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AIM activities for assessing emissions of LongLived GHGs and ShortLived Climate Pollutants by AIM/Enduse[Global] model Tatsuya Hanaoka (on behalf of AIM team members) Center for Social and Environmental Systems National Institute for Environmental Studies TFHTAP/TFIAM Workshop on Global Emissions Scenarios to 2050 IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria 1113 February 2015

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Page 1: AIM activities for emissions of Long Lived GHGs and Short Lived Climate Pollutants by ... · PDF file · 2015-02-24and Short‐Lived Climate Pollutants by AIM/Enduse[Global] model

AIM activities for assessing emissions of Long‐Lived GHGs 

and Short‐Lived Climate Pollutantsby AIM/Enduse[Global] model

Tatsuya Hanaoka (on behalf of AIM team members)

Center for Social and Environmental SystemsNational Institute for Environmental Studies

TF‐HTAP/TFIAMWorkshop on Global Emissions Scenarios to 2050IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria

11‐13 February 2015

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Topics

2

1. Overview of AIM activities for assessing emissions of Short‐lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) and Long‐Lived GHGs (LLGHG)

2. Overview of AIM/Enduse[Global] and its scenarios

3. Comparison between GAINS & AIM/Enduse

4. Example results by AIM/Enduse – what we can analyze & what we cannot analyze

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AIM models for mitigation analysis‐ role of the AIM/Enduse model ‐

3

Global scale

National scaleTop-down approach

Bottom-up approach

Hybrid approach

Output

Global emission paths to climate stabilization

AIM/Impact[Policy]

AIM/CGE[Global]

Mitigation potentials and costs curves

AIM/Enduse[Global]

model

AIM/CGE[Country]

Mitigation potentials and costs curves

AIM/Enduse[Country]AIM/Energy Snapshot

AIM/Extended Snapshot

Macro-economic driving forces

Macro-economic driving forces

Industrial production,transportation volume, etc

Element / transition(service demand)

Industrial production,transportation volume, etc

Element / transition(service demand)

AIM/Backcast

AIM/Material

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MOEJ‐S12: Promotion of climate policies by assessing environmental impacts of SLCP and seeking LLGHG emissions pathways (FY2014‐FY2018)

4

Goal: To develop an integrated evaluation system for LLGHG and SLCP mitigation policy, by interconnecting emission inventory, integrated assessment models, and climate models.

Theme 1: Air quality change event analysis・Analysis on regional AQ change・Development of emission inventory ・Inversion algorithms of emission estimation

Theme 2: Integrated model  Theme 2: Integrated model  and future scenarios・Global socio‐economic scenarios・National & regional emissions 

scenarios・Urban & household emissions AQ 

assessment

Theme 3: SLCP impacts on climate & environment・Impact assessment of aerosols & GHG・Assessment of health, agriculture, 

water cycle, sea level rise

SLCP emissions scenariosImproved emission inventory

Feedback of impactsAssessment of activities/policies

Regional EmissionInventories and Chemical Transfer 

Model 

Integrated Assessment Model (AIM)

Climate and Environment

Model

Chemical transfer model and emission inventory in Asia

AIM/Enduse modelSocio‐economical & emissions scenario

Climate model, earth system model Climate change impact & adaptation

Theme 4: Integrated operation system (Toolkits, data archive)

MDG・SDG・Future Earth

StakeholdersPolicy makers Society Information 

transmissionSystem utilization

CCAC, UNFCC, IPCC, EANET

air pollution policies

CCAC, UNFCC, IPCC, EANETProposal and assessment of climate and 

air pollution policies

Regional 

Regional strategy

⇅Global strategy

Science

Experiment setup

Metric definitions

Experiment setupDatabase development

Metric definitions

Model improvement

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Challenges of S‐12 Theme 2led by NIES cooperating with MHIR and Kyoto Univ.

1.  ‐ To indicate socio‐economic scenarios considering climate change and environmental impacts and

‐ To present emissions scenarios of Long‐lived GHG(LLGHG) and Short lived Climate Pollutant (SLCP).【global/national/local scales】

2. ‐ To evaluate co‐benefits of LLGHG mitigation measures and SLCP reduction measures and 

‐ To analyze regional characteristics in Asia, in a manner consistent with long‐term global scenarios such as achieving 2℃ global temperature change limit target and halving global GHG emissions by 2050.【national/regional scales in Asia】

5

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S‐12 Theme2: Improvement of Integrated Assessment Model and Quantification of Future Scenarios 

6

Global model AIM/CGE

Global model AIM/Enduse

National modelAIM/Enduse

HouseholdModel

Local Air pollution model

Theme3Env. & Climate 

ImpactsGlobal emissions scenarios onLLGHG・SLCP

Theme 1Emission inventory

Theme 4Synthesis system

Local emissionsscenarios onLLGHG・SLCP

National emissions Scenarios onLLGHG・SLCP

Air p

ollutio

n managem

ent 

techno

logies

Air p

ollutio

n managem

ent 

policies a

nd events 

at national/local sc

ale

Information for negotiation on GHG reductions

Env. & climatePolicy in JapanAssessment of 

Env. & climate policies in Asia

Green:Relation to otherThem 

Orange:Relation to Env.policies

Improvement of Enduse(Local activities & 

Pollution Management Technologies)

Assessment of actions & policies

Future scenarios

Improved

 inventory

Assessment ofmitigation costs &

climate change impacts

Emissions scenarioson LLGHG & SLCP

Future socio‐economic scenarios

Env. & ClimateImpacts

Socio‐economic scenario considering climate & Env. Impact

AIM models

Future Scenarios

Research goals

Sub‐theme (2)

Sub‐theme (1)

Sub‐theme (3)

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Overview of AIM/Enduse model

7

Bottom-up type model with detailed technology selection framework with optimization

Recursive dynamic model

Assessing technological transition over time

Analyzing effect of policies such as carbon/energy tax, subsidy, regulation and so on.

Target Gas : Multiple gasesCO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6, SO2, NOx, CFCs, HCFCs, etc

Target Sectors : multiple sectorspower generation sector, industry sector, residential sector, commercial sector, transport sector, agriculture sector, municipal solid waste sector, fugitive emissions sector, F-gas emissions sector(each of these can be further disaggregated into sub-sectors)

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AIM/Enduse[Global]‐ Regional Classification ‐

8

JPN (Japan)

AUS (Australia)

NZL (New Zealand)

RUS (Russia)

CHN (China)

IND (India)

IDN (Indonesia)

THA (Thailand)

USA (United States)

XE15 (Western EU‐15)

XE10 (Eastern EU‐10)

XE2 (Other EU‐2)

XSA (Other South Asia)

XEA (Other East Asia)

XSE (Other South‐East Asia)

MYS (Malaysia)

CAN (Canada)

TUR (Turkey)

XEWI (Other Western EU in Annex I)

XEEI (Other Eastern EU in Annex I)

XENI (Other EU)

XCS (Central Asia)

XOC (Other Oceania)

VNM (Viet Nam)

KOR (Korea)

MEX (Mexico)

BRA (Brazil)

ARG (Argentine)

XLM (Other Latin America)

ZAF (South Africa)

XAF (Other Africa)

XME (Middle East)

Annex I(exact)

OECD(approx)

ASEAN(exact)

World 32 regions

E.g.) Comparison to GAINS 25 RegionsAIM/Enduse GAINS

ASIA JPN, CHN, IND, IDN, KOR, THA, MYS, VNM, XSE, XSA, XEA, XCS

Japan, China+, India, Indonesia+, Korea, SE Asia, Rest S Asia, Asia‐STAN

ASEAN IDN, THA, MYS, VNM, XSE Indonesia, SE Asia

Annex I JPN, AUS, NZL, USA, CAN,XE15, XE10, XE2, TUR, XEWI, XEEI, RUS

Japan, Oceania, USA, Canada, Western EU, Central EU, Turky, Ukraina+, Russia +

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AIM/Enduse[Global]‐ Target Gases and Sectors ‐

9

GHG Sector Sub sectors whose mitigation actions are considered in Enduse model(other subsectors are treated as scenario)

CO2CH4N2OSO2 NOxBCPM

Power generation Coal power plant, Oil power plant, Gas power plant, Renewable (Wind, Biomass, PV)

Industry Iron and steel,Cement Other industries (Boiler, motor etc)

Transportation Passenger vehicle, Truck,Bus,Ship, Aircraft,Passenger train,Freight train (except for pipeline transport and international transport)

Residential and & Commercial

Cooling, Heating, Hot‐water, Cooking, Lighting, Refrigerator, TV

CH4N2O

Agriculture Livestock rumination, Manure management, Paddy field, Cropland

MSW Municipal solid waste

CH4 Fugitive  Fugitive emission from fuel

ODSs, HFCs,PFCs,SF6

Fgas emissions By‐product of HCFC‐22, Refrigerant,Aerosol, Foams,Solvent, Etching,Aluminum production, Insulation gas, others.

CO2 CH4 N2O HFCs PFCs SF6 CFCs HCFCs SO2 NOx BC OC PM10 PM2.5 CO NH3 NMV HgFuel 

combustion ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✻ ✔ ✔ ✻ ✻ ✻

Industrial process ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✻ ✔ ✔ ✻ ✻ ✻

Agriculture ✔ ✔ ✻Waste ✔

Fuel mining ✔Others ✔ ✔ ✔ ✻ ✻

✔: Updated & elaborating ✻:On‐going updatingEmission factors can be set by energy, by sector and by region over time. Settings on technology options are the same, too

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AIM/Enduse[Global] and element models

10

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050GHG emission

s in Asia (G

t CO2eq)

Cement production

Value added of 2nd industry

Agricultural production

Fluorocarbon emission

Transport volume (Freight)

Energy service (Residential)

Municipal solid waste generation

Energy service (Commercial)

Transportation Demand Model

Household Lifestyle Model

Municipal Solid Waste Model

Cement Production Model

Building sector(Residential)

Energy Supply sector

Socio-economicscenario

Agricultural Prod & Trade model

FluorocarbonEmission Model

Agriculture sector

Model DatabaseVariable

Solid waste management sector

Transport volume (Passenger)

Crude steelproduction

Steel Production & Trade Model

Gas fuel

Heat

Liquid fuel

Solid fuel

Hydrogen

Energy balance

Primaryenergy

Energy price

Emission factor

EnergyDB

Nuclear Hydro Geothermal

Solar Wind Biomass

Emissions

Energy mining sector

GasCoal Oil

Bottom-up model (i.e. AIM/Enduse)

Macro Economic

frame Model

Population & Household number

GDP & Sector value added

Macro-economic model

Iron and steelsector

Cementsector

Other industries sector

Transport sector(Passenger)

Fluorocarbon sector

Energy Resource DB

Cost

Lifetime

Technology DB

Efficiency

Diffusion rate

Service demand models

Electricity

Freight sector(Freight)

Building sector(Commercial)

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Future Socio‐economic settings

Socio-economicscenario

Energy mining sector

Macro Economic

frame Model

Population & Household number

GDP & Sector value added

Energy Resource DB

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100

China

GDP pe

r cap

ita 

(100

0 US$2005/person)

0

10

20

30

40

50

1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100

India

GDP pe

r cap

ita 

(100

0 US$2005/person)

0

20

40

1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100

ASEAN

GDP pe

r cap

ita 

(100

0 US$2005/person)

Historical trend

SSP1 scenario

SSP2 scenario

SSP3 scenario

SSP4 scenario

SSP5 scenario

This study

Considering various features of different socio‐economic scenarios 1111

e.g.) GDP growth per capita in each country

Macro-economic model

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Modeling future service demands

Cement production

Value added of 2nd industry

Agricultural production

Fluorocarbon emission

Transport volume (Freight)

Energy service (Residential)

Municipal solid waste generation

Energy service (Commercial)

Transportation Demand Model

Household Lifestyle Model

Municipal Solid Waste Model

Cement Production Model

Socio-economicscenario

Agricultural Prod & Trade model

FluorocarbonEmission Model

Model DatabaseVariable

Transport volume (Passenger)

Crude steelproduction

Steel Production & Trade Model

Macro Economic

frame Model

Population & Household number

GDP & Sector value added

Total transportation volume PKTOTi,t

Total transportation volume per capita

PKTOTPi,t

PopulationPOPi,t

GDP per capitaGDPPi,t

Transportation volume of each mode

PKm,i,t

Modal shareSHm,i,t

Endogenousvariable

Exogenousvariable

Estimationequation

Definitionalequation

i: regiont: yearm: mode

E.g.) Passenger transport volume estimation mode

Considering socie‐economic features to future service demand estimations in each sector and country (i.e. POP, GDP, are consistent across sectors and countries) 12

02000400060008000100001200014000

2005

2010

2015

2020

2025

2030

2035

2040

2045

2050

Pass

enge

r tra

nspo

rt (b

illion

pkm

)

JapanChinaIndiaKorea

Macro-economic model Service demand models

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Modeling on technology selections

13

Selecting technologies to satisfy future service demands and to balance supply and demand, by sector, by country 

under various constraints& under minimizing total system costs

By energy, sector and country, we can set various constraints such as Technology settings in the base year Energy balance in the base year Technology diffusion rate Speed of technology diffusion rate  Technology constraints Energy constraints Speed of energy efficiency improvement  Technology cost Technology costs improvement etc

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050GHG emission

s in Asia (G

t CO2eq)

Building sector(Residential)

Energy Supply sector

Agriculture sector

Solid waste management sector

Gas fuel

Heat

Liquid fuel

Solid fuel

Hydrogen

Energy balance

Primaryenergy

Energy price

Emission factor

EnergyDB

Nuclear Hydro Geothermal

Solar Wind Biomass

Emissions

Energy mining sector

GasCoal Oil

Bottom-up model (i.e. AIM/Enduse)

Iron and steelsector

Cementsector

Other industries sector

Transport sector(Passenger)

Fluorocarbon sector

Energy Resource DB

Cost

Lifetime

Technology DB

Efficiency

Diffusion rate

Electricity

Freight sector(Freight)

Building sector(Commercial)

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Future Scenario settings

14

Case 1) Reference scenario (GHG mitigations under BaU & no pollution control measures)Case 2) Technological mitigation measures under emissions pathways constraints at 2 ℃, 

2.5℃, and 3℃ reported by UNEP Emission Gap ReportCase 3)Technological mitigation measures under carbon pricing scenarios, considering the 

current useful references of carbon pricing such as EU‐ETS carbon prices fluctuated due to global economic change, and varied around 

15‐30 EURO/tCO2.  The price of CER for CDM projects also fluctuated around 10‐20 EURO/tCO2.  Due to the economic recession, the carbon price decreased, around 1 ‐ 5 EURO/tCO2. Upper limits of carbon price of EU‐ETS penalty price is 100 EURO/tCO2 IEA (2010) reported carbon price is at 175 US$/tCO2 in the 450 ppmv scenario.

Scenario name 2013 2020 2030 2040 2050Reference 0 0 0 0 0

50 US$/tCO2 3.75 12.5 25 37.5 50100 US$/tCO2 7.5 25 50 75 100200 US$/tCO2 15 50 100 150 200400 US$/tCO2 30 100 200 300 400

Future global economy‐wide carbon prices scenarios (US$/tCO2)

Increase from the range of current carbon price up to 50US$/tCO2

Increase from the carbon price before economic recession, up to IEA assumption

Increase from the range of current carbon price up to EUETS penalty price

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0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

GtCO2

AIM/Enduse[Global] in global 32 regionsBaseline emissions from fuel combustion & industry in Asia

15

ASEAN

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

GtCO2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

GtCO2

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

GtCO2

IndiaChinaAsia

EDGER4.2

AIM/Enduse

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtSO2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtNOx

ASEAN ASEAN

020406080100120140160180200

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtSO2

Asia

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtNOx

Asia

CO2

SO2 NOx

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0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

GtCO2 eq

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

GtCO2 eq

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

GtCO2 eq

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

GtCO2 eq

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

GtCO2 eq

Comparison with GAINS results ‐ Reference CH4 emissions ‐

16

Annex I

Asia China

India

ASEAN

Major emission sources of CH4 are not from fuel combustion. Thus, we need to carefully see sectors such as agriculture, waste and fugitive emissions.

Another major difference is that AIM/Enduse includes “no regret”  in this reference scenario.EDGER4.2AIM/Enduse (reference scenario)GAINS(NFC scenario)

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Example of CH4 emission estimationHow to estimate MSW generation in Asia? 

17

Note )Data include Japan, China, Thailand, USA, EU27 & Chinese provinces

y = 184.4ln(x) ‐ 1243.3R² = 0.8302

Following US trend

y = 139.7ln(x) ‐ 904.65 R² = 0.7938

Following developedcountries average

y = 100.94ln(x) – 617.02R² = 0.7445

Following Japan trend

Outlier(Tibet)

China in provincial level

How to estimate future MSW generations in Asia?Asia will follow historical US trend? Japan trend or the average trend of developed countries?

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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtSO2

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtSO2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtSO2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtSO2

Comparison with GAINS results ‐ Reference SO2 emissions ‐

18

Asia China

India

ASEAN

Major differences are how to estimate future energy service demands, how to set emission factors by fuel and by country, and how to consider fuel policies and air pollution control policies in the future scenario.

The results in the AIM/Enduse[Global] model does include neither fuel policies nor air pollution control policies in the reference scenario

EDGER4.2AIM/Enduse (reference scenario)GAINS(NFC scenario)

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0

5

10

15

20

25

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtNOx

0

20

40

60

80

100

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtNOx

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtNOx

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050

MtNOx

Comparison with GAINS results ‐ Reference NOx emissions ‐

19

Asia China

India

ASEAN

EDGER4.2AIM/Enduse (reference scenario)GAINS(NFC scenario)

Major differences are how to estimate future energy service demands, how to set emission factors by fuel and by country, and how to consider fuel policies and air pollution control policies in the future scenario.

The results in the AIM/Enduse[Global] model does include neither fuel policies nor air pollution control policies in the reference scenario

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051015202530354045

1990 2010 2030 2050

MtPM

0

5

10

15

20

25

1990 2010 2030 2050

MtPM

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1990 2010 2030 2050

MtPM

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1990 2010 2030 2050

MtPM

0

5

10

15

20

25

1990 2010 2030 2050

MtBC

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1990 2010 2030 2050

MtBC

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1990 2010 2030 2050

MtBC

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1990 2010 2030 2050

MtBC

Comparison with GAINS results ‐ Reference PM & BC emissions ‐

20

AIM/EnduseGAINS(NFC)

Asia China India ASEAN

Asia China India ASEAN

Large uncertainties & large gaps maybe due to settings of EF and pollution control measures?

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6 GHGs emissions pathways in Asiaand comparison with 2 ℃ target pathways

21

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050

GHG emission

s in Asia(Gt C

O2e

q)

Reference T50 T100 T200 T400 2 ℃ 2.5 ℃ 3 ℃

‐100%

‐90%

‐80%

‐70%

‐60%

‐50%

‐40%

‐30%

‐20%

‐10%

0%2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050

GHG re

ductions ratio  in

 Asia

(% from

 reference)

Source) modified from Hanaoka et al, Environmental Pollution (2014)

Reference 50US$/tCO2 100US$/tCO2 200US$/tCO2 400US$/tCO2

2℃ scenario 2.5 ℃ scenario 3 ℃ scenario

Scenario name 2013 2020 2030 2040 2050Reference 0 0 0 0 0

50 US$/tCO2 3.75 12.5 25 37.5 50100 US$/tCO2 7.5 25 50 75 100200 US$/tCO2 15 50 100 150 200400 US$/tCO2 30 100 200 300 400

Emissions constraints of achieving 2℃‐3℃ were calculated based on UNEP Gap Report Future global economy‐wide carbon prices scenarios (US$/tCO2)

45% reductions from the 2005 levels

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20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

140 

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 20452050

SO2em

ission

s in Asia(M

t SO2)

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050

NOxem

ission

s in Asia(M

t NOx)

Reference T50 T100 T200 T400 2 ℃ 2.5 ℃ 3 ℃

10 

15 

20 

25 

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050

BCem

ission

s in Asia(M

t BC)

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050

PMem

ission

s in Asia(M

t PM)

Reference T50 T100 T200 T400 2 ℃ 2.5 ℃ 3 ℃

SLCP & Air pollutants emissions in Asia‐ Cobenefits of implementing CO2 mitigation policies‐

22

Reference

50US$/tCO2

100US$/tCO2

200US$/tCO2

400US$/tCO2

2℃ scenario

2.5℃ scenario

3℃ scenario

Source) modified from Hanaoka et al, Environmental Pollution (2014)

There are large reduction potentials of air pollutants and SLCPs, due to GHG mitigation actions such as drastic fuel sifts and energy efficiency improvement.(e.g. 60~90% reductions compared to baseline in 2050

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SLCP & Air pollutants reduction potentials in Asia‐ Cobenefits of implementing CO2 mitigation policies‐

23Others

Energy supply

Residential & Commercial

Transport

Industry

Reference scenario 

2℃ scenario

Emissions pathway & reduction potentials Reduction potentials in 2050

Source) modified from Hanaoka et al, Environmental Pollution (2014)

Features of reduction potentials are different by energy type, by gas typeand by sector, e.g.)Sox: Power & industry Nox: transport and powerBC: power and transport

There is a limitation of large reductions only by fuel sifts and energy efficiency improvements

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What AIM/Enduse can & cannot dofor Global Emissions Scenarios Comparison

24

AIM/Enduse can discuss Estimating future emissions scenarios both LLGHGs, SLCPs and air pollutants, 

quantitatively up to 2050. Analysing abatement actions by technology, by sector and by country under 

carbon tax, energy tax, subsidies, etc Analysing technology selections under various constraints such as emissions 

pathways constraint, energy supply constraint, technology diffusions, etc Discussing mitigation costs and required initial investments

AIM/Enduse cannot discuss Considering “spill‐over effects” and “rebound effects” such as changes in the 

industrial structure, changes of service demands and changes in technology and energy price.

Considering GDP losses due to GHG mitigation actions and pollutants abetment actions

Considering land use change and its corresponding open biomass burnings

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Conclusion

25

Mitigation measures of energy efficiency improvement on the demand side and the shift to less‐or non‐carbon energies on the supply side play important roles in reducing CO2 emissions as well as increasing cobenefits of SO2 and NOx emissions reductions.

Energy shift in energy supply sector largely contribute to reducing GHGs as well as SO2 in Asia. However, NOx are derived from transport as well as energy supply, and there are limitations to shifting from fuel vehicles to Hybrid, plug‐in Hybrid, electric vehicles in developing countries.

One caveat in this study is that, to focus on cobenefits of reducing air pollutants by introducing GHG mitigation measures, air pollutant control policies and fuel policies are not considered in this study. It is also possible to include these impacts into the Enduse model analysis in the further study.

There is a limitation of reducing SLCPs and air pollutants only by fuel sifts and energy efficiency improvements from the viewpoint of low carbon measures, thus it is also required to consider policies such as air pollutant control measures and low sulfur content fuel policies.

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Contact: [email protected]