deal with pollution created by the tanneries and other
polluting industries in Tamil Nadu;
II. Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) for the
National Capital Region for compliance relating to environmental standards,
emission or discharge of pollutants, steps to control vehicular pollution, restriction
of industries etc.
12. Funding Research: The Ministry funds research in multi-disciplinary aspects of
pollution environment ecosystems protection, conservation and management at
various universities, institutions of higher learning, national research institutes and
non-governmental organizations in identified thrust areas under its Research &
Development (R&D) Programme. The objective of the scheme is to generate
information required to develop strategies, technologies and methodologies for better
environmental management. It also aims at attempting solutions to the practical
26
problems of resource management, conservation of natural resources and eco-
regeneration of degraded areas. Further, the scheme also seeks to strengthen
infrastructure to facilitate research and scientific manpower development. In order to
achieve these objectives, research grants are provided in the identified thrust areas to
various organizations (universities, colleges recognized by UGC, institutions of CSIR,
ICAR, ICMR, ICSSR and recognized non- governmental scientific organizations) all
over the country.The research guidelines were revised by the Ministry in 2006,
supporting research in Environment which inter-alia includes thrust areas of research
and their prioritization.
13. New Initiatives: Recent new initiatives taken up by the Ministry include Institution
of – National Environmental Sciences Fellows Programmes, institution of Mahatma
Gandhi Chair for Ecology and Environment, collaborative Research Programme with
CSIR, new Institutions - National Environment Protection Training & Research
Institute (NEPTRI).
5.4.1.1.2 Review of Ministry’s Work
1. MoEF plays a pivotal role in formulating policies for environment protection and
pollution abatement. It is imperative for MoEF to address the issues of strengthening
the present regulatory, enforcement and institutional mechanisms for a better air
quality management framework in the country.
2. MoEF can fulfil these objectives by formulating a national strategy plan for air quality
improvement while insisting the state governments to prepare a more localised district
level air quality management strategy which is aligned with the national level
strategy. These policy level interventions must be complimented by aiding the
institutional agencies with necessary resources and skilled manpower to build their
capacity.
3. A separate regulatory body should also be appointed to monitor the progress of these
plans which must be empowered to take disciplinary actions when required. To this
effect, the recommendations in the report of the sub-group for the 12th
Plan on
environment do propose creation of independent National Environmental Appraisal
and Monitoring Agency (NEAMA) to be established. According to the report,
NEAMA would be empowered set up a new process for environmental appraisal of
27
projects, and will monitor the observance of environmental management plans. It is
conceived to be a recommendatory body, subject to final decision-making by the
Environment Minister. Establishing a toothless monitoring agency will be another
mistake and add more perplexity to the system. SPCBs were entitled to perform
similar functions of monitoring and appraisal but with no punitive powers vested in
them to ensure stricter compliance and enforcement; these regulatory agencies have
been fairly incompetent from their inception.
4. MoEF shoulders immense responsibility for co-ordinating with a host of other
ministries like Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Ministry of Shipping, Road,
Transport and Highways (MoSRTH), Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST),
Ministry of Power (MoP), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoH&FW) and
Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas (MoPNG) to undertake a comprehensive air
quality management programme in the country. This requires MoEF to structure a
permanent inter-ministerial task force with representation from all the ministries for
implementing fast track policy intervention mechanism.
5. The Public Accounts Committee of Parliament in its 57th
report tabled on April 27th
2012 in the Lok Sabha, has identified serious deficiencies and inadequacies as pointed
out by the C&AG (Comptroller and Auditor General) in the implementation of
environmental programmes and in the functioning of various institutions working
under the Ministry of Environment & Forests14
. MoEF must address the concerns
raised by the committee on the poor completion rate of projects under its various
schemes by institutionalising policy reforms that strengthen the institutional
framework of other associated agencies and improve communication channels within
MoEF.
6. In order to ensure better monitoring of clearance conditions at field level, MoEF must
review its functioning internally and increase the number of regional offices of MoEF.
7. To fast-track the clearance and consent management, adoption of IT-based
management system will be a step forward. To communicate the importance of
environmental regulations and generate a wider acceptance of these norms, MoEF
must plan a communications strategy to disseminate information and create awareness
about these regulations amongst all stakeholders. 15
14
http://164.100.47.134/lsscommittee/Public%20Accounts/57%20Report.pdf 15
Report of the sub-group for the 12th
Plan on environment:
http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/enf/wg_envr.pdf
28
8. Currently, even though we have the Air Act and the standards for air quality, there is
no legal obligation on state governments / local municipal corporations to meet
ambient air quality standards. This renders Air quality planning framework ineffective
in India because ambient air quality standards are not legally enforceable. MoEF must
ensure that NAAQS be given a legally enforceable status to empower the regulatory
agencies and strengthen the framework.
9. While we are planning monitoring and control activities for abatement of air pollution
in biggest cities, smaller cities are sooner than later going to grapple with the same
critical pollution levels. Thus there is a greater need for MoEF to decentralize the
responsibility down to the municipal / local and state levels.
10. Further, to achieve these targets all central programmes need to be re-organised under
a National Air Quality Plan, the city based programmes under Clean Air Action Plan
and programmes for industrial areas as Air Pollution Control and Prevention in
Industrial Areas programmes.
5.4.1.2 Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)
The Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) is mandated to provide the nation with best possible
services in forecasting the monsoons and other weather/climate parameters, ocean state,
earthquakes, tsunamis and other phenomena related to earth systems through well integrated
programmes.
5.4.1.2.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management
The institutions under the Ministry dealing with Air Quality Management are as follows:
1. IMD (Indian Meteorological Department): It provides meteorological data,
conducts and promotes research in meteorology and allied disciples. IMD provides
assistance to the NAMP (National Air Quality Management Programme).
2. IITM (Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology), Pune: It is a premiere
autonomous research Institute to generate scientific knowledge in the field of
meteorology and atmospheric sciences that have potential application in various
fields. It functions as a national centre for basic and applied research in monsoon
meteorology. IITM Pune has a separate research programme on Air Pollution,
29
Transport Modeling and Middle Atmospheric Climate to facilitate more research in
this domain.
IITM Pune recently developed SAFAR (System of Air Quality Forecasting and
Research), which is the first ever air quality forecasting system in India. SAFAR was
first tested during the Commonwealth Games 2010 in New Delhi and it provides
location specific information on Air Quality in near real time and its forecast 24 hours
in advance. SAFAR is coupled with the weather forecasting system designed by IMD,
New Delhi. The ultimate objective of developing SAFAR is to increase the awareness
among general public regarding the air quality in their city well in advance so that
appropriate mitigation action and systematic measures can be taken up for the
betterment of air quality and related health issues.
5.4.1.2.2 Review of Ministry’s Work
MoES is promoting scientific research in the country in the field of air quality monitoring, air
pollution source apportionment studies, air quality modeling studies and other emission
characterisation studies related to various pollutants.
SAFAR is a commendable initiative taken by IITM Pune, under the aegis of the MoES, to
help India surge ahead in the field of air quality monitoring and forecasting research. This
initiative will aid the air quality management framework in the country in a big way and is
another step towards building a comprehensive air quality monitoring network throughout the
country. This monitoring network when replicated to various parts of the country will guide
the policy makers to formulate a suitable action plan for improving the air quality of the
country.
MoES must work in collaboration with MoEF and MoST to build the capacity of IITM Pune
to undertake SAFAR implementation to a pan-India level in the next 5-10 years.
5.4.1.3 Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST)
Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) promotes research and development studies in
the domain of air quality management through the Department of Science and Technology. In
30
this endeavour, it supports various projects at scientific research institutions like CSIR,
CRRI, NEERI, IITM Pune, etc.
5.4.1.3.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management
The Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) is a premier multidisciplinary R&D
organization in India which is an autonomous body of the Department of Scientific &
Industrial Research under the aegis of the Ministry of Science & Technology, Government of
India. It provides scientific, industrial research and development that maximises the
economic, environmental and societal benefits for the people of India.
CRRI (Central Road Research Institute) is one of the constituent units of the CSIR. It is a
premier national research organization for highways traffic and transport planning and all
other allied aspects. It has a separate ‗Transport Planning and Environment Division‘ which
deals with research and development activities related to ‗Monitoring, Measurement,
Modeling and Evaluation of Air Pollution due to Road & Road Transport‘. It also provides
consultancy on ‗Air Pollution & Exhaust Emission Monitoring and Dispersion Modeling‘ and
has conducted a study on ‗Urban Road Traffic and Air Pollution in Major Metropolitan Cities
of India (URTRAP)‘ in the year 2002.
NEERI (National Environmental Engineering Research Institute) is another constituent unit
of the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR). NEERI is a prominent stakeholder
in the domain of air quality management in India and performs the following key activities as
a part of its mandate:
Research and developmental studies in environmental science and engineering,
environment policy, environment monitoring, etc
Advisory services to the central government, state government, judiciary and
industries in solving the problems of environmental pollution by science and
technology intervention
NEERI‘S focus areas in the domain of air quality management are as follows:
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) – VOCs, Monitoring, Health Impacts, Public Awareness
and Training.
31
Ambient Air Quality (AAQ) – Urban AQ data-bank, inventorization, source
apportionment analysis, analytical techniques, cost effective control, conservation of
monuments.
Health - Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) analysis for delineation of genetic
disturbances due to exposures of air pollutants.
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) monitors ambient air
quality in 30 stations covering 10 major cities as a part of CPCB‘s ambitious nationwide
NAMP (National Air Quality Monitoring Programme)16
. In the past, NEERI has carried out a
training workshop on air pollution management and has carried out ‗Source Apportionment‘
studies for various cities.
5.4.1.3.2 Review of Ministry’s Work
MoST promotes research in the all encompassing discipline of environmental sciences. It
promotes research which facilitates greater understanding about ambient air quality and its
implications on the environment, human beings, crops, animals, etc. It provides both
institutional grants for capacity building and individual project funding for research that
could enhance India‘s knowledge capital in this field. The Department of Science and
Technology bears the onus of steering India in the direction of research and innovation in the
field of air quality management.
5.4.1.4 Ministry of Shipping, Road, Transport and Highways (MoSRTH)
The Ministry is an apex organisation under the Central Government, entrusted with the task
of formulating and administering, in consultation with other Central Ministries/Departments,
State Governments/UT Administrations, organisations and individuals, policies for Road
Transport, National Highways and Transport Research with a view to increasing the mobility
and efficiency of the road transport system in the country.
16
http://www.rrcap.unep.org/male/baseline/Baseline/India/INCH2.htm
32
5.4.1.4.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management
It is the nodal agency for formulation and implementation of various provisions of the Motor
Vehicle Act 1988 and CMVR (Central Motor Vehicle Rules) 1989 and. The Standing
Committee on Implementation of Emission Legislation (SCOE) deliberates the following
issues related to implementation of emission regulation:
Discusses future emission norms
Recommends norms for in-use vehicles to MoSRTH
Finalise the test procedures and implementation strategy for emission norms
Advises MoSRTH on any issue relating to implementation of emission regulations.
Apart from MoSRTH, Ministries like MoEF, MoPNG and Ministry of Non-conventional
Energy Sources are also involved in formulation of regulations relating to Emissions, Fuels
and Alternative Fuel vehicles.
MoSRTH also organises workshop-cum-training programmes every year, two each at ARAI
(Pune), and IIP (Dehradun), for officers of the State Transport Department to provide them
with training regarding checking of vehicular pollution more scientifically and effectively.
These are all efforts of the Ministry towards reducing air pollution.
5.4.1.4.2 Review of the Ministry’s Work
Report of working group on road transport for the twelfth year plan (2012-17) suggests the
following measures on improving fuel efficiency of vehicles which will essentially reduce
vehicular emissions17
:
Label individual vehicles on a kilometre per litre (kmpl) basis to enable consumers to
make a rational choice. This could be accompanied by either a star rating or a
mention of the worst and best fuel efficiencies in that vehicle class.
Begin with labelling that is based on a continuous function of weight and fuel
efficiency.
Define a minimum efficiency standard for the country‘s vehicle fleet.
17
http://morth.nic.in/writereaddata/linkimages/Summary%20Highlights-8797112026.pdf
33
The report also suggests incentivising commercial vehicle owners to modernize their fleet
which is older than 15 years. This initiative will ensure that the new fleet will be more fuel
efficient and the emissions from it will also be less from the current levels.
Formulating tighter vehicle emission norms is the next step that the Ministry can take towards
the mission to achieve the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
5.4.1.5 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare ( MoH&FW)
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is the Indian government ministry charged with
health policy in India.
5.4.1.5.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management
The Department of Health Research in the Ministry undertakes various research activities on
studying the impact of air pollution on human health. The department identifies both ‗Indoor
Air Pollution‘ and ‗Outdoor Air Pollution‘ harmful to the public health.
The ICMR (Indian Council for Medical Research) is the apex body in India for the
formulation, coordination and promotion of biomedical research, is one of the oldest medical
research bodies in the world. The ICMR is funded by the Government of India through the
Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. The ICMR has a
division on non-communicable diseases which looks into air pollution impact on human
health.
ICMR has set up a Center for Advanced Research in Environmental Health at Sri
Ramachandra University, Chennai which undertakes research in this field to study the
impacts of both indoor and outdoor air pollution on children and adults. The university is also
the World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Research and Training in
Occupational Health.
The National Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH) has been actively engaged in
occupational and environmental research for over 40 years. Located in Ahmadabad, Gujarat
in western India, NIOH is under the Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health &
Family Welfare. NIOH is a WHO Collaborative Center on Occupational and Environmental
Health, and it collaborates in research with international agencies including WHO, ILO,
CDC, NIOSH and US EPA. NIOH is a regional centre/institute of the ICMR.
34
NIOH has a separate ‗Air Pollution Division‘ through which they have undertaken research
work on health related impacts of air pollution. A glimpse of their research work in this field
is as follows:
1. Health risk assessment for rural and urban population due to ambient/indoor air
pollution
2. Comparative epidemiological studies on effects of air pollutants
3. Air pollution due to vehicular traffic in designated cities / towns of the Gujarat state
and evaluation of health status of school children studying nearby traffic junction in
cities identified by the Hon‘ble High Court.
5.4.1.5.2 Review of Ministry’s Work
The Ministry must proactively engage in developing the research capabilities of its
constituent institutions in carrying out health risk assessments on air pollution (indoor and
outdoor). A comprehensive portfolio of the research work on health related impacts of air
pollution must be developed in a planned manner. The research work is quintessential in not
only determining the immediate health impacts but also to understand the future implications
of constant exposure to polluted air. The Ministry must also ensure that all the research work
is communicated through a comprehensive outreach programme to all the stakeholders of the
system so that they can collectively engage in formulating effective strategies for the future.
5.4.1.6 Ministry of Power (MoP)
The Ministry is concerned with perspective planning, policy formulation, processing of
projects for investment decision, monitoring of the implementation of power projects,
training and manpower development and the administration and enactment of legislation in
regard to thermal, hydro power generation, transmission and distribution.
5.4.1.6.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management
The Ministry of Power is responsible for the Administration of the Electricity Act, 2003, the
Energy Conservation Act , 2001 and to undertake such amendments to these Acts, as may be
necessary from time to time, in conformity with the Government's policy objectives.
35
Seized of the current and emerging pressure, both local and global, on the front of
environment management for the electricity sector, the Union Ministry of Power has taken a
number of new initiatives in addition to strengthening the existing ones. Special Purpose
Vehicle has been set up to effect compensatory a forestation to facilitate expeditious
clearance from Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) for new power projects.
The Ministry has released the NTPC18
Environment Management Report which has
numerous measures on curbing air pollution to set an example in the field of power
generation19
. The Ministry has also released an ‗Environmental Delegation Order‘ for
abatement of pollution in Thermal Power Plants to further its environment commitments and
obligations20
5.4.1.6.2 Review of Ministry’s Work
The Ministry recognises that pollution from power generation through the use of
conventional fuel in thermal power plants is one of the key areas of concern for the country.
It aims to showcase NTPC‘s environment management efforts as an illustration of the kind of
work power generating companies can do to reduce the harm to the environment. The
Ministry must ensure that the new thermal power plants to be set up in the country must
incorporate serious air pollution mitigation efforts into their environmental management
plans. This must be mandated as typically the life of a thermal plant is 30-35 years; hence the
damage to the environment could be multi-fold if the problem is not nipped in the bud. The
Ministry can enhance the supply of clean power generation in the country by mandating
conventional power generators to install a certain percentage of their power generating
capacity through renewable energy. This obligation when formulated in consultation with
MNRE, CERC and other stakeholders, will also enable the utilities to achieve their targets
under the RPO (Renewable Purchase Obligation)21
, a mandate which derives its essence from
The Electricity Act, 2003. This mandate will ensure greater generation of clean power in the
country, thereby reducing the air pollution from coal power generation.
18
NTPC is India‘s largest power company and also a public sector undertaking 19
http://powermin.nic.in/generation/environment_management.htm 20
http://www.powermin.nic.in/acts_notification/environmental_delegation_order.htm 21
RPO (Renewable Purchase Obligations): Under these rules, distribution companies, open access consumers and
captive consumers are obligated to buy a certain percentage of their power from renewable sources of energy. The
percentage varies from one state to the other.
36
5.4.1.7 Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG)
The Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas is entrusted with the responsibility of exploration
and production of oil and natural gas, their refining, distribution and marketing, import,
export, and conservation of petroleum products and Liquefied Natural Gas.
5.4.1.7.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management
The Ministry has launched a 10 point programme aimed at reducing air pollution for
protection of Taj by introducing cleaner fuels.22
The Ministry has also embarked on an
ambitious fuel conservation drive, lead & marketed by the PCRA (Petroleum Conservation
Research Association). PCRA is the research arm of MoPNG which formulate strategies and
promote measures for accelerating conservation of petroleum products, creates awareness
among masses about the importance, benefits and methods of conserving petroleum products,
promotes R&D efforts aimed at petroleum conservation & environment protection, supports
efforts for adoption and dissemination of fuel efficient technologies and substitution of
petroleum products with alternate fuels/renewable energy and functions as a Think Tank to
the Govt. of India for proposing policies and strategies on petroleum conservation and
environment protection aimed at reducing excessive dependence on oil.
In the past, PCRA has also developed community outreach programmes on the ill effects of
air pollution, caused by the incomplete combustion of fuel.
5.4.1.7.2 Review of Ministry’s Work
The ministry is an active participant in efforts to reduce vehicular emissions from incomplete
combustion and inappropriate usage of fuel. The ministry is also a participant of various
inter-ministerial committees, which form policy framework for the air quality management in
the country. PCRA seems to be spearheading the efforts of the Ministry by its multi-pronged
approach of promoting research, performing training, policy advocacy, conducting energy
audit activities and conducting outreach.
22
Detailed description on the Taj project initiatives: http://petroleum.nic.in/envtaj.htm
37
5.4.2 Ministries involved indirectly in the Air Quality Management framework
5.4.2.1 Review of other Ministries working towards air pollution abatement
Listed below are a set of other ministries of the government of India, working towards the
issue of air quality management indirectly. A brief review of their initiatives in this field is
provided below:
1. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE): The Ministry emphasises on
development of non-conventional sources of energy to complement the prevalent
energy mix, thereby leading India towards 'Energy Security'. MNRE is actively
working towards addressing problems related to Indoor Air pollution and Black
Carbon. MNRE‘s National Biofuel Policy aims to meet 20% of India's diesel demand
with fuel derived from plants, which signifies adequate policy intent. National
Biomass Cookstoves Initiative of MNRE facilitates development and deployment of
clean and efficient cook stoves to reduce indoor air pollution as well as abate black
carbon which is another step towards clean air.
2. Ministry of Coal (MoC): The Union Minister of Coal recently indicated that
industries now run the risk of even having their coal linkage cancelled if the
transporters engaged by them are found flouting norms that lead to pollution due to
spillage of coal particles that rise in the air.23
The Ministry has introduced the coal
cess of Rs 50 per tonne on imported or domestically produced coal, to be deposited in
the NCEF ( National Clean Energy Fund ), which aims to fund projects on clean
energy which will lead to the ultimate goal of abatement of air pollution.
3. Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MoCA): The Ministry had mandated Corporate
Social Responsibility activities for PSUs (Public Sector Undertaking) and given
voluntary guidelines to corporate entities in 2009. These activities can eventually lead
to air pollution control.
23
http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-02/nagpur/29495373_1_coal-mining-coal-ministry-coal-
trucks
38
4. Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD): National Urban Transport Policy24
in
one of its objectives, states its intent to reduce pollution, while also stating its priority
to increase the use of public transport and using cleaner technologies. It also aims to
incentivise more efficient-small vehicles. The Union Urban Development Ministry
will fund 80 per cent of the cost of preparing master plan/detailed project report for
intelligent transport system (ITS) in important cities across the country which will
eventually lead to ambient air25
.
5. Ministry of Heavy Industries & Public Industries (MoHI&PI): Pollution Control
Research Institute (PCRI) has been set up by Department of Heavy Industry with
Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL) as the lead agency under United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP). The objective of PCRI project is to evolve
industrial pollution control technologies with respect to air, water houses and solid
wastes to avoid unintended side effects of economic growth. The Institute provides
services industries and thermal power stations on a regular basis.26
6. Ministry of Commerce & Industry (MoCI): The Ministry recognises the
importance of environmental clearances in its ‗Industrial Policy‘. However, there is
no explicit mention of any air pollution abatement initiatives.
5.5 Stakeholder - Government Agencies
Various government agencies are involved in the institutional framework of air quality
management in the country. The most important government agencies impacting the system
are listed below:
5.5.1 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
5.5.1.1 History and Origin
24
http://www.irfnet.ch/files-upload/knowledges/National%20Urban%20Transport%20Policy_INDIA.pdf 25
http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/news/centre-fund-project-reports-intelligent-transport-system 26
http://dhi.nic.in/technology0102.html
39
CPCB was constituted on 22nd September 1974. The original name of CPCB was Central
Board for the Prevention and Control of Pollution. The name was subsequently changed to
the CPCB on 01.04.1988 through Water (Prevention & Control) Amendment Act, 1988 to
promote cleanliness of streams, wells etc. in different areas of the States by prevention,
control and abatement of water pollution, and to improve the quality of air in the country.
This was done with a view that the CPCB had to implement both Water and Air Act and
functions under both the Act were to be executed by the one agency and, therefore, the name
was changed to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).The Environment (Protection) Act
(EPA) was passed in 1986 as an umbrella Act to close the gaps in the Water and Air Act, and
subsequently, more functions were given to CPCB under this Act.27
5.5.1.2 Function of Central Pollution Control Board
1. Advise the Central Government on any other matter concerning prevention and
control of pollution and improvement of the quality of air;
2. Plan and cause to be executed a nationwide program for the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
3. Coordinate the activities of states and resolve disputes among them;
4. Provide technical assistance and guidance to State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs),
carry out and sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution
and prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
5. Plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programs for
the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
6. Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution and
measures devised for the effective prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention control or abatement of
air pollution;
7. Lay down the standards for the quality of air;
8. Collect and disseminate information and matters relating to air pollution; and
9. Perform such other functions as may be prescribed.
27
Evaluation of CPCB by IIM Lucknow February 2010 : http://cpcb.nic.in/IIMLko.pdf
40
5.5.1.3 Roles and Responsibilities of CPCB
Presently CPCB is playing multi-faced role in the sphere of pollution abatement and control.
The different roles are described in Table 1.
Table 1: Role and Responsibility of CPCB
Legal/Statutory Advisory Research and Development
1. Performing functions as per
Section 16 of Water and Air
Acts (a set of 16 functions)
2. Issues directions to SPCBs
under Section 18; and can take
over functions of any SPCB in a
given area for a specified time
3. Issuance of directions
(directly) to industries under
Section 5 of EPA; and
4. Co-ordinating role under
Rules (framed under EPA)
1. To Central Govt. and to
judiciary (as per Directions)
on matters pertaining to
abatement of pollution.
2. Co-ordination under
Bilateral/ multilateral
agreements
1. R&D on thrust areas
(Research Committee/
Linkages with R&D
institution)
2. Advanced laboratory at
Head Office and regular
AQC for SPCBs and EPA
Labs / Proficiency test
41
5.5.1.4 Organisation structure and division of work in CPCB28
Figure 3: Organisation Structure of CPCB
5.5.1.5 Initiatives and projects taken by the CPCB for Air Quality Management
Listed below are a few of the important initiatives on air quality management undertaken by
CPCB:
1. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
2. National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP)
3. Industry Emission Standards : CPCB lays down industry specific emission
standards and also general standards for discharge of environmental pollutants as
stated in The Environment Protection (Rules) 198629
28
http://cpcb.nic.in/Organzation_Chart.php 29
http://cpcb.nic.in/GeneralStandards.pdf
42
4. Vehicular Exhaust Emission Standards: CPCB specifies vehicular exhaust
emission standards for passenger cars, heavy diesel vehicles and for 2/3 wheelers.
These norms are specified for Bharat Stage II, III and IV.
5. Fuel Quality Standards: CPCB also specifies auto fuel quality standards for diesel
and gasoline on its website.
6. ‘Zoning Atlas for better environmental planning’: This programme has been
introduced by CPCB for better siting of industries zones while still protecting the
environment. It presents the pollution receiving potential of various sites/zones in
various districts and the possible alternate sites for industries through easy-to-read
maps.
7. Ecomark: CPCB has also initiated a scheme on eco-labelling environmental friendly
products to increase consumer awareness. The Government of India launched the eco-
labelling scheme known as `Ecomark' in 1991 for easy identification of environment-
friendly products.
8. CEPI scoring of polluted clusters: CPCB in association with Indian Institute of
Technology, New Delhi carried out an environmental assessment of industrial clusters
across the India. Based on this, comprehensive environmental pollution index (CEPI)
was calculated to identify polluted industrial clusters in the country. This was done to
priorities planning needs to improve quality of environment in these industrial
clusters.
9. City Action Plans: These action Plans are being made for 16 non-attainment cities30
which haven't been able to attain the Ambient Air Quality Standards.
10. Action Plans for CPAs (Critically Polluted Areas): CPCB has initiated action plans
for improvement of environment in 43 critically polluted areas/clusters and is
monitoring its implementation.
11. Continuous Ambient Air Quality Management: CPCB has embarked on the
ambitious initiative of continuous air quality monitoring.31
According to report of sub-
group on environment for 12th
plan, 46 continuous ambient air quality monitoring
stations (CAAQMS) have also been installed across 28 cities and towns. Few public
sector companies like NTPC, Coal India, SAIL, petroleum refineries, ONGC, etc.
have also installed CAAQMS in their units.
30
http://www.cpcb.nic.in/Action_Plans_16_Cities.php 31 http://164.100.43.188/cpcbnew/movie.html
43
5.5.1.5.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
5.5.1.5.1.1 About NAAQS
In India ambient air quality standards were first adopted on 11 November 1982 in exercise of
its jurisdiction under Section 16 (2) (h) of the Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act,
1981. The air quality standards were then revised (Annexure 1 by CPCB Delhi) on 11 April
1994. CPCB consulted experts in the field of air quality and health effects of air pollution to
formulate the air quality standards. Subsequent to the deliberations of experts and the
consensus reached, CPCB has formulated the ambient air quality standards for most
commonly found pollutants. Different standards were laid down for industrial, residential,
and sensitive areas to protect human health and natural resources from the effects of air
pollution. Refer Annexure I and II for NAAQS (1994) and NAAQS (2009) respectively.
5.5.1.5.1.2 Interventions for achieving NAAQS
For attainment of the NAAQS, interventions were taken at central, state and city level. While
centrally, vehicular emissions and fuel quality norms have been raised to BS-IV in 13 cities
and BS-III in rest of India; introduction of cleaner fuels, improvement in public transport
(both MRTS and bus based), shift towards gas based power generation have been some
actions taken at State level. Some local measures taken at the city level include re-location of
industries; plying restrictions for polluting vehicles, traffic management, etc. However, rise in
activity levels including growth in population, number of vehicles and industrial production
have negated the effects of interventions.
5.5.1.5.2 National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP)
5.5.1.5.2.1 About NAMP
Central Pollution Control Board initiated National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring
(NAAQM) programme in the year 1984 with 7 stations at Agra and Anpara. CPCB
coordinates the air quality monitoring framework through this nation-wide programme,
which was later renamed as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP).
44
Monitoring Network: According to CPCB, NAMP which was originally called National
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) comprises of a network of 342 pollution
monitoring stations covering 127 cities/towns in 26 States and 4 Union Territories of the
country.32
However, new stations are constantly being added continuously. In a recent report
of the planning commission33
, the network is said to have been reached to 665 monitoring
stations. Figure 1.3 shows the Air Quality Monitoring Mechanism of India
Pollutants Monitored: The air pollutants monitored on a regular basis are four namely,
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Nitrogen as NO2, Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter or Particulate Matter of less than 10μ size
(PM10 or RSPM). The air quality monitoring technology also integrates meteorological
parameters such as wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity and temperature.
Objectives of NAMP: The objectives of NAMP as envisaged by the CPCB are as follows:
a. To determine status and trends of ambient air quality ascertain whether the prescribed
ambient air quality standards are violated
b. To identify cities which are unable to attain the standards prescribed
c. To obtain the knowledge and understanding necessary for developing preventive and
corrective measures and
d. To understand the natural cleansing process undergoing in the environment through
pollution dilution, dispersion, wind-based movement, dry deposition, precipitation
and chemical transformation of pollutants generated.
Frequency of monitoring
Air pollutants are monitored for a period of twenty four hours, two times a week. Gaseous
pollutants are sampled at 4-hour intervals and particulate matter at 8-hour intervals. In all, a
total of one hundred and four (104) observations are recorded in a year for every sampling
station.
32
CPCB Website: http://cpcb.nic.in/air.php, as on 23rd
May, 2012 33
Page 12: Report of the sub-group for the 12th
Plan on environment:
http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/enf/wg_envr.pdf
45
Institutions assisting in NAMP34
CPCB, SPCBs, PCCs, NEERI, Visvesvaraya Regional College of Engineering (Nagpur),
University of Pune, KTHM College (Nasik), Walchand Institute of Technology (Solapur),
Thane Municipal Corporation (Thane)
34
http://www.cpcb.nic.in/newitems/7.pdf
46
NEERI
National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute
NAMP
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
(Programme of CPCB)
NAMP determines
status and trends of
ambient air quality,
Identifies Non-
attainment Cities
and obtains
knowledge for
preventive and
corrective measures
to control air
pollution.
The NAMP network
has 342 operating
stations, covering
127 cities/towns in
26 states and 4
Union Territories
CPCB has launched
this programme
CPCB
Central Pollution Control Board
MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest
Control
Pollution (CP)
Division
CPCB further has
Headquarters, Zonal
and Regional Offices
SPCB
State Pollution Control Board
(States)
PCC
Pollution Control Committees
(Union Territories)
IMD Indian Meteorological Department
Air Criterion Monitored : Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) , Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) , Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) , Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter
(RSPM/PM10) , CO, NH3, Benzo(a)pyrene B(a)P, O3 , Lead, Nickel and Arsenic Wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity and temperature
Air Quality Monitoring Network
MoES
Ministry of Earth Sciences
IITM
Indian Institute of Tropical
Meteorology
SAFAR
System of Air Quality Forecasting and
Research
Provides assistance
to NAMP
Provides assistance
to NAMP
Provides assistance
to NAMP
Provides assistance
to NAMP
Figure 1.3 Air Quality Monitoring Network in India Figure 4: Air Quality Monitoring Network in India
47
5.5.1.5.2.2 Review of NAMP
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) [Refer Annexure II], developed by
the CPCB, lay standards for 12 air pollutants – SO2, NO2, PM10, PM2.5, Lead, Ammonia,
Arsenic, Nickel, Ozone, Benzene, Benzo(a)pyrene (BAP) & Carbon Monoxide. These
standards are applicable for two types of areas namely ‗Industrial, Residential, Rural and
other areas‘ and ‗Ecologically Sensitive Area (notified by Central Government).
Under National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP), four air pollutants viz .,
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Nitrogen as NO2, Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM / PM10) have been identified for
regular monitoring at all the locations. In some stations additional parameters like respirable
lead, toxic metals, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and PAHs are also being studied. The
monitoring frequency is 104 observations in a year (twice weekly) with gases being sampled
4 hourly and particulate matter (PM) 8 hourly. Based on the studies, it has been observed that
72 cities do not meet the standards35
. CPCB is incurring Rs. 3.56 Cr annually on this
scheme36
.
Also, there are a number of other hazardous pollutants like Volatile Organic Compound
(VOC), Benzene Toluene Xylene (BTX), Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), etc, present
in the ambient atmosphere, which are neither monitored nor any standards have been
prescribed for them.
Under the NAMP, Central Pollution Control Board is regularly monitoring criteria pollutants
such as PM10, SO2 and NOx at 411 monitoring stations across 167 cities in the country.
Monitoring has also been carried out for other pollutants like PM2.5, Ammonia, Ozone,
Carbon monoxide, Hydrocarbons (Benzene Toluene and Xylene), Poly-aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) at selected locations in the country. Analysis of long term trends (1995-
2009) of air pollutants show that while SO2 has been under control, NOx has exceeded in 11-
23% cities during last 15 years.
RSPM has consistently remained a major concern for the country as 82-100% cities exceeded
the standards in last 10 years (1999-2009). Current, air quality data for the year 2010 reveals
that the annual average concentration of SO2 is within the limit (50 μg/m3), while levels of
NO2 have exceeded the limit (40 μg/m3) in Asansol, Dhanbad, Delhi, Jamshedpur, Kolkata,
35
http://cpcb.nic.in/Non_attainment.php 36
Evaluation of CPCB by IIM Lucknow February 2010 : http://cpcb.nic.in/IIMLko.pdf
48
Meerut and Mumbai. The annual average standard of PM10 (annual average – 60 μg/m3) was
exceeded in most of the cities, except Chennai, Kochi and Madurai during 2010.
Rise in vehicular fleet has caused an increase in the NOx concentrations at most of the urban
centres, which makes this an emerging pollutant of concern for future. It is interesting to note
that the ‗104 measurements‘ as specified as the ideal frequency of measurement of the
observations, is not met at any monitoring station due to various reasons. This number should
be realistically modified.
Air quality network is presently insufficient not only in terms of number of stations but also
in the parameters needs to be monitored. Only 3 criteria pollutants are regularly monitored at
all the stations as against 12 specified in the revised NAAQS. In spite of 34 years of its
existence, CPCB has not been able to complete the inventorization of air polluting sources.
Parameter Wise Findings under NAMP37
i. SO2
As per CPCB, SO2 levels are within the prescribed National Ambient Air Quality Standards
in residential areas of all the cities. A decreasing trend has been observed in SO2 levels in
cities like Delhi, Lucknow etc. Decreasing trend may be due to various interventions that
have taken place in recent years such as reduction of sulphur in diesel, use of cleaner fuel
such as CNG in Delhi. Other measures include implementation of Bharat Stage-III emission
norms for new vehicles and commensurate fuel quality. Also there has been a change in
domestic fuel used from coal to LPG which may have contributed to reduction in ambient
levels of SO2.
ii. NO2
As per CPCB, NO2 levels are within the prescribed National Ambient Air Quality Standards
in residential areas of most of the cities. The reasons for low levels of NO2 may be various
measures taken such as banning of old vehicles, better traffic management etc. Fluctuating
trends have been observed in NO2 levels. Various measures such as implementation of Bharat
Stage-III norms etc have been taken to mitigate ambient NO2 levels but at the same time
number of vehicles have increased exponentially.
37
http://cpcb.nic.in/Findings.php
49
iii. RSPM
As per CPCB, RSPM levels exceed prescribed NAAQS in residential areas of many cities.
Fluctuating trends have been observed in RSPM levels. Various measures such as
implementation of Bharat Stage-III norms etc have been taken to mitigate ambient RSPM
levels but at the same time number of vehicles have increased exponentially. The reason for
high particulate matter levels may be vehicles, engine gensets, small scale industries, biomass
incineration, re-suspension of traffic dust, commercial and domestic use of fuels, etc.
iv. CO
High levels of CO might be attributed to increase in vehicular population especially
passenger cars in Delhi. Despite an increase in number of vehicles, CO levels have reduced
during last few years. The decrease may be attributed to measures such as conversion of three
wheelers of CNG in Delhi.
5.5.1.6 Review of CPCB Functioning
Provided below is a comprehensive critique of the functioning of CPCB and potential areas
of improvement.
1. CPCB Member Composition:
Parliamentary Standing Committee on Science and Technology, Environment & Forests
(Rajya Sabha Committee) in its 192nd report on functioning of central pollution control
board stated that the composition of CPCB was dominated by Government representatives
and constituted by central government. It expressed its displeasure with this composition and
re-iterated its discomfort over the fact that no qualifications or criteria had been fixed for
Members of such an important technical and scientific body. The report states ―The eligibility
criteria for Chairman prescribing a person having special knowledge or practical experience
in respect of matters relating to environmental protection or a person having knowledge and
experience in administering institution dealing with the matters aforesaid are too general and
vague as to accommodate anyone who is even distantly related with environment.‖ CPCB
must therefore review its internal organisational structure and Human Resource policies to
50
institutionalise the key competency requirement of the personnel as an important criterion for
selection of the candidate for the position.
2. Shortage of Technical Staff:
CPCB suffers an acute shortage of technical staff in CPCB. Though the Board has
sophisticated equipments to monitor various types of pollution they do not have sufficient
technical manpower to handle it. Technical Staff comprised only 48 percent of total staff in
2004-05. Moreover, out of its 236 technical staff only half are in the officer grade. The
shortage of technical manpower is far more acute in various state pollution control boards and
leads to mismanagement of resources leading to failure of the institutional machinery.
3. Training of Staff:
Training of staff is another area of concern for CPCB, given that controlling pollution is one
of the most important functions of CPCB which requires sufficient scientific and technical
expertise. Personnel at CPCB must be imparted multi disciplinary training especially in the
domain of air quality monitoring which requires special expertise.
4. Remunerations of Staff:
The Parliamentary Standing Committee38
in its report stated that the remunerations for
officers and staff of CPCB are not lucrative enough to attract talented people and contain the
attrition rates. The report also states that experienced people from CPCB are hired by
corporate sector by offering attractive remuneration and in the process valuable experience is
lost. This is one of the most daunting human resource tasks for CPCB. CPCB must
incentivize and reward achievers within the organisation. The employee and staff must grow
with the organisation for the organisation to grow successfully.
5. Organisation Structure:
38
Parliamentary Standing Committee on Science and Technology, Environment & Forests (Rajya Sabha Committee), 192nd
report on functioning of central pollution control board
51
CPCB and SPCBs are two independent yet parallel regulatory agencies entrusted with the
powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and
designated with the task of monitoring and controlling of air pollution in the country. CPCB
restricts itself primarily to the role of advising and coordination, whereas the important task
of prevention and control of air pollution & ensuring compliance through the tools of
monitoring and vigilance rests with SPCBs, all of which are operating at their own will and
pace. CPCB‘s role in compliance and enforcement has been mostly indirect through SPCBs.
This dichotomy of the work description has limited CPCB‘s role to an advisory function
rather than a regulatory agency. The division of work must be re-distributed to empower both
CPCB and SPCBs.
6. Industrial Clearance licences:
The Parliamentary Standing Committee28
in its report confirms that environment clearances
for mining, setting up of industries, etc. are given by the central or state government
concerned and that CPCB or SPCBs do not have any say in these matters. The report affirms
that they are not even consulted or informed and that the Boards come in the picture only
after the clearance has been given to set up industry with their role limited to giving a
pollution control standard for effluent discharge, emission, etc. Hence, the report states that
both CPCB and SPCBs do not have any decisive say to prevail upon the industries to make
them follow these standards. This is a grave concern for any regulatory agency assigned with
a daunting task of controlling industrial pollution. The pollution control boards both at state
and central level must be empowered as autonomous regulatory agencies with punitive
powers.
7. Ambient Air Quality Network:
The Parliamentary committee‘s report28
has made recommendations for the ambient air
quality monitoring network in country should be strengthened and expanded from the current
332 stations to at least 1000 stations. The report suggested expanding the network to 15 cities
per year so as to cover the 76 non-compliant cities over a period of five years. The network of
city monitoring stations should broadcast a daily alert on air pollution levels. The air
pollution health index should be used to alert people of the health risks in their cities. The
report suggests that this should be done within a time-bound manner keeping in mind the
52
growing environmental concerns. To this effect, there has been an addition of 46 new
ambient air quality monitoring stations during the 11th Plan, taking the total network air
quality monitoring stations to 66539
.
5.5.1.7 Suggested Measures to Empower CPCB
1. Command and Control
The present framework of CPCB and SPCBs working as independent and autonomous entity
in their own capacity with no central authority to command and control, has led to a weak
institutional mechanism. The role of ensuring compliance by way of inspection, vigilance and
sampling falls under the domain of SPCBs with CPCB acting merely as a guiding and
coordinating body. The end result is that SPCBs are masters in their own rights and they do
whatever they desire.
So far the CPCB is only coordinating and monitoring the environmental quality. Its role
should be expanded to include compliance and enforcement. It is also extremely important
that CPCB be in a commanding position and that it adopts a participatory approach in the
enforcement responsibility of SPCBs.
2. Make Autonomous
It is imperative that CPCB be restructured as an autonomous statutory authority with the
mandate not only to develop regulations and fix up standards but also to ensure enforcement
and compliance. The entity must be empowered to function independently of the government
both financially and operationally. CPCB should develop capacity as an independent
regulatory agency. It must undertake advisory roles in suggesting alternatives for meeting
those standards in coordination with other Scientific and Technical Departments in
independent capacity.
3. Punitive Powers
39 Report of the sub-group on the environment - 12th Plan, Pg 12
http://www.researchatsashwaat.com/various_report_files/20111005045128_192%20-
%20Functioning%20of%20Central%20Pollution%20Control%20Board.pdf
53
The principle of polluters pay should also be enforced. A mechanism to empower CPCB
should be developed, to allow CPCB to impose financial fines on polluting industries/people.
Any industry is affected most when it is implicated financially. Therefore, to ensure pollution
compliance to the standards across sectors, it will be ideal to impose administrative fines. It is
also seen that the penalties imposed when any pollution related violation is observed is a
trifle amount for large polluting industries and so it doesn‘t fulfil its purpose of a negative
reinforcement for such corporations. Therefore, the administered fines must be adjusted to the
financial strength of the organisation to ensure compliance at all cost. These fines must be
utilised to build capacity of these regulatory institutions and their facilities.
4. Statutory and Legal Support
The Parliamentary committee28
made an important recommendation in its report on the
evaluation of CPCB. It states ―Central Pollution Control Board needs to be given adequate
statutory and legal support to make it effective and functional and for this purpose its
constitution under Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 needs to be urgently
reviewed. The Committee recommends that environment protection should be included as an
item in the seventh schedule to the constitution in the concurrent list and CPCB be brought
under its ambit with all necessary powers and functions to meet the challenges that pollution
and its after effects pose before us without disturbing the federal character of our constitution.
This new body should be given functional as well as financial autonomy so that it can
discharge its duties without fear or favour.‖ This is an important recommendation from the
perspective of making CPCB, an independent regulatory agency to aid its effectiveness and
functioning.
5. Information & Operational Transparency
The information collected by CPCB must be made public in due time which is not the case
right now. This should be complemented with complete transparency in its functioning.
Along with the scientific data, legal data regarding laws suits, cases of non compliance
should also be made available in public domain through its official website so as to ensure
operational transparency.
6. Representation in State Pollution Control Board
54
CPCB should have a stake in the governance of all SPCBs for strengthening the
communication channels between the two primary regulatory and enforcement agencies. It
must also ensure adequate representation in all the state pollution control bodies so as to
ensure proper enforcement of directives and implementation of standards issued by CPCB.
7. Performance Review of CPCB
Presently there is no inbuilt performance review system of CPCB at regular interval by
MoEF. The review should include both performance budgeting and perspective planning of
CPCB. This exercise should be done at annual level between the CPCB and MoEF. It will
facilitate coordination between the two agencies and the problem (if any) arises at any level
can be nipped in the bud.
8. Financial Independence
Besides, the grant from Government of India, CPCB should secure release of 20% of cess
collected by the state boards and which is retained in consolidate fund of Government of
India at Ministry of Finance. CPCB should also generate its own fund by providing technical
services in the form of sample testing, trainings and providing technologies to various
stakeholders. CPCB has to ensure that while utilizing its scientific experts to provide
consultancy for fund generation, its core mandate and functions should not be sacrificed in
terms of quality and quantity. For this purpose CPCB should have a clear policy of
developing its own corpus over the years and should strictly adhere to it.40
The IIM (Indian Institute of Management) Lucknow report on the evaluation of CPCB (2010)
has set certain targets for the CPCB under its KOGMA (Key objectives, Goals, Measures,
Targets, Activities) scheme for better functioning of CPCB. These targets would require 550
additional posts, which will cost CPCB an additional Rs. 18 crores per annum.
Availability of financial resources should be ensured if CPCB has to perform its mandates
efficiently. Presently CPCB is entirely dependent on Government for funds. Accordingly,
there must be quantum jump in financial support by Government to CPCB. Government
should provide funds for strengthening the labs of CPCB and its zonal offices, infrastructure
40
Evaluation of CPCB by IIM Lucknow February 2010 : http://cpcb.nic.in/IIMLko.pdf
55
expansion at CPCB head office and Shillong zonal office, and computerization and
Environmental Data Base Management. It has been estimated that a one-time grant of Rs.
80.00 crores (excluding the cost of additional technical manpower of Rs. 18 crores) would be
required to strengthen the CPCB on all the above counts.
9. More communication with other ministries
There is a need for closer coordination with other Ministries and organizations which are
directly or indirectly related to pollution control. CPCB has to create its own space in the
entire domain of pollution control without it being excessively dependent on MoEF
directions.
10. Data repository & Information Technology implementation
CPCB should have strong database related to its activities and the same should be put in the
public domain through CPCB Envis41
. CPCB does not update its achievements frequently on
the public domain. In the digital age of technology, CPCB should facilitate computerization
of all processes of the pollution control board to achieve efficiency in all its internal
processes.
41
http://cpcbenvis.nic.in/aboutus/introduction.htm
56
5.5.2 State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB)
In India, 28 states have SPCBs (State Pollution Control Boards) and 7 Union Territories have
PCCs (Pollution control Committees) respectively.
World Bank's Industrial Pollution Prevention Project (IPP) & Environmental Management
Capacity Building Technical Assistance Project (EMCBTA) which was signed in 1997
facilitates strengthening of 22 pollution control boards/PCCs. The list of these states is as
follows:
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, New Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa,
Pondicherry, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal
5.5.2.1 Functions of State Pollution Control Boards
1. To plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control or abatement of air
pollution and to secure the execution thereof;
2. To advise the State government on any matter concerning prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
3. To collaborate with CPCB in organizing training of persons, engaged or to be
engaged in a program relating to prevention control or abatement of air pollution and
to organize mass-education programs relating thereto;
4. To inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or
manufacturing process and to give, by order, such direction to such persons as may
considered necessary to take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air
pollution;
5. To inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think necessary,
assess the quality of air therein, and take steps for prevention control or abatement of
air pollution in such areas;
6. To lay down, in consultation with CPCB and having regard to the standards for the
quality of air it lays down, standards for emissions of air pollutants into the
atmosphere from industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air
pollutant into the atmosphere from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an
aircraft;
57
7. To advise the State government with respect to the suitability of any premises from
time to time, entrusted to it by CPCB or the State government to do such other things
and to perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the proper discharge of its
functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the purposes of the Act.
State government in consultation with SPCBs have powers to designate particular areas as
―air pollution control areas‖. State governments, in consultation with SPCBs, may impose
certain conditions on such areas, by making a notification in the official gazette, to prohibit
the use of any fuel or appliance other than approved ones or the burning of any material
(other than fuel) such as garbage and other waste products which may cause or is likely to
cause air pollution. It is further provided under Section 21 of the Air Act that a person has to
get the previous consent of a SPCB for establishing or operating any industrial plants in the
air pollution control areas. Similarly, Section 22 prohibits a person from operating any
industrial plant in any air pollution control area to discharge or cause or permit to be
discharged the emission of air pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by the SPCB
concerned.
5.5.2.2 Review of SPCBs
According to the report of the sub-group on environment for the 12th
Plan, at present only 3
SPCBs out of 35 get financial support from their respective States. Other SPCBs which are
not financially supported by their State Governments with little or no resources of their own,
find it difficult to monitor the environmental compliance. These States and the ones which do
not get assistance under national, multilateral or bilateral programmes need to be
strengthened to develop their capabilities. In addition, there are States which are not
industrially developed but have large number of small-scale industrial units which have
adverse impact on human health and environment. The ecology is also more vulnerable to
assimilation of pollution in these regions. These SPCBs require additional financial support
from the central government to build their own capacity.
5.5.3 Environment Pollution (Prevention Control) Authority for the National Capital
Region (EPCA)
58
EPCA for National Capital Region was constituted under sub-section (3) of Section 3 of the
Environment Protection Act, 1986 on 29th
January, 1998 vide S.O. No. 93(E) dated January
29, 1998 under the Chairmanship of Sh. Bhure Lal. The tenure of the EPCA was extended
from time to time, and at present extended upto 28th
January, 2013. The issues considered by
the Authority include environment related matters, covering vehicular pollution control,
sewage treatment and assessment of operations and handing over of Common Effluent
Treatment Plants (CETPs) in NCR (National Capital Region).
To the concerned societies, monitoring of action plans for improvement of air quality in
seven metro cities etc. and in addition, the matters referred to it by Hon‘ble Supreme Court in
its various Judgments. EPCA is reporting the compliance status and special tasks assigned to
it to the Hon‘ble Supreme Court from time to time.
5.5.3.1 Terms of Reference of EPCA
EPCA shall exercise the following powers and perform functions for protecting and
improving the quality of environment and prevention and control of environmental pollution:
1. Exercise the powers under Section 5 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986 for
issuing directions in respect of complaints pertaining to violation of environmental
standards, industrial location, pollution prevention and hazardous waste handling;
2. Take all necessary steps to ensure compliance of specified emission standards by
vehicles;
3. Issue directions under Section 5 of the said Act, including banning or restricting an
industry, process of operation emitting noise;
4. Deal with environmental issues pertaining to the National Capital Region;
5. Monitor the progress of the action plan for control of pollution drawn up by MoEF as
contained in the White Paper on Pollution in Delhi with Action Plan; and
6. Exercise the power of entry, inspection, search and seizure under Section 10 of the
said Act.
The above powers and functions of EPCA are subject to the supervision and control of the
Central Government. The Authority shall have its headquarters in the National Capital
Region and shall furnish a progress report of its activities at least once in 2 months to the
Central Government.
59
5.5.4 Loss of Ecology (Prevention and payments of Compensation) Authority for the
State of Tamil Nadu
In compliance with the Hon‘ble Supreme Court‘s order dated August 28, 1998 in Writ
Petition (Civil) No. 914 of 1991 viz. Vellore Citizen‘s Welfare Forum versus Union of India
and Others, the Ministry constituted the Loss of Ecology (Prevention and payments of
Compensation) Authority for the State of Tamil Nadu under the Chairmanship of a retired
Judge of madras High Court vide notification SO 671 (E) dated September 30, 1996, to deal
with the situation created by the tanneries and other pollution industries in Tamil Nadu. The
tenure of the authority has been extended until further orders in compliance with the Hon‘ble
Supreme Court‘s order dated 28th
February, 2011.
5.5.5 Planning Commission
The Planning Commission was set up by a Resolution of the Government of India in March
1950 in pursuance of declared objectives of the Government to promote a rapid rise in the
standard of living of the people by efficient exploitation of the resources of the country,
increasing production and offering opportunities to all for employment in the service of the
community. The Planning Commission was charged with the responsibility of making
assessment of all resources of the country, augmenting deficient resources, formulating plans
for the most effective and balanced utilisation of resources and determining priorities.
The Planning commission is an important stakeholder of the Air Quality Management
framework of the country. ‗Environment and Forest Division‘ of the Planning Commission
forms a working group for the five year plans, where it addresses air pollution issues. The
working group report on Environment and Environmental Regulatory Mechanism in
environment and forests for the 11th five year plan has a dedicated Chapter 4 on air pollution
and air quality management. This report covers in detail the pitfalls and the areas of
improvement in air quality management.
5.5.6 Other Government Agencies (Indirectly Involved)
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell (PPAC),
Technology Information Forecasting Assessment Council (TIFAC) and other Local
60
Municipal Corporations are other government agency stakeholders who are undertaking small
steps in their own capacity to improve air quality in the country. Listed below is the review of
the initiatives taken by these agencies:
1. Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE): BEE‘s objective is of reducing energy intensity
of the Indian economy through increased adoption of energy efficiency across sectors.
2. Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell (PPAC): PPAC provides authentic data for
policy analysis in the hydrocarbon sector. It comes up with studies on petroleum
products, their demands and their pricing. It also engages in planning policy for the
MoPNG.
3. Technology Information Forecasting Assessment Council (TIFAC): As the Indian
National Member Organisation (NMO) for IIASA(International Institute for Applied
Systems Analysis), TIFAC‘s role is to primarily identify, initiate and catalyze
collaborative activities that utilize IIASA‘s strengths thorough the India-IIASA
Programme which is guided an Indian National committee chaired by Dr Kirit S
Parikh, Member Planning Commission.
IIASA-TIFAC-NEERI organised a Workshop on Feb 6-9, 2012 offer insight into the
methodology and practical hands-on experience to users of IIASA‘s GAINS42
(Greenhouse gas – Air pollution Interactions and Synergies) model. The primary
audience was national and regional experts who analyze and process data for the
whole air pollution cycle at national and regional level. GAINS methodology of
calculating emissions of air pollutants and GHGs, costs of emission control strategies,
and the resulting environmental impacts was introduced through presentations and
trainings.43
4. Local Municipal Corporations: These bodies look into taking local actions towards
improving transport and mobility issues to reduce air pollution in their constituencies.
5.6 Associations
Associations form an important part of the stakeholder group of the air quality management
framework of the country.
42
http://gains.iiasa.ac.at/index.php/gains-asia 43
http://www.neeri.res.in/pdf/IIASA.pdf
61
5.6.1 Indian Association for Air Pollution Control (IAAPC)44
IAAPC is the first ever association on air pollution control in the country. It launched its
website presence on 11th
May, 200. The Association has a very strong network of air quality
experts across the country, CPCB officials, media personnel, etc in its membership forum.
The aim and objectives of Indian Association for Air Pollution Control are - to promote an
understanding of the Air environment, its pollution and effects on human beings, animals,
plants and materials and control of such pollution and provide an effective forum for
exchange of views and Information about air environment to help to educate the general
public, and to create mass awareness for air pollution control.
5.6.2 Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM)
Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) is the apex Industry body representing
46 leading vehicle and vehicular engine manufacturers in India. SIAM is an important
channel of communication for the Automobile Industry with the Government, National and
International organisations. The Society works closely with all the concerned stake holders
and actively participates in formulation of rules, regulations and policies related to the
Automobile Industry. SIAM understands its role in the air quality management framework
and therefore, it lays emphasis on reducing the environmental impact caused by vehicular
emissions. It underlines the need for a holistic framework for controlling pollution in the
country. It also emphasises the need for strict Inspection and Certification norms, Fuel quality
norms and emission norms.
SIAM has incorporated an independent body Society for Automotive Fitness & Environment
(SAFE) in order to achieve advancement of Inspection & Certification (I&C) of vehicles and
increased safety on roads. SAFE organizes Inspection clinics for in-use vehicles and training
workshops for pollution checking technicians in various parts of the country. These
programmes are aimed to create awareness on importance of regular maintenance amongst
vehicle owners. It is one of the most effective ways to control emission levels from vehicles
44
http://www.iaapc.in/
62
in the country. In addition SAFE organizes seminars with State Governments and other
stakeholders.45
5.6.3 Suzlon Powered PALS (Pure Air Lovers Society)
The Pure Air Lovers Society (p.a.l.s.) are a group of environmentally conscious people who
love pure air and want to live in a cleaner and healthier tomorrow. Together, they work
against the threat of air pollution to bring about a clean air revolution in India. This campaign
is powered by Suzlon. PALS have a tool zone, which has a green vendor list, a PUC Check
Reminder, a car pool identifier, a AQI widget for a blog, green tips. green e-books,
membership to being a P.A.L. The programme has 11.7 lakh PALS registered with itself
5.6.4 Confederation of Indian Industry (CII)
CII is a non-government, not-for-profit, industry led and industry managed organisation,
playing a proactive role in India's development process. Founded over 117 years ago, it is
India's premier business association, with a direct membership of over 7000 organisations ,
and an indirect membership of over 90,000 companies from around 400 national and regional
sectoral associations. CII catalyses change by working closely with government on policy
issues, enhancing efficiency, competitiveness and expanding business opportunities for
industry through a range of specialised services and global linkages. It has garnered
partnerships with over 120 NGOs across the country.
The Environment (Development Initiative) division of CII fuels a number of initiatives in the
domains of power sector, mining sector, low carbon leadership, environment policy
advocacy, climate change, business and sustainable Development.
Environment Policy Division of CII works closely with the Government of India. The policy
division represents industry on several government committees and over the years has
successfully developed a credible partnership with policy makers and regulators like Ministry
of Environment & Forests, Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollution Control
Boards. The objective of this partnership is to facilitate the formulation and implementation
of an enabling policy framework for ensuring sustainable industrial development.
45
http://www.siamindia.com/scripts/aboutsafe.aspx
63
CII has also established the following Centres of Excellence, which are doing a fine job in the
domain of environment:
1. CII- ITC Centre of Sustainable Development
2. CII- Sohrabji Green Business Centre
5.6.5 Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI)
Established in 1927, FICCI is the largest and oldest apex business organisation in India. Its
history is closely interwoven with India‘s struggle for independence, its industrialization, and
its emergence as one of the most rapidly growing global economies. FICCI has contributed to
this historical process by encouraging debate, articulating the private sector‘s views and
influencing policy.
FICCI has recognised the need to address air pollution control and monitoring and is
conducting an annual conference cum workshop on the same since 2011.46
FICCI undertakes various initiatives in the field of environment through its ‗Environment and
Climate Change‘ division. The department recently conducted the ‗India Sustainability
Conclave 2012‘ to address sustainable development issues. FICCI also offers services like
studies, surveys, policy advocacy and publications.
5.6.6 ASSOCHAM (The Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India)
ASSOCHAM initiated its endeavour of value creation for Indian industry in 1920. Having in
its fold more than 300 Chambers and Trade Associations, and serving more than 2 lakh
members from all over India. It has witnessed upswings as well as upheavals of Indian
Economy, and contributed significantly by playing a catalytic role in shaping up the Trade,
Commerce and Industrial environment of the country.
ASSOCHAM offers its services in the field of environment; its agenda also includes
prevention against pollution.47
To this effect, ASSOCHAM organised a National Conference
on ‗Environmental Legislation and Technology - Curtain Raiser‘ in March 2011 to discuss
46
http://ficci.com/events-page.asp?evid=20927 47
http://www.assocham.org/services/env/
64
the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 and other environmental legislations for conservation
of environment and abatement of pollution.48
5.6.7 The Partnership for Clean Indoor Air (PCIA)
A group of committed organizations joined forces in 2002 at the World Summit on
Sustainable Development to launch the Partnership for Clean Indoor Air (PCIA) to curb the
ill effects of indoor air pollution. Already, key PCIA Partners have reported helping 1.4
million households to adopt clean cooking and heating practices, reducing harmful exposures
for more than 7.6 million people. These Partners plan to reach another 6 million households
by 2010. PCIA is managed by US EPA and Winrock International. They have an India
presence through their Indian member NGOs who work for implementing Clean Cookstoves
in rural hubs for reduced indoor pollution.49
In its endeavour of reducing indoor air pollution, PCIA has made available a new publication
entitled "Test Results of Cook Stove Performance." This document was developed by
Aprovecho Research Center under a grant from the Shell Foundation to provide technical
support to household energy and health projects and to ensure that the projects‘ designs
represent the best available technical practices. Test Results of Cook Stove Performance will
be a major step forward in developing an integrated approach to cook stove design which will
eventually lead to reduced indoor air pollution.50
5.6.8 Review of Associations
Industry associations have a big role to play in lobbying for effective industrial emission
standards and EIA norms so that the regulatory agencies can implement the ―polluter must
pay‖ principle and safeguard the environment, in the interest of a better future for people of
the country.
5.7 Academic and Research Institutes
48
http://www.assocham.org/events/recent/showevent.php?id=547 49
http://www.pciaonline.org/files/PCIA-Bulletin-Issue-16_0.pdf 50
http://www.pciaonline.org/files/Test-Results-Cookstove-Performance.pdf
65
5.7.1 About
Various research and academic institutes in the country are working in the field of air quality
management on issues such as policy advocacy, emission inventorization, source
apportionment, dispersion modeling and air quality control. Various medical research
institutes are also studying air pollution impact on health and environment. Given below in a
tabulated form is the comprehensive list of research, academic and medical research institutes
working in the domain of air quality management.
Table 2: Research and Academic Institutes working on Air Quality Management
Sno. Research Institutes Academic Institutes Medical Research Institutes
1 NEERI, Nagpur IIT Kanpur Sri Ramachandra Medical
College & Research Institute
2 IITM, Pune IIT Delhi Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Institute –
Rotary Cancer Hospital
3 PCRI, Haridwar IIT Guwahati Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute
4 NIOH, Ahmadabad IIT Madras All India Institute of Medical
Sciences
5 CSIR-CRRI, New
Delhi
IIT Roorkee Maulana Azad Medical College
6 BARC, Mumbai JNU Chittaranjan National Cancer
Institute
7 ARAI, Pune NITIE University College of Medical
Sciences Delhi
8 CIRT, New Delhi TERI University Post Graduate Institute of
Medical Education & Research
9 IRADe, New Delhi IIM Lucknow Sitaram Bhartia Institute of
Science and Research
10 CPR, New Delhi Bengal Engineering
and Sciences
University
Indian Council of Medical
Research
11 NIPFP, New Delhi BHU Translational Health Science and
66
Technology Institute
12 NPL, New Delhi Public Health Foundation of
India
13 Heart Care Foundation of India
14 Lakeside Medical Centre and
Hospital
15 King Edward Memorial Hospital
Table 1.1 : List of Academic and Research Institutes working on Air Quality Management in
India
5.7.2 Review of the Work of Academic/ Research Institutes
There is a dearth of researchers working in the field of air quality management in the country.
It is important for India as a country to develop a comprehensive framework for air quality
management; this can only be possible when the country develops a strong research database
of emission inventories, source apportionment studies, dispersion models, air pollution
environment impact studies, health risk assessment of air pollution and policy intervention
impact studies. Thus, it becomes an imperative for the government to fuel research on these
research topics more from the point of view of seeking policy level changes in the framework
rather than an academic exercise.
There is also an immediate need for development of a GIS based sector-wise and pollutant-
wise database of emission inventory for the country. This will not only help in solving air
quality issues at local level but also at regional scale.29
5.8 Non-Government Organisations
A few prominent Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) have been identified to be working
in the domain of air quality management. A brief description of their initiatives and a review
of their organisation‘s work is given below:
5.8.1 Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)
67
CSE started its urban air quality programme in 1996 to protect public health in Indian cities.
The programme elicited tremendous response from the government, the public and the
judiciary. In the past ten years, CSE‘s programme, supported by judicial action, has
successfully catalysed significant changes to lower air pollution levels in the capital city.
Some of the key developments with which CSE has been deeply involved include
advancement of emissions standards for new vehicles, lowering of sulphur content in diesel
and petrol, lowering of benzene to 1 per cent, implementation of the largest ever CNG
programme for the public transportation systems, phasing out of the 15 year old commercial
vehicles and improvement in inspection and maintenance programme for in-use vehicles.
Simultaneously, certain important cross cutting measures including the strengthening of air
quality monitoring and checking of fuel adulteration were brought to focus. CSE has
remained deeply involved with the air quality management policies, policy discussions on
ambient air quality standards and pollution sources. As rapid increase in vehicle numbers and
the transportation challenge has emerged as the key area of this programme, CSE has
therefore broadened the scope of its policy advocacy to promote public transport strategy and
mobility management strategies. Listed below are a few of their initiatives in this sector:
1. CSE organised a ‗Dialogue on air pollution and our health‘51
in August 2011. Noted
doctors, health researchers and air quality regulators met in the capital to warn that
cities may wake up to more wheeze and other ailments if health concerns are not
heeded for air pollution control. The dialogue exposed mounting evidences on health
effect of air pollution in India and abroad that must drive policy action.
2. CSE has conducted a ‗National Minimum Training Workshop for Regulators on
Compliance Monitoring and Enforcement‘ in February 201252
and conducted a media
briefing on ‗Challenges of air quality and mobility management in South Asian cities‘
in April 201153
.
3. CSE also has websites like ‗downtoearth.org‘ and ‗indiaenvironmentalportal.org‘ to
its credit. These websites are a repository of environmental information and also
highlight CSE‘s policy perspective. They have a separate vertical on air pollution in
each of these websites.
51
http://cseindia.org/content/cses-press-release-dialogue-air-pollution-and-our-health 52
http://www.cseindia.org/userfiles/prog_schedule.pdf 53
http://www.cseindia.org/userfiles/Colombo_media_Compressed.pdf
68
5.8.2 The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)
TERI was formally established in 1974 with the purpose of tackling and dealing with the
immense and acute problems that mankind is likely to face within in the years ahead. The
global presence and reach attained by TERI are not only substantiated by its presence in
different parts of the world, but also in terms of the wide geographical relevance of its
activities. Symbolic of this fact is the annual Delhi Sustainable Development Summit
(DSDS), a major event focusing on sustainable development, the pursuit of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) and assessment of worldwide progress in these critical areas.
Encouraged by the success of DSDS, TERI has now established the World Sustainable
Development Forum (WSDF), which is guided by the patronage of a group of select world
leaders. WSDF intends to extend the experience of each DSDS to other parts of the world and
carry out careful evaluation and monitoring of developments worldwide, particularly in
meeting the MDGs. TERI focuses on different focus areas of climate change research which
include, impacts and vulnerability assessment, adaptation strategies, exploring GHG
mitigation options and issues therein, climate change policies and climate modeling activities.
TERI is another important NGO stakeholder which plays an active role in policy advocacy, in
the field of air quality management. It organises workshops, training programmes and
seminars to help disseminate knowledge about the technical aspects of air quality modeling
and monitoring. A few of their projects in this domain are listed below:
1. TERI Mumbai organized a two-day training workshop on 'Air Quality Modeling and
Management' at Hotel Tunga, Navi Mumbai on 19-20 January 2012. The programme
was aimed at bridging gap and capacity building of government officers,
industrialists, environment consultants, and other stakeholders in the field of air
quality modeling.
2. TERI published a case study on the ‗Urban Air Quality Management: A Case Study
of Pune‘54
.
3. TERI also organized a training programme on 'Air Quality Modeling and
Management' from 30 June to 1 July 2011. The programme aimed to bridge the gap
and build the capacity of State Pollution Control Board (SPCB), Industries, and other
stakeholders in the field of air quality modeling. The programme built the concepts of
54
http://www.teriin.org/index.php?option=com_publication&task=details&sid=37
69
air quality modeling, demonstrated the use of air quality models, and provided ready
to use course material on the subject55
.
4. TERI has also assisted CPCB in carrying out emission inventory studies in various
cities.
5.8.3 Clean Air Initiative – Asia (CAI- Asia)
The mission of the Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) is to promote better air
quality and livable cities by translating knowledge to policies and actions that reduce air
pollution and greenhouse gas emissions from transport, energy and other sectors. It was
established in 2001 by ADB, the World Bank and USAID as part of a global initiative that
also includes Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa.
Since 2007, CAI-Asia is a registered UN Type II Partnership with more than 200
organizational members, eight Country Networks, and the CAI-Asia Center as its secretariat,
a non-profit organization headquartered in Manila, Philippines with offices in China and
India. CAI Asia has undertaken the following initiatives to promote better air quality:
1. Better Air Quality (BAQ): The Better Air Quality conference is the flagship event of
the Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities. This biennial event brings policymakers and
stakeholders together to network, learn and share experiences on air quality
management. Past BAQs have proven to influence policies, initiate new projects and
establish partnerships.
2. Air Pollution in the Megacities of Asia (APMA): The APMA project was funded in
Phase II of RAPIDC and is a joint initiative of WHO and UNEP being coordinated by
SEI. It has developed as a key player in the regional approach to developing capacity
for urban policy makers in a city network being coordinated by the Clean Air
Initiative-Asia (CAI-Asia) from its office at ADB in Manila.56
3. CAI-Asia released its report on Air Quality in Asia - Status and Trends 2010 Edition.
This report is composed of two parts: Status and Trends of Air Quality, which
provides a snapshot of air quality levels in 2008 and trends of air quality from 1993 to
55
http://www.teriin.org/index.php?option=com_events&task=details&sid=411 56
http://www.sei-international.org/rapidc/networks-apma.htm
70
2008 & Status of Air Quality Standards, which provides an overview of the ambient
air quality standards adopted by developing Asian countries.57
4. CAI Asia partnered in ‗The Knowledge Partnership for measuring Air Pollution and
GHG Emissions in Asia‘, which sought to help policy makers, development agencies
and other stakeholders in Asia to have better access to air quality and climate change
data to further enrich policy development activities and development interventions
relevant to energy and transport sectors and urban development. This initiative
supported (1) the development of guidelines for air pollution and GHG emissions
indicators for transport and energy sectors and (2) the collection and updating of input
data to derive indicators. The project covers road transport and electricity generation
and includes 13 Asian countries and 23 cities. World Bank Development Grant
Facility (DGF) is one of its donors.58
5. CAI Asia has undertaken several other projects like ‗Walkability Study in Asian
Cities‘, ‗Communicating Air Quality at Commonwealth Games Delhi 2010‘, and
worked extensively on ‗Sustainable Urban Mobility in Asia‘.
5.8.4 Development Alternatives (DA)
Development Alternatives (DA) has acted as a research and action organisation, designing
and delivering eco-solutions for the poor and the marginalised. DA is a not-for-profit
organisation which has signed a memorandum of understanding has been signed between DA
and CPCB to mutually assist each other and develop a strategic collaboration to strengthen
existing initiatives for community based environmental action in urban India.
DA has also advocated the replacement of polluting FCBTK (Fixed Chimney Bull Trench
Kiln) with VSBKs (Vertical Shaft Brick Kilns) to reduce air pollution caused by these brick
kilns.
The CLEAN-India programme, under the Development Alternatives Group, aims to mobilise
community responsibility for environment assessment and improvement in all-major towns
57
http://cea.zaloni.net/library/air-quality-asia-status-and-trends-2010-edition 58
http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/AP_and_GHG_Indicators_Project_Summary_-_CAI-
Asia_-_2012.pdf
71
and cities of India through a network of schools and NGOs linked with government, business,
academic and other institution.
Under this programme, systematic environmental quality assessment is undertaken by a
network of schools supported by NGOs and validated by government and research
institutions. Students of member schools are trained on scientific skills for monitoring the
environment quality, which is done using field-based kits called Jal-TARA (for testing water
quality) and Pawan-TARA (for testing air quality). The second component of the programme
is to generate awareness among the communities and other sections of the society.
The key features of the programme are: Projection of assessed data to generate awareness and
mobilize community members to initiate environmental improvement actions and Bringing
the data to the notice of the local authorities / Pollution Control Boards for necessary action.
The third component of the programme is advocacy with the collective efforts of NGOs and
local government. This phase focuses on: Involving students and NGOs to convince civic
agencies to take action against the degradation of their cities' environment and Involving
local authorities to bring about changes in policy and filing of Public Interest Litigations
(PIL)59
.
5.8.5 Other NGOs
Other NGOs working in this field on various issues related to better air quality in the country
are EMBARQ, PSS (Paryavaran Suraksha Samiti), NEWS, Bombay Environment Action
Group, PRASAR (People‘s Rights & Social Research Centre), Vatavaran, etc.
5.8.6 Review of NGOs
Selected NGOs are doing immense work on policy advocacy of the issue of air quality
management in the country. They are engaging with stakeholders across the board and
employing various ways to influence policy makers to adapt stricter air pollution norms.
However, the issue of air pollution still doesn‘t get its due share of importance from the civil
societies operating in India.
59
http://www.cleanindia.org/programme.htm
72
5.9 International Agencies and Bilateral Organisations
There are various inter-governmental organisations, international agencies and bilateral
organisations working for the improvement of air quality in India. Listed below are a selected
few along with their initiatives in this field.
5.9.1 World Health Organisation (WHO)
WHO is the United Nations‘ specialized agency, working for ‗Health‘. It is an inter-
governmental organization and works in collaboration with its member states usually through
the Ministries of Health. WHO‘s objective is the attainment by all people of the highest
possible level of health.
An indicative list of projects or research studies sponsored by WHO in the field of indoor and
outdoor pollution are as follows:
Projects sponsored on ‗Outdoor Air Pollution‘:
1. National Environmental Health Profile and Comparative Health Risk Assessment
Bangalore City done by NIOH and ICMR60
2. National Environmental Health Profile & Comparative Health Risk Assessment61
3. Baseline Assessment of Environmental Health Status in Chennai62
4. Epidemiological Study of Air Pollution Related Children‘s Health in Rural, Suburban
and Urban Areas of West Bengal63
Projects sponsored on Indoor Air Pollution:
1. Health effects of chronic exposure to smoke from biomass fuel burning in rural area
2. Impact of Indoor Air Pollution from Biomass Fuel Burning on Reproductive Health
and Neurobehavioral Symptoms of Premenopausal Women in Rural India64
5.9.2 Health Effects Institute (HEI)
60
http://whoindia.org/LinkFiles/Environmental_Epidemiology_NEHP_Report_Bangalore.pdf 61
http://whoindia.org/LinkFiles/Environmental_Epidemiology_NEHP_Report_Ahmedabad.pdf 62
http://whoindia.org/LinkFiles/Environmental_Epidemiology_Environmental_Health_Status_in_Chennai.pdf 63
http://whoindia.org/en/Section33/Section132_1578.htm 64
http://whoindia.org/en/Section33/Section132_1597.htm
73
The Health Effects Institute is a non-profit international corporation chartered in 1980 as an
independent research organization to provide high-quality, impartial, and relevant science on
the effects of air pollution on health.
In India, it has sponsored many studies on health effects of air pollution exposure on human
beings. Given below is an indicative list of the projects in India:
1. Estimates of Population Exposure to Traffic-related Air Pollution in Beijing, China and
New Delhi, India
2. HEI publishes report on air pollution and mortality in India
3. Outdoor Air Pollution and Health in the Developing Countries of Asia: A Comprehensive
Review
4. Short-Term Effects of Air Pollution on Mortality: Results from a Time-Series Analysis in
Chennai, India" 2011
5. "Time-Series Study on Air Pollution and Mortality in Delhi" 2011
5.9.3 World Bank (WB)
The World Bank is one of the world‘s largest sources of funding and knowledge for
developing countries. India is one of its oldest members, having joined the institution at its
inception in 1944.
In India, the World Bank works in close partnership with the Central and State Governments.
It also works with other development partners: bilateral and multilateral donor organizations,
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), the private sector, and the general public—
including academics, scientists, economists, journalists, teachers, and local people involved
in development projects.
Following are the list of projects undertaken by World Bank in the field:
1. Capacity Building for Industrial Pollution Management Project ($65mn approved
June 2010) to build tangible human and technical capacity in state agencies in Andhra
Pradesh and West Bengal for undertaking environmentally sound remediation of
polluted sites and to support the development of a policy, institutional and
74
methodological framework for the establishment of a National Program for
Rehabilitation of Polluted Sites (NPRPS).65
2. World Bank provides US$405 million to Support Urban Development in India:
December 10, 2009
3. As part of the World Bank-supported Mumbai Urban Transport Project or MUTP, a
modern traffic management system is being introduced that is quietly reducing
congestion on city roads.
Research Studies sponsored by World Bank:
1. Energy Intensive Sectors of the India Economy: Options for Low Carbon
Development
2. India 2030: Vision for an Environmentally Sustainable Future
ESMAP: The Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) is a global
knowledge and technical assistance program administered by the World Bank. Its mission is
to assist low- and middle-income countries to increase know-how and institutional capacity to
achieve environmentally sustainable energy solutions for poverty reduction and economic
growth.
Since its inception in 1983, ESMAP has supported more than 800 energy-sector activities that
promote poverty reduction, economic growth and low carbon development in over 100
countries.
5.9.4 United States Environment Protection Agency (US EPA)
Born in the wake of elevated concern about environmental pollution, EPA was established on
December 2, 1970 to consolidate in one agency a variety of federal research, monitoring,
standard-setting and enforcement activities to ensure environmental protection. Since its
inception, EPA has been working for a cleaner, healthier environment for the American
people. In the context of the U.S.‘s expanding relationship with India, EPA is engaging with
its Indian partners to protect the environment in new and collaborative ways. Recent work
65
http://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,content
MDK:23008736~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295584,00.html
75
includes implementation of pilot programs in the areas of drinking water quality and air
quality management. Today, the Government of India and EPA are evaluating new ways to
partner on governance issues and addressing the trans-boundary movement of e-waste into
India.
A Memorandum of Understanding between the Environment Protection Agency of USA and
The MoEF, Government of India concerning co-operation in environmental protection.
(2002-12) provides policy and technical cooperation between the two agencies in four areas:
Urban Air quality management, Water quality management, Management of Toxic
Chemicals and hazardous waste, and Environmental Governance66
Given below is a list of projects undertaken by the US EPA for improving air quality in India:
1. Building Strong Institutions and Legal Structures: EPA has engaged with India‘s
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) to cooperate on building strong
environmental institutional structures. To achieve this, EPA has supported MoEF in
the creation of a new Central Government institution to address environmental
notifications and violations. Through a training workshop to State Pollution Control
Boards in January 2011, EPA has also provided enforcement tools and concepts that
can be applicable in the Indian context
2. Improving Air Quality: EPA has engaged with India to support science-based air
pollution control strategies in Indian cities. With the cooperation of MoEF, the State
of Maharashtra, the Municipality of Pune, as well as a number of other partners, EPA
has helped demonstrate technologies which can assist decision makers in developing
policies aimed at reducing air pollution. These technologies include the tools and
concepts used in air quality management, as well as demonstrations for reducing
vehicle emissions from diesel buses and two-cycle engines.
3. Capacity Building for Industrial Pollution Management67
is another programme by
USEPA for strengthening the air quality management framework in the country.
66
http://www.epa.gov/international/regions/Asia/india/mou_2007_india_renewal.pdf 67
http://moef.nic.in/modules/cbipmp/index.htm
76
4. Methane-to-Markets Partnership: India and the U.S. are founding country partners of
the Methane to Markets Partnership to reduce global methane emissions to enhance
economic growth, improve the environment, promote energy security, and reduce
greenhouse gases. Other benefits include improving mine safety, reducing waste, and
improving local air quality
5. Power Plant Emissions Project: This program builds on results of a 2004 Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) hosted workshop on air pollution monitoring and
control from power plants, and a 2005 National Thermal Power Corporation hosted
training course on EPA‘s software tool used to assist power plants in optimizing
performance of their electrostatic precipitators (ESP). The next phase will
demonstrate the ESP optimization tool at a power plant to identify cost effective
alternatives to reduce PM emissions, as well as evaluate co-benefit mercury emissions
reductions, including training and transfer of stack emissions monitoring technology.
EPA will also share expertise on cap-and-trade programs for reducing power plant
emissions, and will provide consultative support to MoEF and CPCB as they develop
NOx emission standards for power plants in India, as currently planned.
6. Indoor Air Pollution from Chulhas (cookstoves): This program supports the goals of
the Partnership for Clean Indoor Air to address the increased environmental health
risk faced by a majority of Indians who burn traditional biomass and coal indoors for
cooking and heating, resulting in an estimated 400,000 premature deaths annually –
primarily among women and children. Efforts are aimed at bringing together
governments, non-governmental organizations, and industry to work on: improving
the design and performance of cooking and heating technology; social awareness and
marketing; business development; and monitoring indoor air pollution.
USEPA has actively initiated a number of programs under its mandate of technical co-
operation with India on environment issues. Given below are the initiatives undertaken in the
programme on Urban Air Quality Management.
a. Clean Fuels and Vehicles
EPA is also pursuing a program specifically addressing vehicle emissions concerns in India,
and in support of EPA‘s Commitments under the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles.
Key elements of this program in India include (a) Training and field demonstrations of the
77
International Vehicle Emissions Inventory Model (IVEM), to better characterize the
contribution of vehicles to the overall air pollution problem in Indian cities; (b) Training and
technology transfer on portable emissions testing technologies, to provide an easier, less
expensive tool to quantify and characterize vehicle emissions; and (c) demonstration project
on retrofit technologies on-the-ground in Pune, India for diesel buses and autorickshaws.
EPA is also interested in working with India on assessing benefits of upgrading India‘s
refineries to reduce sulfur in both diesel and gasoline fuels.
b. Industrial Emissions
EPA has supported several activities in India addressing monitoring and control technology
for air pollution from Coal-Fired Power Plants, including workshop on monitoring and
control technologies, and hands-on training on EPA software tools to help optimize
performance of electrostatic precipitators. EPA has also supported programs to assist India in
addressing air and other pollution from Petroleum Refining.
c. Indoor Air Pollution
This program supports the goals of the Partnership for Clean Indoor Air (PCIA) to address
the increased environmental health risk faced by a majority of Indians who burn traditional
biomass and coal indoors for cooking and heating, resulting in an estimated 400,000
premature deaths annually – primarily among women and children. Efforts are aimed at
bringing together governments, non-governmental organizations, and industry to work on:
improving the design and performance of cooking and heating technology; social awareness
and marketing; business development; and monitoring indoor air pollution. The 2007 global
meeting of the PCIA was held in Bangalore, India
d. Other Air Quality Cooperation
EPA has also engaged India in areas such as Long-Range Transport of Air Pollutants
(LRTAP) and Emissions Trading as a tool for managing air pollution emissions.
5.9.5 Global Environment Facility (GEF)
The UNDP, UNEP, and World Bank were the three initial partners implementing GEF
projects. In 1994, GEF was restructured and moved out of the World Bank system to become
78
a permanent, separate institution. The decision to make the GEF an independent organization
enhanced the involvement of developing countries in the decision-making process and in
implementation of the projects.
The GEF also serves as financial mechanism for the following conventions:
1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
2. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
3. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
4. UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
5. The GEF, although not linked formally to the Montreal Protocol on Substances That
Deplete the Ozone Layer (MP), supports implementation of the Protocol in countries with
economies in transition.
India is one founding member of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the largest global
multilateral funding mechanism providing incremental project grant to the developing
countries on global environmental issues with local benefits. Set up in 1991, 182 country
governments are its members. India is both a donor and recipient of GEF grant. India‘s
Executive Director in the World Bank chairs and represents the GEF South Asia
Constituency (comprising of Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives and Sri Lanka) in the
GEF Council meetings twice a year.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is the GEF Operational Focal Point (GEF
OFP) for India for coordination and operational matters. Department of Economic Affairs
(DEA) in Ministry of Finance is the GEF Political Focal Point (GEF PFP) for India dealing
with policy and governance issues. The GEF Empowered Committee chaired by Secretary
(E&F) guides, approves and overlooks GEF operations in the country. Since 1991, India has
accessed USD 327 million as GEF grant and of this USD 154 million was accessed during
the GEF 4 cycle (July 2006 – June 2010). Since inception, about USD 2 billion has been
leveraged as project co-financing. India has contributed USD 51 million to the GEF Trust
Fund (1991 - June 2014).
Projects funded by GEF:
1. India - Sustainable Urban Transport Project:
Objective: Reduction of the growth trajectory of GHG emissions from the transport
sector in India through the promotion of environmentally sustainable urban transport,
strengthening government capacity to plan, finance, implement, operate, and manage
79
climate friendly and sustainable urban transport interventions at national, state and
city levels, and increasing the modal share of environmentally friendly transport
modes in project cities.
The India Sustainable Urban Transport Program (SUTP) under GEF4 was an
umbrella program focussed on developing necessary national, state and city level
capacity in urban transport planning and kick-starting the process through some high
impact demonstration projects on Bus Rapid Transit, Non-motorized Transport, ITS
in a few cities (5 cities). It was not designed to systematically address bus services
and operations in major cities. The GEF proposal deepens and takes forward the
earlier initiative for promoting public transport by focusing more comprehensively on
city bus transport and treating the multiple issues - operational , financial, regulatory,
fiscal -facing it. The proposed GEF intervention aimed at efficiency measures
encouraging a shift from personal to public mode of transport leading to low carbon
cities in India68
2. Development of a National Implementation Plan in India as a First Step to Implement
the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) was also funded
by GEF69
3. A project on Efficient and Sustainable City Bus Services was also funded by GEF70
.
4. Project on ‗Selected Options for Stabilizing Greenhouse Gas Emissions for
Sustainable Development in India‘71
5. Project on ‗Energy Efficiency Improvements in the Indian Brick Industry‘72
6. Country Case Study: Investing in Sustainable Urban Transport - GEF Experience in
India73
68
http://gefonline.org/projectDetailsSQL.cfm?projID=3241 69
http://gefonline.org/projectDetailsSQL.cfm?projID=1520 70
http://gefonline.org/projectDetailsSQL.cfm?projID=4921 71
http://gefonline.org/projectDetailsSQL.cfm?projID=383 72
http://gefonline.org/projectDetailsSQL.cfm?projID=2844 73
http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/publication/Investing-Urban-Transportation_0.pdf
80
Small Grants Programme (SGP), funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), seeks to
support initiatives, which demonstrate community-based innovative, gender sensitive
approaches and lessons learned from other development projects in order to reduce threats to
the local and global environment.SGP is administered by the UNDP and the Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MOEF), Government of India. It is being implemented by Centre
for Environment Education (CEE) as the National Host Institution (NHI) since September
2000.
5.9.6 Advisory Services in Environmental Management (ASEM)
India and Germany agreed that environmental management is an important area in the
framework of bilateral development co-operation. Environment is one of the most important
areas in the Indo-German bilateral relations, especially in areas where Germany has
comparative advantage with focus on knowledge transfer, technology transfer, exchange of
experiences and demonstration projects. To enhance the success of the previous joint work,
the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ,) and the Ministry of Environment
and Forests of the Government of India (MoEF) decided to work in a structure called ASEM.
Environment protection and industrial and urban environmental management are the key
elements of any international or national environment protection program.
ASEM has undertaken the following initiatives in the domain of air quality management in
the recent past:
1. Air pollution source apportionment studies74
: In view of the high requirements for
controlling air pollution due to its potential impact on human health, there is a need to
have advanced assessment and apportionment of the pollution loads from various
sources viz. traffic, industry etc. CPCB sought the support of ASEM to provide the
needed technical support in this regard.
2. Air Quality Data Acquisition System: CPCB sought support of GTZ ASEM for
further strengthening the data acquisition system in India. The Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB) has set up the following three automatic continuous ambient
air quality monitoring stations and a mobile monitoring station in Delhi, with
assistance by GTZ assistance.
74
http://www.asemindia.com/main_Project.aspx?SubSectionID=10&SectionID=2&RowID=11&Projid=20
81
3. Renovation of Air & Water Labs at CPCB75
was also done with the technical
expertise of ASEM
The Indo- German collaboration has instituted a programme called ―Challenges and
opportunities in Air Pollution and Climate Change" (CHOP-C) to further strengthen the
diplomatic ties between the two nations. Under this programme the following workshops and
conferences were conducted to address the challenge of combating air pollution and climate
change:
5.9.7 Other International organisations working in this domain
JICA, Indo-German Collaboration (CHOP- C), EU India APSF- Environment, USAID,
SIDA, DFID, AFD (French Aid for Development), UK in FCO, and UNEP among other
bilateral developmental agencies are also doing work in the field of environment in India.
5.9.8 Review of the role of International/Bilateral Organisations
These agencies have been providing aid to India on the subject matter of air pollution through
their funds in climate change and environment. Most of these agencies are providing India
with technical expertise and know-how in this field to help India achieve better air quality in
times to come. However, their role and scope are both limited.
5.10 Media Stakeholders
Various media corporations, associations and personnel are involved in creating awareness
about system of air quality management in the country and disseminating the important
information on air pollution and its health impacts to the masses, so that they can take
adequate steps to protect their interests. Given below is a list of prominent media
stakeholders and their review:
5.10.1 Forum of Environmental Journalists of India (FEJI)
75
http://www.asemindia.com/main_Project.aspx?SubSectionID=10&SectionID=2&RowID=12&Projid=28
82
This is a forum for environmental journalists in the country. However, there exists no website
for this forum. Even though, the forum is active through its ‗google group‘ interface.
5.10.2 CMS ENVIS Centre
CMS Envis is a premiere centre designated by the Union Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India, to facilitate information dissemination and further the cause of
environmental awareness and sensitization. It has established itself as a key resource center,
coordinating body and platform for information dissemination on environmental
communication, strategies and media related activities.
CMS - Envis supports a database of Environmental Journalists from across the country76
. It
has published a paper on ‗Trends of Environmental news in National Dailies‘77
and one
comparative ‗Study On Environmental Awareness and Environmentally Beneficial Behavior
in India‘78
. It has also published ‗A Study on Social & Environmental Impact of T.V And
Radio Programmes‘79
5.10.3 Other Important Media Stakeholders
Think to sustain, India Environment Portal, National geographic, Times of India, Hindustan
Times, CNN-IBN, NDTV, Indian Express, The Telegraph, Mail Today, Reuters, The Hindu,
Asian Age, Mint, India Today, BBC, The New Indian Express, India Carbon Outlook,
Nature India, Scidev, The Asian Age, Mint, Press Trust of India, Indo Asian News Service,
The Tribune, Gateway Media, Earth Journalism Network, Economic times, Zee News, Go
Green India, Down to Earth, Dainik Jagran, Business Times, etc among others, are all
important media stakeholders who are engaging in a comprehensive public outreach on this
issue.
5.10.4 Review of the role of Media
76
http://cmsenvis.cmsindia.org/journalistdata/journalistsdatabase_final1.asp 77
http://cmsenvis.cmsindia.org/researchstudy/trends.pdf 78
http://cmsenvis.cmsindia.org/researchstudy/beneficial.pdf 79
http://cmsenvis.cmsindia.org/researchstudy/tvradio.pdf
83
Media shoulders great responsibility for creating a comprehensive public outreach and
awareness regarding the potential health impacts of the air we breathe. The media community
as a whole must take this issue with great seriousness and must propel the citizens to his right
of clean air while fulfilling his responsibilities as a citizen.
5.11 Website
Various websites are contributing to the framework of air quality management in India.
Listed below are a few important ones which are making the most impact.
5.11.1 IFMR pollution map
The Environmentally Sustainable Finance Group launched India's first online pollution map
(www.indiapollutionmap.org). This map, piloted for the states of Maharashtra and Tamil
Nadu, aims to track changes in the country's environmental levels and quality. The interactive
web portal displays data from the national pollution monitoring programme along with
demographic, socio-economic and pollution-related indicators. In this way, it not only
interprets pollution data, but also guides action towards pollution mitigation.
The India Pollution Map has generated some maps based on data shared by SACEM
(generated through their monitoring programme) in order to visualise them uniquely and for
the community to understand this information.
5.11.2 UrbanEmissions .Info
UrbanEmissions.info was founded by Dr. Sarath Guttikunda in 2007 with the vision to be a
repository of information, research, and analysis related to air pollution. UrbanEmissions.info
provides both organized knowledge base and understanding of simple analytical tools that
may help support decision making for air quality management in India.
UrbanEmissions.Info, has four objectives:
1. Promote the sharing of knowledge base on air pollution analysis
2. Analysis based on science
84
3. Advocacy and awareness raising on air quality management and
4. Building partnerships among local, national, and international stakeholders
5.12 India Inc. Stakeholders
5.12.1 About
Various India Inc Stakeholders are working in the domain of creating value in the field of air
quality management framework of the country through their CSR activities.
Listed below are the most prominent India Inc. stakeholders working in this domain:
1. 3 M India Ltd.
2. Suzlon India
3. Bayer Crop Science Ltd.
4. Bharat Forge Ltd
5. HPCL Ltd.
6. NTPC Ltd.
7. Shree Cements Ltd.
8. Tata Motors Ltd.
9. Reliance Industries Limited
10. Escorts Group
11. Shell Group and Shell Foundation
12. Hira Group of Industries
13. SAIL Ltd.
14. Jindal Steel and Power
15. IOCL Ltd.
5.12.2 Review of the work by India Inc.
India Inc. as a whole must actively engage in concerted efforts towards cleaning the ambient
air. It must imbibe environment responsibility within its culture and ensure that all its
processes and practices
85
6.0 CONCLUSION
6.1 Recommendations
The report provides a summary table for the compilation of the all the review results of all the
identified stakeholder groups.
Table 3: Summary table of recommendations
Sno. Stakeholder Group Recommendations
1. Judiciary The Judicial intervention in environmental governance is a
part of the constitutional duties of the Court to uphold the
rule of law, enforcement of individual rights and
protecting the propriety of the Constitution. The
interventions in the past have been largely confined to
removing structural impediments to the implementation of
environmental laws, which has provided a space for
judicial intervention in environment protection. In such
circumstances, the Courts have assumed the affirmative
executive powers of issuing directions, appointing
commissions, collecting and verifying information,
monitoring and supervising the running of public
institutions to discharge their Constitutional obligations
for the protection and improvement of environment.
However, most of these interventions have neither been
followed consistently nor institutionalized to make a long
term impact on environmental governance process.
The Court must institutionalize the methods in the form of
guidelines to ensure consistency and predictability in the
remediation process. Also, the court must safeguard
against judicial activism turning into judicial adventurism
and therefore, must be cautious of the implications of
interfering in the affairs of the other organs of the state.
86
2 Ministry MoEF is the nodal agency responsible for formulating
policies for environment protection and pollution
abatement. It is imperative for MoEF to address the issues
of strengthening the present regulatory, enforcement and
institutional mechanisms for a better air quality
management framework in the country.
MoEF must formulate a national strategy plan for air
quality improvement while insisting the state governments
to prepare a more localised district level air quality
management strategy which is aligned with the national
level strategy. These policy level interventions must be
complimented by aiding the institutional agencies with
necessary resources and skilled manpower to build their
capacity.
MoEF must structure a permanent inter-ministerial task
force with representation from all the ministries for
implementing fast track policy intervention mechanism.
Other ministries must complement and support the air
pollution abatement strategy for the country through
enforcement of stricter emission control norms for
controlling pollution from mobile, stationary, areas
sources. Benchmarking the AQM performance with ‗Best
Practices‘ internationally should be the next step for all the
ministries.
3 Government Agencies CPCB and SPCBs/PCCs are the main regulatory organs of
the air quality management framework in India. They form
the backbone of this framework and therefore, their role
clarity and division of work must be carefully charted to
ensure that both get equal decision control over important
regulatory functions. Both these regulatory agencies must
be made autonomous and be endowed with punitive
powers. These agencies must be provided with statutory
and legal support by the constitution of the country to
87
ensure regulatory pollution compliance throughout the
country.
These organisations must also ensure operational
transparency by making all their initiatives and the work
under them available in the public domain. To ensure
effective communication between these two regulatory
bodies, there must be adequate representation of CPCB
members in various SPCBs. Also, undertaking periodic
reviews and audits of key parts of AQM through a defined
set of procedures can assist in measuring progress in
AQM. Capacity of CPCB and SPCBs must be built by
adequate resources to make them financial and
operationally independent and self-reliant. Both these
agencies must undertake training and knowledge building
activities in their respective organisations. Monitoring air
quality and sharing the results of monitoring and impacts
of pollution with different stakeholders is also a
responsibility that these regulatory government agencies
must undertake judiciously.
Planning commission is also an important government
agency which should recommend allocation of funds to
building the capacity of these regulatory agencies and
advocating a comprehensive air quality management plan
for the nation. EPCA is another important government
agency appointed by Supreme Court for monitoring and
controlling functions for protecting and improving the
quality of environment and prevention and control of
environmental pollution. EPCA must continue its
revolutionary work to ensure wider compliance.
Other government agencies like BEE, PPAC, etc must
continue to support the country‘s endeavour of better air
quality.
4 Non-Government Though select prominent NGOs are working towards
88
Organisations addressing the issue of air pollution; it still isn‘t getting its
due share of importance from the civil societies operating
in India. NGOs must assist in the air quality monitoring
activities and help in the public outreach and awareness
activities to reduce pollution.
5 Associations Industry associations have a big role to play in lobbying
for effective AQM framework for the country. They must
camp for stringent and effective industrial and vehicular
emission standards. They must also help in the
implementation of pollution monitoring and control
measures across industries. Indian Association of Air
Pollution Control must actively engage itself to raise
awareness in the public
6 Academic/Research
Institutes
India must develop a strong research database of emission
inventories, source apportionment studies, dispersion
models, air pollution environment impact studies, health
risk assessment of air pollution and policy intervention
impact studies for which there is a dearth of researchers.
Thus, it becomes an imperative to fuel research on these
research topics in academic and research institutes of the
country. The objective must be to seek policy level
changes in the framework rather than it being solely an
academic exercise. It is also important to increase the
desirability of AQM as a career and strengthen the
participation of local universities in various technical
aspects of air quality monitoring and emission
inventorization. These institutes must also encourage
imparting specialist education in AQM rather than general
broad knowledge on air pollution.
7 International/bilateral
organisations
India being a developing country needs assistance from
developmental organisations so as to walk the path of
sustainable development. International and bilateral
organisations must provide monitory aid as well as share
89
technical expertise to evolve our present air quality
management framework. Bilateral organisations must
share the latest technological advancements in this field
with the Government of India by signing Memorandum of
Understanding (MoU) to nurture their relations with India
while enabling India to develop sustainably. These
organisations can also help build capacity of our NGOs
and regulatory agencies for an effective AQM framework.
8 Media Media plays an important role in creating awareness about
AQM in the country. Media must play a proactive role in
regularly informing the general public and other
stakeholders of the importance of air quality and AQM
strategies. Media can also act like a watchdog of the
society by reporting areas of AQM failures.
Media must focus its awareness campaigns upon
highlighting the work of ―Champions in AQM‖, who
could be, well-known people or celebrities. These people
can convey air quality information and increase the
awareness in different public groups while ensuring that
pollution related issues are not taken lightly in the country.
9 India Inc. India Inc. must actively involve itself in the design and
implementation of AQM capacity building programmes.
India Inc. must ensure that it actively cleans the air that
they collectively pollute not only for pollution compliance
but also as responsible corporate citizens of the country
under their Corporate Social Responsibility mandate and
in their corporate philosophy itself.
`10 Websites Internet is an effective medium to share knowledge on the
subject of air pollution. More websites must be developed.
6.2 Proposed Air Quality Management Framework for India
Given below in Figure 5 is the proposed Air Quality Management Framework for the country.
90
Figure 5: Proposed Air Quality Management Framework for India
Memorandum of Understanding
Monitors, penalises and ensures
compliance
Provides Assistance
Empowers through Legislation
Provides
Assistance
Carries out Studies and
Assessment
Support
Build Capacity, Share Technology
and Best Practices
International /
Bilateral
Organisations
Empowers
through
Legislation Empowers and
Builds Capacity
Local
Universities and
NGOs
Media Planned
Public Outreach Industry
& NGO
Support
Assistance
Academic/Research Institutes and
Indian Meteorological Department
Regulatory
Agency
(CPCB/SPCBs/
PCCs)
Executive Body
Ministry of
Science and
Technology
If National
Ambient Air
Quality Standards
are not met
Air Quality
Modelling and
forecasting
Air Quality
Monitoring
National
Ambient Air
Quality
Standards
Health Risk
Assessment
Studies
Judicial
intervention
State/City Action
Plans for
combating air
pollution
Legislature
Corrective
Measures,
Policy and
Legislative
intervention
Source
Emission
Inventory Ministry of
Health and
Family
Welfare
Builds Public Pressure
Source
Apportionment
Studies
Air Quality Alert System
91
6.3 Limitations
1. Data Limitation: All the factual information documented in this report was available in the
public domain and was accessed only through the medium of internet. There may have been
more information available which may not have been covered in this report if it were not
updated on the online interface.
2. Time Restraint: The research work was carried out over a period of 3 months and this field of
study requires more time.
3. Scope of Work: Research was carried out within the scope of work boundaries and most
organisations peripheral to the scope were not plotted in the stakeholder categories.
92
7.0 REFERENCES
1. CAI Asia‘s report on review of Air Quality Management in India
2. Annual Report of CPCB 2011
3. Planning Commission‘s Approach Paper for 12th
five year plan
4. ADB and CAI Asia‘s Country Synthesis Report on Urban Air Quality Management-
India, Discussion Draft 2006
5. CPCB‘s National Summary Report on Air quality monitoring, emission inventory and
source apportionment study for Indian cities, December 2010
6. Smith KR. Inaugural article: national burden of disease in India from indoor air
pollution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000 ; 97 : 13286 – 93
7. Smith, K.R. Indoor air pollution implicated in alarming health problems. In: Indoor
Air Pollution – Energy and Health for the Poor. Newsletter published by World Bank,
p.1, 2000
8. Background Paper Prepared for The Atlantic Council of USA Paper by Sajal Ghosh
CII on ‗Sustainable energy policies for clean air in India‘
9. Discussion Paper on ―Who changed Delhi‘s air?‖ by Urvashi Narain and Ruth
Greenspan Bell <http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/10466/1/dp050048.pdf>
10. The Public Accounts Committee of Parliament - 57th
report tabled on April 27th
2012
in the Lok Sabha on functioning of MoEF
<http://164.100.47.134/lsscommittee/Public%20Accounts/57%20Report.pdf>
11. Report of the planning commission sub-group on the environment for the 12th
Plan
12. Department Related Parliamentary standing committee on Science and Technology,
environment and Forests, 192nd
Report on functioning of CPCB
<http://www.researchatsashwaat.com/various_report_files/20111005045128_192%20
-%20Functioning%20of%20Central%20Pollution%20Control%20Board.pdf>
13. Report on Evaluation of CPCB by IIM Lucknow February 2010
<http://cpcb.nic.in/IIMLko.pdf>
14. Report of the Working Group on Environment & Environmental Regulatory
Mechanisms in Environment and Forests for the Eleventh Five Year Plan
<http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/wg_envtal.pdf>
15. Report on "Environmental Governance and Role of Judiciary in India" by Dr.
Geetanjoy Sahu of Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC) ,Bangalore
93
<http://www.isec.ac.in/Environmental_%20governance_%20and_%20role_%20of_%
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16. Report on the Strategic framework of Air Quality Management in Asia
<www.unep.org/PDF/APMA_strategic_framework.pdf>
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72. www.indiapollutionmap.org [Accessed on 25th
May, 2012]
95
8.0 APPENDIX
8.1 Annexure I: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) (Revised in 1994 &
1998)80
Sno. Pollutant Time Weighted
Average
Concentration in Ambient Air
Industrial
Area
Residential, Rural
and other Areas
Sensitive
Area
1 Sulphur
Dioxide
(SO2)
µg/m3
Annual Average 80 60 15
24 Hours
Average
120 80 30
2 Nitrogen
Dioxide
(NO2)
µg/m3
Annual Average 80 60 15
24 Hours
Average
120 80 30
3 Suspended
Particulate
Matter
(SPM)
Annual Average 360 140 70
24 Hours
Average
500 200 100
4 Respirable
Particulate
Matter
(RSPM)
[Size less
than 10 µm]
Annual Average 120 60 50
24 Hours
Average
150 100 75
5 Lead (Pb)
µg/m3
Annual Average 1 0.75 0.5
24 Hours
Average
1.5 1 0.75
6 Carbon
Monoxide
(CO)
mg/m3
8 Hour Average 5 2 1
1 Hour Average 10 4 2
7 Ammonia
(NH3)
mg/m3
Annual Average 0.1
24 Hour Average 0.4
80
Source: http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/air/gsr384(e).htm and http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/air/gsr935(e).htm
96
8.2 Annexure II: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (Revised in 2009)81
*Source: ‗Air Quality Monitoring Regime in India- An Overview‘, Centre for Development
Finance (Page 9 &10)
81
Original source: http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/ep/826.pdf