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AHA Scientific Statement Acute Heart Failure Syndromes: Emergency Department Presentation, Treatment, and Disposition: Current Approaches and Future Aims A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association Neal L. Weintraub, MD, Chair; Sean P. Collins, MD, MSc, Co-Chair; Peter S. Pang, MD; Phillip D. Levy, MD, MPH; Allen S. Anderson, MD; Cynthia Arslanian-Engoren, PhD, RN, FAHA; W. Brian Gibler, MD, FAHA; James K. McCord, MD; Mark B. Parshall, PhD, RN; Gary S. Francis, MD, FAHA; Mihai Gheorghiade, MD; on behalf of the American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology and Council on Cardiopulmonary, Critical Care, Perioperative and Resuscitation W ith a prevalence of 5 800 000 (2% of the entire populace) in 2009 and an estimated yearly incidence of 550 000, the burden of heart failure (HF) in the United States is tremendous. 1 Although HF is largely a condition defined by chronic debility, virtually all patients experi- ence, at some point, acute symptoms that trigger a visit to the emergency department (ED). These symptoms may vary in severity but, for the most part, they necessitate early intervention, often with intravenous medication and, less frequently, respiratory support. As shown by com- bined data from the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (NAMCS) and the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (NHAMCS), this is a common occurrence; there are nearly 658 000 annual ED encounters primarily for acute HF in the United States—a figure that represents almost 20% of the total HF-specific ambulatory care delivered each year. 2 It is noteworthy that few settings other than the ED can offer open access to treatment or provide the level and intensity of care required to effectively manage the acute phase of decompensation, also referred to as episodes of acute heart failure syndromes (AHFS). Nearly 80% of those treated for AHFS in the ED are ultimately admitted to the hospital and, accordingly, the ED serves as the principal portal of entry for hospitalized AHFS patients. 34 The ED therefore plays a unique role in the continuum of AHFS treatment, functioning for most patients as the initial point of definitive healthcare contact, the location where primary stabilization is achieved, and the site where disposition decisions are generally made. 4 Whereas the ED is a pivotal place for the vast majority of hospitalized patients with acute HF, the evidence base on which this foundation of acute care is built is astonishingly thin. The purpose of this scientific statement, therefore, is to de- scribe current standard practice for HF clinicians, to highlight the knowledge gaps that are present, and to serve as a call to action for ED-based research as a future endeavor for those with a vested interest in AHFS care. The need for improvement in our approach to AHFS management was recognized in the recently published 2009 Focused Update to the 2005 American College of Cardiology (ACC)/American Heart Association (AHA) Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults. For the first time recommendations relevant to the hospitalized AHFS patient were included. 5 Developed using guideline methodology standardized by the ACC/AHA (Table 1), 6 these recommendations repre- sent an important step forward in the ongoing effort to The American Heart Association makes every effort to avoid any actual or potential conflicts of interest that may arise as a result of an outside relationship or a personal, professional, or business interest of a member of the writing panel. Specifically, all members of the writing group are required to complete and submit a Disclosure Questionnaire showing all such relationships that might be perceived as real or potential conflicts of interest. This statement was approved by the American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee on August 11, 2010. A copy of the statement is available at http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier3003999 by selecting either the “topic list” link or the “chronological list” link (No. KB-0104). To purchase additional reprints, call 843-216-2533 or e-mail [email protected]. The American Heart Association requests that this document be cited as follows: Weintraub NL, Collins SP, Pang PS, Levy PD, Anderson AS, Arslanian-Engoren C, Gibler WB, McCord JK, Parshall MB, Francis GS, Gheorghiade M; on behalf of the American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology and Council on Cardiopulmonary, Critical Care, Perioperative and Resuscitation. Acute heart failure syndromes: emergency department presentation, treatment, and disposition: current approaches and future aims: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2010;122:1975–1996. Expert peer review of AHA Scientific Statements is conducted at the AHA National Center. For more on AHA statements and guidelines development, visit http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier3023366. Permissions: Multiple copies, modification, alteration, enhancement, and/or distribution of this document are not permitted without the express permission of the American Heart Association. Instructions for obtaining permission are located at http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml? identifier4431. A link to the “Permission Request Form” appears on the right side of the page. (Circulation. 2010;122:1975-1996.) © 2010 American Heart Association, Inc. Circulation is available at http://circ.ahajournals.org DOI: 10.1161/CIR.0b013e3181f9a223 1975 by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on June 17, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from

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Page 1: AHA Scientific Statement - Circulationcirc.ahajournals.org/content/circulationaha/122/19/1975.full.pdf · AHA Scientific Statement ... Circulation. 2010;122:1975–1996. ... especially

AHA Scientific Statement

Acute Heart Failure Syndromes: Emergency DepartmentPresentation, Treatment, and Disposition: Current

Approaches and Future AimsA Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

Neal L. Weintraub, MD, Chair; Sean P. Collins, MD, MSc, Co-Chair; Peter S. Pang, MD;Phillip D. Levy, MD, MPH; Allen S. Anderson, MD; Cynthia Arslanian-Engoren, PhD, RN, FAHA;

W. Brian Gibler, MD, FAHA; James K. McCord, MD; Mark B. Parshall, PhD, RN;Gary S. Francis, MD, FAHA; Mihai Gheorghiade, MD; on behalf of the American Heart Association Council

on Clinical Cardiology and Council on Cardiopulmonary, Critical Care, Perioperative and Resuscitation

With a prevalence of 5 800 000 (�2% of the entirepopulace) in 2009 and an estimated yearly incidence

of 550 000, the burden of heart failure (HF) in the UnitedStates is tremendous.1 Although HF is largely a conditiondefined by chronic debility, virtually all patients experi-ence, at some point, acute symptoms that trigger a visit tothe emergency department (ED). These symptoms mayvary in severity but, for the most part, they necessitateearly intervention, often with intravenous medication and,less frequently, respiratory support. As shown by com-bined data from the National Ambulatory Medical CareSurvey (NAMCS) and the National Hospital AmbulatoryMedical Care Survey (NHAMCS), this is a commonoccurrence; there are nearly 658 000 annual ED encountersprimarily for acute HF in the United States—a figure thatrepresents almost 20% of the total HF-specific ambulatorycare delivered each year.2

It is noteworthy that few settings other than the ED canoffer open access to treatment or provide the level andintensity of care required to effectively manage the acutephase of decompensation, also referred to as episodes ofacute heart failure syndromes (AHFS). Nearly 80% ofthose treated for AHFS in the ED are ultimately admittedto the hospital and, accordingly, the ED serves as the

principal portal of entry for hospitalized AHFS patients.34

The ED therefore plays a unique role in the continuum ofAHFS treatment, functioning for most patients as theinitial point of definitive healthcare contact, the locationwhere primary stabilization is achieved, and the site wheredisposition decisions are generally made.4 Whereas the EDis a pivotal place for the vast majority of hospitalizedpatients with acute HF, the evidence base on which thisfoundation of acute care is built is astonishingly thin. Thepurpose of this scientific statement, therefore, is to de-scribe current standard practice for HF clinicians, tohighlight the knowledge gaps that are present, and to serveas a call to action for ED-based research as a futureendeavor for those with a vested interest in AHFS care.

The need for improvement in our approach to AHFSmanagement was recognized in the recently published2009 Focused Update to the 2005 American College ofCardiology (ACC)/American Heart Association (AHA)Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of HeartFailure in Adults. For the first time recommendationsrelevant to the hospitalized AHFS patient were included.5

Developed using guideline methodology standardized bythe ACC/AHA (Table 1),6 these recommendations repre-sent an important step forward in the ongoing effort to

The American Heart Association makes every effort to avoid any actual or potential conflicts of interest that may arise as a result of an outsiderelationship or a personal, professional, or business interest of a member of the writing panel. Specifically, all members of the writing group are requiredto complete and submit a Disclosure Questionnaire showing all such relationships that might be perceived as real or potential conflicts of interest.

This statement was approved by the American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee on August 11, 2010. A copy of thestatement is available at http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier�3003999 by selecting either the “topic list” link or the “chronologicallist” link (No. KB-0104). To purchase additional reprints, call 843-216-2533 or e-mail [email protected].

The American Heart Association requests that this document be cited as follows: Weintraub NL, Collins SP, Pang PS, Levy PD, Anderson AS,Arslanian-Engoren C, Gibler WB, McCord JK, Parshall MB, Francis GS, Gheorghiade M; on behalf of the American Heart Association Council onClinical Cardiology and Council on Cardiopulmonary, Critical Care, Perioperative and Resuscitation. Acute heart failure syndromes: emergencydepartment presentation, treatment, and disposition: current approaches and future aims: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association.Circulation. 2010;122:1975–1996.

Expert peer review of AHA Scientific Statements is conducted at the AHA National Center. For more on AHA statements and guidelines development,visit http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier�3023366.

Permissions: Multiple copies, modification, alteration, enhancement, and/or distribution of this document are not permitted without the expresspermission of the American Heart Association. Instructions for obtaining permission are located at http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier�4431. A link to the “Permission Request Form” appears on the right side of the page.

(Circulation. 2010;122:1975-1996.)© 2010 American Heart Association, Inc.

Circulation is available at http://circ.ahajournals.org DOI: 10.1161/CIR.0b013e3181f9a223

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optimize the care of patients with AHFS. With respect tothe ED several key points warrant mention: (1) theincluded procedures and treatments represent a combina-tion that target acute (24 to 48 hours) and subacute (�48hours) stages of AHFS and are not specific to the imme-diate management; (2) although they provide generalguidance for treatment, there is limited direction for thecare of particular subgroups or phenotypes commonly seenin the ED setting, especially those who have acute hyper-tension with fluid redistribution rather than excess accu-mulation7; (3) potential applicability of critically importantacute interventions typically initiated in the ED, such as nonin-vasive ventilatory measures8 and endotracheal intubation, arenot discussed; (4) there is no consideration of risk stratificationor proposal to provide objective measures for disposition deci-sion making, which has crucial bearing on resource utilization,

in particular, for those patients whose condition may be amena-ble to a short-term, observation stay; and (5) the vast majority ofrecommendations are considered class I, yet, overall, and incontrast to those presented in the sections for chronic manage-ment, only one was based on level A evidence. This final pointis perhaps the most pressing and serves to highlight a criticallimitation in the quest to develop data-driven, best-practiceapproaches to the care of AHFS patients in the ED.

Reasons for the lack of definitive evidence for AHFSmanagement are multifactorial but can be largely attributed tothe absence of a cohesive research agenda among respectivestakeholders. Whereas registry databases such as ADHERE(Acute Decompensated Heart Failure National Registry)9,10

and OPTIMIZE-HF (Organized Program to Initiate Lifesav-ing Treatment in Hospitalized Patients With Heart Fail-ure)11,12 have compiled important information on initial

Table 1. Classification of Recommendations and Level of Evidence6

*Data available from clinical trials or registries about the usefulness/efficacy in different subpopulations, such as gender, age, history of diabetes, history of priormyocardial infarction, history of heart failure, and prior aspirin use. A recommendation with Level of Evidence B or C does not imply that the recommendation is weak.Many important clinical questions addressed in the guidelines do not lend themselves to clinical trials. Even though randomized trials are not available, there maybe a very clear clinical consensus that a particular test or therapy is useful or effective.

†In 2003, the ACCF/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines developed a list of suggested phrases to use when writing recommendations. All guidelinerecommendations have been written in full sentences that express a complete thought, such that a recommendation, even if separated and presented apart fromthe rest of the document (including headings above sets of recommendations), would still convey the full intent of the recommendation. It is hoped that this willincrease readers’ comprehension of the guidelines and will allow queries at the individual recommendation level.

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presentation and treatment, large-scale clinical trials, utilizingprospective data collection, have not been designed to recruitpatients in the ED setting. Factors contributing to this includea long-standing difficulty establishing consensus on reason-able end points4 as well as a desire to ensure accuratediagnosis before enrollment. More importantly, there hasbeen a misperception by HF specialists that identification andenrollment of ED patients is problematic.3 The net result is alingering uncertainty with regard to the impact of earlyintervention on outcomes and de facto inclusion of patientswho have refractory symptoms.3,4 The latter, in particular,may be responsible for the predominantly neutral findingsassociated with the majority of AHFS investigations that havebeen conducted to date.

As highlighted in this Introduction, a paradigm shift in theclinical practice and investigative agenda surrounding AHFSis warranted. Sensing the urgency of this matter, the NationalHeart, Lung, and Blood Institute recently convened a multi-disciplinary working group of individuals with expertise inAHFS management and tasked them with development of theInstitute’s future research focus for AHFS.13 Although theproceedings were published elsewhere, there was firm resolveamong all participants regarding the need to improve theevidence base in AHFS by initiating study of these patients inthe ED, and that a better understanding of AHFS could onlybe achieved through broad collaboration.

Organization of Writing Group and RelationshipsWith IndustryExperts in the subject of AHFS were selected and chargedwith examining subject-specific data and writing this scien-tific statement. The writing group performed a formal litera-ture review and weighed the strength of evidence for oragainst existing treatments or procedures using establishedAHA statement and guideline methodology. Discussion ofpatient-specific modifiers, comorbidities, and issues of pa-tient preference that might influence the choice of particulartests or therapies were considered, as were frequency offollow-up and cost-effectiveness. When available, informa-tion from studies on cost was considered; however, review ofdata on efficacy and clinical outcomes constituted the pri-mary basis for any related recommendations. To ensure thatany actual, potential, or perceived conflicts of interest wereidentified, all members of the writing group, as well as peerreviewers of the document, completed “Relationship withIndustry” forms when the writing group was formed. Writinggroup members were also required to review and update theirdisclosure information before publication. The writing groupused the “Methodology Manual for ACC/AHA GuidelineWriting Committees”14 as a guide for developing this state-ment. Writing group and reviewer disclosures that are perti-nent to this scientific statement are provided at the end of thisstatement.

What Happens Currently in the ED:Diagnosis, Treatment, and Disposition?

Diagnosis and treatment of AHFS in the ED is a clinicalchallenge that requires complex decision-making skills toachieve hemodynamic balance, improve functional capacity,

and decrease mortality and length of stay.15–19 This difficulttask is further compounded by the organizational structureand operations of most EDs, which tend to be better suited forrapid stabilization, treatment, and disposition of acute emer-gencies such as shock, arrhythmias, or ST-segment myocar-dial infarction, as opposed to the timely recognition andtreatment of more subtle or complicated forms of AHFS whichmost often are related to decompensation of underlying, chronicHF.20 It may be easier to judge how seriously ill patients arewhen their baseline has deviated from a previously healthy state,than when their condition represents deterioration of a chronicillness that is protean in nature, especially when the emergencyphysician is unfamiliar with the patient.

The ED phase of AHFS management concludes with adisposition decision (admit to ED observation unit, in-hospitaltelemetry unit, intensive care unit, or discharge to the outpatientenvironment).21 Because it is challenging to identify patients atrisk for poor outcomes in the ED, including acute and 30-dayadverse cardiac events,22 and because definitive resolution ofsymptoms is seldom achieved in the ED, 80% of patients whopresent to the ED with AHFS are hospitalized.23 At present,however, there is little evidence to guide disposition decisions,and imprecise risk stratification and uncertainty regarding theetiology of AHFS often prompts the decision to admit for furthertreatment and testing.21

Current DiagnosticsThe evaluation of the patient in the ED with possible AHFSincludes history, physical examination, chest radiography,12-lead ECG, cardiac troponin testing (I or T), electrolytes,and a complete blood cell count. The chest radiographremains a cornerstone for diagnostic testing, but can lacksigns of congestion in over 15% of patients, thus limiting itsability as a screening tool.24 In select cases, liver and thyroidfunction tests may be considered. The natriuretic peptidesb-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N-terminal (NT)-proBNP have demonstrated diagnostic utility in this patientpopulation when clinical uncertainty remains after initialhistory, physical examination, and chest radiography. Thesebiomarkers are generated from a prohormone released fromcardiac myocytes in response to ventricular dilatation andpressure overload.25–27 After release from the cardiac myo-cyte, the prohormone proBNP is cleaved into BNP, which ismetabolically active, and NT-proBNP, which is metabolicallyinactive. Both BNP and NT-proBNP are elevated in AHFSand the magnitude of marker elevation is correlated withseverity of illness.28–32

A large study that investigated the diagnostic utility ofnatriuretic peptides was the Breathing Not Properly trialwhich enrolled 1586 patients, and evaluated BNP measure-ment in ED patients with possible AHFS.28 Using a cutoff of100 pg/mL, BNP had a sensitivity, specificity, negativepredictive, and positive predictive value of 90%, 76%, 79%,and 89%, respectively. In this capacity, BNP is highly usefulto exclude AHFS. In a multiple logistic regression analysisincluding history, physical examination, and chest x-rayfindings, an elevated BNP was the strongest independentpredictor of AHFS, with an odds ratio of 29.6 (95% confi-dence interval [CI] 17.75 to 49.37). In a secondary analysis

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from this study, BNP correctly classified 74% of the patientswith an intermediate probability of AHFS.33 When BNP wasadded to clinical judgment after routine evaluation, the areaunder the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) rosesignificantly from 0.86 to 0.93 (P�0.0001). Similarly, asingle-center investigation evaluated the diagnostic utility ofNT-proBNP in the ED in 600 patients with dyspnea.31 TheAUC rose from 0.90 to 0.96 when NT-proBNP was added toclinical judgment. The authors suggest a single cut point of300 pg/mL to rule out AHFS, but 2 cut points to rule in AHFSdepending on age: �50 years old (�450 pg/mL)and �50years old (�900 pg/mL). Subsequent studies suggested evenfurther delineation as follows: (1) either an age-independentcutoff of 900 pg/mL, or (2) the more accurate (but morecomplex) age-stratified approach of 450/900/1800 for pa-tients aged �50/50 to 75/�75 years.34,35 Other smallerstudies have also demonstrated the diagnostic utility of BNPand NT-proBNP for AHFS.29,30,36,37

The majority of studies suggest that BNP and NT-proBNPare of equal diagnostic utility. However, subtle differences inpatient characteristics may favor one biomarker over theother. BNP and NT-proBNP both can be elevated in patientswith renal insufficiency, which is more commonly found inolder patients.38,39 Levels of NT-proBNP appear to be moreaffected by renal function.40 Four studies have directly comparedthe diagnostic utility of BNP and NT-proBNP.29,36,41,42 Bothnatriuretic peptides demonstrated similar accuracy in 3 stud-ies, but in 1 study BNP was superior to NT-proBNP.42 TheAUC for the diagnosis of AHFS was 0.80 for NT-proBNPand 0.85 for BNP, P�0.05. This was mostly a consequenceof the lower specificity of NT-proBNP (76%) when com-pared with BNP (91%). In this study, only patients �65 yearsold were enrolled, suggesting that BNP may be superior inolder patients. This finding will need to be confirmed in otherstudies. The natriuretic peptides are particularly good atruling out AHFS; the negative likelihood ratio of BNP at 100pg/mL is 0.13,28 and of NT-proBNP at 300 pg/mL is 0.015.31

However, the positive likelihood ratio of the natriureticpeptides is more limited (3.8 and 3.1, respectively, for BNPand NT-proBNP) because they can be elevated in numerousconditions including sepsis, pulmonary hypertension, olderage, renal insufficiency, atrial fibrillation, and pulmonary embo-lism.43–47 Obesity is actually associated with disproportionatelylow BNP levels.48 Mechanisms that have been postulated forthese low BNP levels include reduced peptide synthesis and/orsecretion in subjects with obesity; increased expression ofnatriuretic peptide clearance receptors in adipose tissue; andincreased circulating neutral endopeptidases, which are secretedby adipocytes, may contribute to a lesser extent.49 Patients witha history of HF can have chronically elevated BNP orNT-proBNP levels. An elevation above their baseline, or dryweight level, may help identify a patient with AHFS. Whatconstitutes a significant change above the baseline level in anyparticular patient is uncertain at the present time. Biologicalvariability further complicates this situation. Studies suggest thatBNP may need to change by at least 70% and NT-proBNP mayneed to change by 50% to identify a patient with a diagnosticallymeaningful change.50–53

The clinical utility and resource utilization of BNP testingwere evaluated in a single-center randomized trial of 453patients with dyspnea in an ED in Switzerland.32 Twohundred twenty-five patients were randomly assigned to astandard diagnostic strategy, and 227 patients were randomlyassigned to a standard diagnostic strategy plus BNP measure-ment. In comparison with the standard strategy, BNP testingled to reductions in the number of patients hospitalized (75%versus 85%, P�0.008), time to discharge (8.0 days versus11.0 days, P�0.001), cost ($5410 versus $7264, P�0.006),and time to treatment (63 minutes versus 90 minutes,P�0.03) In a separate analysis from the same trial, thecost-effectiveness of BNP measurement in the ED wasmaintained at 180 days.54 However, the dramatically differentlengths of stay compared with centers in the United Statesmakes extrapolation of these results problematic. Anothertrial of 500 patients with dyspnea presenting to EDs inCanada randomly assigned 250 patients to a standard diag-nostic strategy and 250 patients to a standard diagnosticstrategy plus NT-proBNP measurement.55 The AUC of theemergency physician’s diagnostic accuracy without knowl-edge of NT-proBNP results was 0.83 (95% CI 0.80 to 0.84),which increased to 0.90 (95% CI 0.90 to 0.93, P�0.001) withknowledge of NT-pro BNP results. Although there were noclinically meaningful differences in ED or hospital length ofstay or costs, there was a significant difference in 60-dayrehospitalization and costs favoring the NT-proBNP group.However, randomized trials investigating the use of an initialBNP to aid in diagnostic accuracy or serial BNP levels todictate therapy in the acute setting found no improvement indiagnostic accuracy or clinically important outcomes such aslength of stay, mortality, and readmission.56,57 These random-ized trials do not clearly identify whether the potentialimproved diagnostic accuracy of natriuretic peptides can leadto more appropriate therapy in a cost-effective manner.Further research, preferably in the way of a multicenter trial,is indicated to address this issue.

In summary, the measurement of BNP or NT-proBNP in theED patient being evaluated for possible AHFS improves diag-nostic accuracy when compared with standard diagnostic strat-egies. Either BNP or NT-proBNP should be measured inpatients in whom there is clinical uncertainty concerning thediagnosis.

Current Therapy: Heterogeneous PresentationsMet With Homogeneous TherapyAlthough dyspnea, the principal symptom in AHFS, is attributedto the common pathophysiologic denominator, increased leftventricular end-diastolic pressure, not all patients have the sameetiology or precipitating factor.58,59 Regardless of the baselinecardiac pathophysiology, critical presenting features such ashemodynamic status, presence (or absence) of myocardial ische-mia, and renal dysfunction greatly influence management.Widespread appreciation of this phenotypic variability is lack-ing,60–62 perhaps because AHFS is viewed as a single diseaseentity rather than as a multifaceted disorder.58

Furthermore, symptoms related to congestion are whatprompt patients with AHFS to seek care.63 The current goalsof ED therapy are to relieve congestion, balance hemodynam-

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ics, achieve euvolemia, and avoid harm, such as myocardialand renal injury. Initial stabilization focuses on determiningwhether the patient requires ventilatory support, either viaendotracheal intubation or noninvasive ventilation (NIV).NIV is used as an adjunct to acute pharmacological therapy inpatients who present with respiratory distress. Although alarge randomized trial suggests no mortality benefit associ-ated with NIV, it does improve dyspnea and reduce preloadwhile other therapies are initiated.8 Diuretics are a centralcomponent of ED therapy, and their use is endorsed byguidelines from both the United States and Europe.5,64–66

Further studies are needed to resolve the conflicting results asto whether intermittent boluses or a constant infusion is moreefficacious.67,68 Vasodilators, including intravenous angioten-sin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, are frequently usedin the treatment of AHFS patients with congestion andnormal or elevated blood pressure. In addition to the intrave-nous form, nitroglycerin is also available in sublingual andtopical preparations. Topical nitroglycerin preparations arefrequently used in the ED despite limited clinical trial datadescribing their utility. A highly selective study of patientswith AHFS and low cardiac output and monitored by apulmonary artery catheter suggests that 0.8 mg of sublingualnitroglycerin causes a clinically significant decrease in sys-temic vascular resistance and an increase in the cardiac indexin less than 30 minutes.69 Similarly, clinically significantimprovements in pulmonary capillary wedge pressure andcardiac index were also seen when nitroglycerin ointment(2.5 to 5 cm) was applied topically to patients with AHFS.70

ED patients with AHFS can be largely assigned into 2groups based on presentation blood pressure: (1) hypertensive(�140 mm Hg) and (2) normotensive (�140 mm Hg). Hy-potension (�90 mm Hg) and cardiogenic shock are rare andmake up less than 5% of ED presentations.12,65 Those whopresent with hypertension may appear to be the most acutelyill, but aggressive blood pressure management often results inrapid resolution of symptoms. More importantly, once theiracute symptoms are adequately managed, patients presentingwith hypertension often have 60- to 90-day mortality ratesthat are much lower than those who present with normoten-sion.12,18,71,72 Although both of these subsets have signs andsymptoms of pulmonary congestion, the actual mechanismsand volume status may differ. Traditional AHFS modelsdescribe fluid accumulation and acute symptoms as beingalmost synonymous. Recent data suggest that those patientswho present with hypertension (ie, vascular crisis) may havecongestion caused by a mismatch between rapidly increasingafterload and impaired systolic performance leading to vol-ume redistribution.7,73–75 Nevertheless, both groups of pa-tients present with similar symptoms and are often treatedsolely with intravenous diuretics despite differences in un-derlying pathophysiology and volume status.

Further subcategorization can be made based on underlyingetiologies and reasons for decompensation such as AHFS relatedto dietary and medication nonadherence, ischemia, worseningrenal function, arrhythmias, or a concomitant pulmonary pro-cess.76 In select cases this may help direct further therapy such asanitarrhythmics; however, regardless of the etiology, the major-ity of patients are admitted to the hospital for further therapy

targeting congestion reduction.12,77–79 Very few changes aremade to medication regimens during hospitalization, and only aminority of patients receive a therapeutic procedure or deviceduring their inpatient stay.80–82

According to the recently completed URGENT (UlaritideGlobal Evaluation in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure)dyspnea study, the ED approach does improve overt symptomsof breathlessness in most patients by 6 hours.83 Yet, despiteimprovement in symptoms by 6 hours, registry data also suggestthat only 50% of patients have complete resolution of theircongestive symptoms at hospital discharge.11 Furthermore, thereis little randomized evidence of the benefit of diuretics beyondsymptomatic improvement, because randomized trials are non-existent84 and signals increasingly point to the potential forinduction of harm with both acute85,86 and chronic87 usage ofdiuretic medication. Previous studies of diuretics suggest notonly an association with adverse outcomes, but also perhapsdirect causality.71,86,88–91 The development of in-hospital acuterenal injury has been associated with increased in-hospitalmortality.92–94 Although, for some, diuresis is important andappropriate, could the nearly universal application of homoge-neous therapy to an inherently heterogeneous disorder nega-tively impact the high rates of short-term recidivism95 andmortality1 associated with AHFS?3,58

AHFS has historically been viewed as a transient event,characterized primarily by systolic dysfunction, low cardiacoutput, and fluid overload. This pathophysiologic model hasbeen thought to be applicable across all patient groups,varying only by degree of severity.96–98 Consequently, short-term treatment strategies such as intravenous diuretics, tar-geted at rapidly alleviating fluid congestion, were adoptedwithout clinical trials evaluating long-term safety and effi-cacy. It is noteworthy that emerging data from several HFregistries have largely challenged the traditional low cardiacoutput model exemplified by the prototypical male withischemic heart disease, revealing a more complex and distinctgroup of pathophysiologic entities.77,78 Despite the heteroge-neous clinical profiles outlined above, suggesting that tar-geted treatment may be beneficial, the majority of patientswith AHFS are treated with homogeneous therapy, namelyintravenous diuretics. A next logical step would be to deter-mine whether select subsets of patients, classified via reliableobjective measures after initial evaluation, would benefitfrom targeted therapy aimed at their risk profile, HF etiology,and reason for decompensation.

Emergency Department Disposition Decision MakingThe majority of patients who present to the ED with AHFSare admitted to the hospital.99,100 This approach is largely dueto the challenge of identifying ED patients at low risk for pooroutcomes. Risk stratification of patients with AHFS is tradi-tionally problematic, not only because of the patients’ under-lying HF, but also because of their multiple comorbidities.Further, even for patients who exhibit no objective markers ofhigh risk, the subsequent inability to ensure close follow-up,provide bedside HF education, and address the importance ofadherence to therapeutic recommendations makes direct EDdischarge problematic.

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Those patients who present in extremis with significantdyspnea and elevated blood pressures may appear to be at thegreatest risk for short-term adverse events. However, onceacute symptoms are controlled their intermediate (30- to60-day) risk of adverse events is low when compared with thecohort of patients with normal blood pressure who oftenpresent with less severe symptoms.12,18,101 Only a minority ofpatients manifest low-output signs such as diminished urineproduction or systemic hypoperfusion.12

Other admission profiles associated with an increased riskof in-hospital mortality include AHFS related to myocardialinfarction or ischemia, worsening renal function, or a con-comitant pneumonia.76 Conversely, as many as one-third ofpatients decompensate because of medication or dietarynonadherence or as a result of poorly controlled hypertension.These individuals have a better short-term prognosis with areduced risk of early mortality.102 Studies over the past decadehave recurrently identified several variables and biomarkers aspredictors of adverse events: (1) elevated blood urea nitrogen orcreatinine, (2) hyponatremia, (3) ischemic electrocardiogramchanges, (4) elevated natriuretic peptide levels, (5) elevatedtroponins, and (6) low systolic blood pressure.12,65,101,103,104–107

Markers of low-risk AHFS, however, have not been as welldelineated. Preliminary work suggests an initial systolicblood pressure over 160 mm Hg and a normal initial cardiactroponin I as markers associated with a decreased risk ofadverse events.22 In a large retrospective analysis of astatewide database that utilized recursive partitioning, 17% ofED patients were identified as low risk.108 This somewhatcomplex model also found systolic blood pressure, serumsodium, and creatinine serving to differentiate between lowand high risk. This statistical model was subsequently vali-dated in more than 8300 patients. The model had a negativelikelihood ratio of 0.24 (0.18 to 0.32) for identification of30-day mortality or serious complications.109

Although markers of low-risk presentations have remainedsomewhat elusive, alternatives to hospitalization have alsobeen investigated. Because the majority of hospitalizationsoriginate from the ED, emergency physicians have consider-able experience stabilizing patients, initiating treatment, anddetermining disposition in patients with AHFS.64,110 Becausemost patients with AHFS are admitted for decongestion as aresult of worsening chronic HF, a brief period of managementin the ED or an ED-based observation unit may be a reasonablealternative to hospitalization in those patients without high-riskfeatures. Such approaches have proved feasible and have beenshown to conserve hospital resources.111–114 Although closecardiology follow-up as an outpatient is the cornerstone ofsuccess in these brief, ED-driven treatment strategies, evenbetter outcomes may be achieved as the ability to effectivelyrisk-stratify patients improves. Ultimately, delineation oflow-risk features and identification of AHFS patients withgood intermediate-term prognosis is needed. Further prospec-tive study to identify markers of low-risk AHFS patients istherefore necessary.

Post-ED CourseHospitalization of the patient with AHFS defines a point onthe continuum of their disease process. Admission for treat-

ment of both newly diagnosed AHFS or recurrent exacerba-tions/complications of chronic HF are episodes of profoundconsequence to the patient. Health, emotional well-being,quality of life, work status, and long-term prognosis areaffected by these medical events. Successful treatment viainitiation and optimization of medical therapy not onlyimproves patients’ immediate symptoms but also their long-term prognosis.115–117 One of the important keys to successfor the practitioner is to ensure that the indicated, evidence-based therapies are administered appropriately and in a timelyfashion. After 20 years of clinical trials data, many centersstill fall short of this goal. This is probably a combination ofthe incomplete penetration of recent guidelines into routinemedical practice, as well as difficulty in applying guidelinesto patients with complex hemodynamic derangements andmultiple comorbidities. Furthermore, despite years of HFclinical research, many basic questions remain unresolved.As a result, physicians must still rely on their own clinicalexperience to treat this prevalent disease.

As mentioned previously, the AHA/ACC guidelines for themanagement of HF were updated in 2009.5 Although theevidence base for patients with AHFS is limited, with mostrecommendations stemming from expert consensus (level C),these guidelines still provide direction for clinicians caring forstabilized AHFS patients as they are being transitioned from theED to an inpatient bed, and eventually to outpatient care.

Inpatient Therapy for AHFSTreatment of pulmonary congestion and the resultant symp-toms has remained the cornerstone of AHFS therapy for over50 years. Pulmonary congestion, even though it is sometimesdifficult to assess, is a symptom of elevated left atrialpressure. Clinicians currently lack a simple, inexpensive,accurate, reliable, and noninvasive means of assessing thistarget for therapy. A variety of techniques such as physicalexamination, echocardiography, pulmonary artery catheter-ization, implanted hemodynamic monitors, and thoracic im-pedance have been tested and found to have limited utility inthe management of AHFS.118–123 There remains no reliablemeans of identifying when to start diuretics and when towithhold them before obvious clinical signs, such as renaldysfunction or hypotension, develop.

Morbidity and Mortality in Hospitalized PatientsWith AHFSThe average risk of death during hospital admission for AHFS isapproximately 4% based on data from both ADHERE andOPTIMZE-HF.11,63 Patients who are admitted with AHFS andrequire the administration of vasoactive drugs may have a poorerprognosis and an increased risk of death.9,124 Patients requiringthe use of inotropic agents had a mortality rate of 12% to 13%in ADHERE.9 Intravenous vasodilators have demonstrated fa-vorable acute hemodynamic effects but the impact on long-termmorbidity and mortality remains unclear. The use of vasodilatorshas been associated with a mortality risk of 4.7% for nitroglyc-erin and 7.1% for nesiritide.9 Risk factors for increased mortalityduring hospitalization include increasing age, elevated heart rate,hyponatremia, hypotension, left ventricular systolic dysfunction,elevated serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, natriuretic pep-

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tides, and AHFS as the primary cause for admission.9,34,63,125 Anelevated cardiac troponin level has also been associated withnearly a 3-fold higher in-hospital mortality.126 Several comor-bidities have been identified with increased in-hospital mortality.These include liver disease, previous cerebrovascular events,peripheral vascular disease, and chronic obstructive lung disease.Factors associated with a more favorable prognosis duringhospitalization for AHFS include hospital admission related tode novo AHFS and prehospitalization therapy with ACE inhib-itors or �-blockers.63

Readiness for DischargePostdischarge morbidity and mortality in the first 60 to 90days is significant, with patients who were followed up inOPTIMIZE-HF having a mortality rate of 8.6% and arehospitalization rate of 29.6%.127 In addition, among Medi-care patients, HF is the most common reason for readmissionwithin 30 days of discharge regardless of what prompted theindex hospital episode.95 To minimize postdischarge eventrates, a thorough evaluation and consideration of precipitatingfactors of AHFS is encouraged. Identification of reversiblecauses, such as coronary artery disease or valvular dysfunc-tion during hospitalization, may shorten hospital lengths ofstay and minimize postdischarge morbidity and mortality.However, early, safe objective end points of hospital admis-sions are lacking. Current ADHF guidelines for ED andhospital disposition are based on limited empirical evi-dence.64,110,128,129 This results in a great deal of clinicaluncertainty regarding acute treatment and the end points to beachieved to safely discharge patients. The majority of patientsare discharged based on the resolution of acute symptomsproviding they have not developed high-risk markers such asworsening renal function, hypotension, or elevated troponins.

Beyond the questions of acute management of AHFS,however, lie unequivocal data regarding the benefit of tradi-tional HF medical therapy including ACE inhibitors, angio-tensin receptor antagonists, �-blockers, and selective aldoste-rone receptor antagonists. Early initiation of this therapy,before hospital discharge, with appropriate titration, improvessymptoms, reduces hospitalizations, and saves lives. Never-theless, these therapies remain underutilized82 and severalperformance measures currently used to assess medical cen-ters have not been associated with improved clinical out-comes.130 Performance improvement programs can, however,increase utilization of optimal medical management.131

As an episode of AHFS is controlled, guideline-basedtherapies are initiated and the patient is prepared for dis-charge. A variety of concerns including economic, health,safety, and resource availability exert pressure to keep thelength of stay as short as possible with many benchmarksbetween 3 and 4 days maximum, although the average lengthof stay was 4 to 5 days in the OPTMIZE-HF Registry.63 Thereis a balance between timely and efficient healthcare deliveryand that which results in premature discharge and earlyreadmission. Patients who remain symptomatic from AHFSare at increased risk for repeated decompensation or othercomplications, including death soon after discharge.127 Giventhe high risk of recidivism for AHFS, a planned transition tooutpatient status with close follow-up by a HF clinic or

specialist may be beneficial. Such a program should beginwith education before discharge. Even 1 hour of nurseeducator–delivered AHFS education has been shown toimprove clinical outcomes, increase self-care, and reducecosts.132 The optimal design of this follow-up care remains tobe defined, but effective programs have included such com-ponents as outpatient clinic visits within days of discharge,nurse follow-up by phone or visit, ongoing management in aformal HF clinic, home telemetry devices to monitor vitalsigns, weight, and symptoms, and perhaps more sophisticatedmeasures like hemodynamic and rhythm monitoring.133–136

Postdischarge: Ongoing Assessment andAvoiding ReadmissionPatients with chronic HF remain at significant risk formorbidity and mortality despite the range of therapies cur-rently available. These risks may be underappreciated notonly by the patient, but also by the treating physician and,thus, objective methods of risk assessment and prognosiscould be useful. Historically, prognostic assessments wereprincipally used to identify optimal timing of cardiac trans-plantation in ambulatory New York Heart Association ClassIII patients. A number of multivariate prognostic models havebeen developed to better characterize a patient’s ongoing risk.The Heart Failure Survival Score incorporates peak oxygenconsumption, heart rate, mean arterial pressure, presence orabsence of coronary disease, interventricular conduction de-fects, serum sodium concentration, and ejection fraction tocharacterize patients as low, medium, or high risk for 1-yearurgent transplant or death without transplant.137 The SeattleHeart Failure Model incorporates multiple variables with aninternet-based risk calculator to estimate 1-, 2-, and 3-yearmortality based on disease status and medical interven-tions.138 A cardiopulmonary exercise testing score was de-vised that incorporates not only peak VO2 but also VE/VCO2

slope, and resting end-tidal CO2, and oxygen uptake effi-ciency slope in a multivariate model for predicting 1-yearmortality, transplantation, left ventricular assist device im-plantation, and rehospitalization for AHFS.139

Readmission of a patient with chronic HF represents adeterioration in their clinical status that probably has prognosticsignificance.140,141It also represents an opportunity to assesschanges in the status of their disease process, inciting factorssuch as arrhythmias and concomitant diseases such as pneumo-nia,76 review of the medical regimen to ensure optimal manage-ment including device therapies, and assessment of patientcompliance, social support, and patient reeducation. A variety ofprecipitating factors must be considered including: pulmonaryinfections, angina, hypertension, arrhythmias, medication non-adherence, diet nonadherence, and other noncardiac medicalproblems.142–144 Predictors for repeat hospitalization in an el-derly population include a HF admission within the previousyear, diabetes mellitus, and serum creatinine �2.5.127,145 Weightgain following discharge is also predictive of readmission forAHFS.146 Rehospitalization for HF may also suggest inadequatetreatment during a previous stay for AHFS.147,148

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Integrated Care of the Heart Failure TeamExpertise in Patient Education and ReducingRecidivism: Advanced Practice Nurses, Dieticians,and PharmacistsDieticians, pharmacists, nurses, clinical nurse specialists, andnurse practitioners all play a key role in educating hospital-ized HF patients and their families on the importance ofmedication adherence, sodium and fluid restrictions, smokingcessation, and self-care.149–152 Inpatient education begins in theED,153 where the impact of the “teachable moment” may behighest,154and continues until discharge.152 Although initiated inthe inpatient setting, this education and counseling continues atoutpatient follow-up visits as well. The Joint Commissionperformance measures mandate that, before being dischargedhome, all HF patients should receive comprehensive writtendischarge instructions or other educational materials that addressactivity level, diet, discharge medications, follow-up appoint-ment, weight monitoring, and plans of what to do shouldsymptoms worsen.155 Although obligatory, the delivery of dis-charge information does not necessarily equate with the acqui-sition of self-care management skills or behaviors156 fundamen-tal to optimizing patient outcomes.157

Those involved in educating must actively engage patients,their family members, and primary caregivers to identify andaddress barriers to self-care management such as lack ofmotivation, complex medication regimens, cognitive impair-ment, low socioeconomic status, low educational level, andinadequate family and social support157,158 to promote self-care and reduce recidivism.152 To this end, advanced practicenurses (APNs), as part of a multidisciplinary team, emphasizeevidence-based holistic care that integrates the family, theenvironment, and human responses to health and illness.159

Strategies enacted by APNs to improve HF self-care manage-ment during hospitalization include visiting the patient daily,assessing patient and family knowledge, collaborating with thehealthcare team and family, and assessing learning capabilitiesand style.160,161 When combined with APN interventions thatfacilitate discharge planning and home follow-up care, thisapproach optimizes discharge planning, improves patient-provider communication, and reduces hospital readmission rates,mean costs, and negative outcomes.160,161

Shifting the Paradigm: Focused Areas forFuture Investigation

Novel DiagnosticsThe advent of natriuretic peptides has dramatically altered thediagnostic landscape for AHFS, adding objectivity to whatpreviously had been a problematic approach.28,31 However,these biomarkers are not devoid of limitations. Becausenatriuretic peptides are released in response to cardiac myo-cyte stress regardless of the underlying cause, they lack thespecificity necessary to function as absolute indicators ofAHFS, even when serum concentrations exceed establishedthresholds for diagnosis. Detectable quantities are subject tomarked variance on the basis of age,162 sex,163 body habitus,164

renal function,39,165 and abruptness of symptom onset,166 result-ing in the potential for diagnostic errors and, within the contextof research, misclassification bias. It has been suggested recently

that natriuretic peptide utility can be enhanced through consid-eration of respective values as continuous rather than as dichot-omous measures167; however, the incremental benefit of this hasyet to be externally validated.168,169

The search for additional tools to improve the diagnosticaccuracy for patients with undifferentiated dyspnea andpossible AHFS remains a high priority. Much of this efforthas centered on the identification of new serum biomarkersthat enable assessment of neurohormonal activity, systemicinflammation, extracellular matrix composition, subcellularoxidative and metabolic stress, or acute cardiorenal injury.Unlike the natriuretic peptides, however, few of these bi-omarkers have been rigorously tested in the acute setting andtheir prospective clinical role, if any, is unclear. Other modalitiessuch as electronic detection of third heart sounds (S3) usingacoustic cardiography,170–172 noninvasive hemodynamic profil-ing using impedance cardiography,173,174 bedside portable chestultrasound to evaluate for accumulated interstitial lung fluid,175–177

and quantitative capnometry178 have been investigated asboth stand-alone and adjunct diagnostic measures, but appearto provide little benefit over existing approaches. Cardiovas-cular response to the Valsalva maneuver has been proposedas an additional method by which ventricular filling pressuresand volume status can be assessed179,180 but its utility inAHFS management has not been well-defined.

Although often overlooked, the quest for novel diagnosticshas been hindered by the absence of a uniformly acceptedstandard for diagnosis of AHFS. In most studies to date,investigators have used retrospectively applied criterion-based standards or blinded cardiology reviews with resolutionof disagreement, accounting for approximately 10% of cases,by adjudicated expert consensus. Although practical, suchmethodology is suboptimal and may contribute to misleadingconclusions regarding true test performance. The definitivediagnostic procedure, pulmonary artery catheterization, issimply not feasible in the ED and, given the unfavorablerisk-to-benefit ratio,118,123 unjustifiable for routine manage-ment or research-specific purposes in AHFS patients. Exist-ing noninvasive alternatives to pulmonary artery catheteriza-tion such as impedance cardiography have not been shown tocorrelate sufficiently with regard to left ventricular fillingpressures174 and produce unreliable measurements in thosewith severe dyspnea or diaphoresis. Cardiac MRI is anemerging technology that can provide objective diagnosticinformation on heart anatomy, contractility and perfusionwhile enabling assessment of potential acute myocardialinjury and residual tissue viability.181 These attributes holdpromise for the future of cardiac MRI as an objective test inpatients with AHFS. However, at present, applicability islimited by high acquisition costs, technical demands, sparseavailability, and the difficulty of acutely dyspneic patientslying flat for prolonged periods.

Echocardiography can provide a substantial amount ofinformation regarding cardiac structure and function and isconsidered a critical component of the workup for patientswith suspected AHFS.182,183 Echocardiography also enablescategorization of AHFS patients into traditional subgroupsbased on left ventricular ejection fraction (ie, preserved orreduced) and may provide important information about vol-

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ume status by assessing measurements and changes in size ofthe inferior vena cava.184–187 Although not included in any ofthe criterion-based standards, echocardiographic parametersof systolic and diastolic dysfunction may be, in the properclinical context, highly suggestive of AHFS. Echocardiogramfindings clearly contribute to the criterion standard diagnosisin AHFS diagnostic trials. Further, HF with preserved systolicfunction (HFPSF) is prevalent, accounting for approximately50% of hospital admissions for AHFS. In-hospital mortalityrates appear to be slightly lower (3% in OPTIMIZE-HF and2.8% in ADHERE) when compared with rates in patientswith left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Length of stayand rates of readmission are similar.11,188 It will beimportant to enroll and further characterize patients withAHFS and HFPSF to improve the evidence base thatinfluences clinical care.

Despite its clear utility in AHFS, access to formal echo-cardiography performed in the ED outside of weekdaydaytime hours is rare. Reasons may vary, but most hospitalsacross the country simply do not have the available resourcesand personnel. Over the past decade, however, there has beenrapid expansion in point-of-care ultrasound expertise amongED providers. Achievement of basic proficiency is nowconsidered a requisite skill for all emergency medicineresidency graduates. Accordingly, there is growing interestamong ED providers in the potential applicability of limitedcardiac ultrasonography in patients with suspected AHFS.Prior studies have shown that, after a brief period of focusedtraining, emergency physicians can competently estimateejection fraction189 and accurately perform Doppler analysisof mitral inflow,189,190 thereby permitting rapid definition ofglobal cardiac function. This capability would: (a) help directappropriate intervention to the right patient, (b) delineatestructure/function in the heart before the initiation of therapy,and (c) improve understanding of the phenotypes of AHFS.18

If coupled with thoracic ultrasound191 and left atrial volumemeasurement,192–194 a real-time, noninvasive depiction of lungfluid burden as it relates to underlying cardiac dysfunction andacute left ventricular filling pressure could be obtained.Interpreted within the context of ED blood pressure, which isboth a primary manifestation of AHFS etiology186,195–197 anda critical determinant of outcome,12,103 and information de-rived from interrogation of implanted monitoring devices, ifpresent, a phenotype-oriented approach to management maybe achievable.60,61

Novel Approaches to TherapyBased on an improved understanding of AHFS pathophysi-ology, lessons learned from largely disappointing clinicaltrials (Table 2), and the high postdischarge event rate, it isclear that novel approaches and strategies are needed.198 Suchstrategies should be aligned with appropriate end points thatare based on the mechanism of action and goals of theintervention. Furthermore, they should be designed to addressthe potential time-dependent nature of AHFS management,the importance of which, in contrast to acute coronarysyndrome (ACS) care, has not been well explored. Previousretrospective studies suggest that time to treatment may beimportant in AHFS, but it must be prospectively studied to

determine its impact on outcomes.199–200 It is important tonote that past clinical trials in AHFS have largely bypassedthe ED phase of management, enrolling patients 24 to 48hours after admission. Depending on the drug’s pharmacody-namic properties, it is possible that a therapeutic windowexists beyond which apparent efficacy is diminished. Fordyspnea relief, a key end point in AHFS,83,202 this may beparticularly true. Current therapeutic trials targeting dyspnearelief have significantly shortened the time window of enroll-ment to capture patients when symptoms are most severe—onED presentation.202,203

Goals of ED ManagementAlthough preliminary data suggest that prompt ED interventionimpacts outcomes in terms of in-hospital morbidity and mortal-ity,200,201 it is not clear whether this extends to moreintermediate-term outcomes, such as 30- to 60-day rehospital-ization, or mortality. After addressing immediate life-threateningconditions, the current approach to ED management movesquickly to a focus on symptomatic improvement, which drivessubsequent therapeutic decisions. Intermediate-term goals there-fore become a secondary priority. It is possible, however, thatsuch outcomes could be influenced by ED management, espe-cially if it were to produce either of the following: (1) sufficientinterruption of a pathophysiologic process that actively contrib-utes to the acute, decompensated state; or (2) significant un-wanted downstream effects such as renal or myocardial injury.Although existing data regarding these considerations are lim-ited, understanding how acute therapy impacts underlying car-diorenal function and hemodynamic end points is critical to thedevelopment of more progressive, outcome-oriented AHFS care.

Patient CharacterizationA more complete understanding of patients at the time ofpresentation and their response to current management isneeded to better target future research. Current clinicalprofiles are largely based on inpatient hospital registries204–206

but these do not include important information on acutecardiac function, which may be available via focused bedsideechocardiogram, nor do they provide data on immediate andshort-term responses to standard ED therapy. Consequently,the natural history of ED patients hospitalized for AHFS isnot well described. We are in need of comprehensive clinical,laboratory, and neurohormonal data from the time of EDpresentation through the postdischarge phase. A prospectiveobservational database that includes these parameters, as wellas the ability to investigate novel cardiac and renal injurybiomarkers, would help address this knowledge gap and addsubstantially to our current appreciation of AHFS. Resultscould then be used as a guide to define clinical profiles andguide short-term management (Table 3).4,21 Nitrates, forexample, might be used in higher relative doses to diuretics inthe hypertensive profile, or ultrafiltration could be used in thediuretic-resistant patient.207,208 Conversely, inotropic agentsshould be considered in the rarer cases of advanced/low-output HF. Several different profiles have been suggested forfuture subcategorization.5,21 The European Society of Cardi-ology66 suggests that patients can be categorized into 6possible profiles, with overlap between categories: (1) worsen-

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Table 2. Summary of Previous AHFS Clinical Trials From the Past Decade

Study AcronymYear of

Publication Primary End Point Key Secondary End Points

VMAC240 2002 Coprimary PCWP at 24 h, dyspnea at 24 and48 h, global clinical status1. Change in PCWP at 3 h

2. Change in dyspnea (Likert) at 3 h

OPTIME-CHF241 2002 Cumulative days of hospital stay for cardiovascular cause or daysdead within 60 d after random selection

Proportion of cases in which therapyfailed because of adverse events orworsening heart failure (sustainedSBP �80 mm Hg, myocardialischemia, arrhythmias, persistentCHF, inadequate diuresis, organhypoperfusion), HF score, globalhealth (VAS)

ESCAPE118 2005 Days alive and out of hospital during the first 6 mo Adverse events related to catheteruse, 6-min walk duration, QOL viatime trade-off, and MLHF

VERITAS242 2007 Coprimary Death or major cardiovascularevents at 30 d; improvedhemodynamic measures over 24 h;LOS; days hospitalized within 30 d;6-mo mortality

1. Change in dyspnea (at 3, 6, and 24 h with VAS 0–100) over24 h (area under the curve)

2. Death or worsening heart failure (pulmonary edema, shock,new or 1 intravenous therapy, mechanical cardiac orpulmonary support, renal replacement therapy) at 7 d

SURVIVE243 2007 All-cause mortality at 180 d All-cause mortality at 31 d; daysalive or out of hospital at 180 d;cardiovascular mortality at 180 d;change in BNP level at 24 h;dyspnea at 24 h; patient-assessedglobal assessment at 24 h

REVIVE-II244 Not yet published(presented 2005)

Composite of clinical signs and symptoms of HF over 5 dexpressed as 3-stage end point:

Change in BNP; mortality at 90 d

1. Better (moderately or markedly improved global assessment at6 h, 24 h, and 5 d with no worsening)

2. Same

3. Worse (death from any cause, persistent or worsening HFrequiring intravenous diuretic agents, vasodilators, orinotropes at any time; or moderately or markedly worsepatient global assessment at 6 h, 24 h, or 5 d)

EVEREST80,245 2007 Short-term composite: changes in global clinical status (by VAS)and body weight at day 7 or discharge. Long-term dual endpoints:

Composite components in isolationat days 1 and 7 or discharge;dyspnea at day 1; peripheral edemaat day 7 or discharge; KCCQ at 1wk and 6 mo; body weight; changesin serum sodium

1. All-cause mortality (superiority and noninferiority)

2. Cardiovascular death or HF hospital stay (superiority only)

ASCEND-HF246 Enrolling Coprimary Overall well-being (Likert) 6 and 24 h;days alive and outside of hospitalwithin 30 d

1. Composite of all-cause mortality and HF repeat hospital staythrough 30 d

2. Dyspnea at 6 and 24 h

PROTECT I and II247 Completed,presented 2009

not yet published

Composite of clinical signs and symptoms of HF over 7 dexpressed as 3-stage end point:

Safety; within trial costs

1. Better (moderately or markedly improved global assessment at24 and 48 h with no worsening)

2. Same

3. Worse (death from any cause, persistent or worsening heartfailure through day 7, or creatinine increase �0.3 mg/dL at 7and 14 d)

PCWP indicates pulmonary capillary wedge pressure; SBP, systolic blood pressure; CHF, congestive heart failure; QOL, quality of life; MLHF, Minnesota Living withHeart Failure Questionnaire; VAS, Visual Analog Scale; LOS, length of stay; BNP, b-type natriuretic peptide; and KCCQ, Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire.

Adapted from Allen et al,198 with permission from Elsevier. Copyright 2009, American College of Cardiology.

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ing or decompensated chronic HF, (2) cardiogenic pulmonaryedema, (3) hypertensive AHFS, (4) cardiogenic shock, (5)isolated right HF, and (6) AHFS with ACS.66 Although specificgoals for each phenotype have not been well-established, in-creasing evidence suggests that hypotension and tachycardiashould be avoided, especially in patients with coronary arterydisease.209,210 Whether management by profile leads to im-proved short- or long-term outcomes versus current managementrequires further study before broad implementation.

Importantly, clinical profiles may not take into account theunderlying substrate or etiology of the patient’s chronic HF. For

example, a common clinical profile is hypertensive HF, butshould the presence or absence of systolic dysfunction orcoronary artery disease further refine management? It hasrecently been suggested that patients be further classified accord-ing to the ACC/AHA stages of HF (Table 4).5,211 These stagesaccount for the underlying substrate and promote certain thera-peutic options and considerations but whether this is importantto consider in the early phase of management is not known.Further, detailed echocardiographic data regarding cardiac struc-ture and function may not be available on all patients, limitingthe feasibility of directing therapy based on HF stages.

Table 3. Presenting Profiles in Emergency Department Patients With AHFS

Clinical Presentation Incidence* Characteristics Targets† and Therapies‡

Elevated BP(�160 mm Hg)

�25% Predominantly pulmonary (radiographic/clinical) with orwithout systemic congestion. Many patients havepreserved EF

Target: BP and volume management

Therapy: vasodilators (eg, nitrates§, nesiritide,nitroprusside) and loop diuretics

Normal or moderatelyelevated BP

�50% Develop gradually (days or weeks) and are associatedwith systemic congestion. Radiographic pulmonarycongestion may be minimal in patients withadvanced HF

Target: volume managementTherapy: loop diuretics�vasodilators

Low BP (�90 mm Hg) �8% Mostly related to low cardiac output and oftenassociated with decreased renal function.

Target: cardiac output

Therapy: inotropes with vasodilatory properties(eg, milrinone, dobutamine, levosimendan);consider digoxin (intravenous and/ororally)�vasopressor medications�mechanicalassist devices (eg, IABP)

Cardiogenic shock �1% Rapid onset. Primarily complicating acute MI, fulminantmyocarditis, acute valvular disease.

Target: improve cardiac pump function

Therapy: inotropes�vasoactivemedications�mechanical assist devices,corrective surgery

Flash pulmonaryedema

3%� Abrupt onset. Often precipitated by severe systemichypertension. Patients respond readily to vasodilatorsand diuretics.

Target: BP, volume management

Therapy: vasodilators, diuretics, invasive or NIV,morphine¶

ACS and AHFS �25% of ACShave HF

signs/symptoms

Rapid or gradual onset. Many such patients may havesigns and symptoms of HF that resolve after resolutionof ischemia.

Target: coronary thrombosis, plaque stabilization,correction of ischemia

Therapy: reperfusion (eg, PCI, lytics, nitrates,antiplatelet agents)

Isolated right HF frompulmonary HTN orintrinsic RV failure (eg,infarct) or valvularabnormalities (eg,tricuspid valveendocarditis)

? Rapid or gradual onset due to primary or secondary PAhypertension or RV pathology (eg, RV infarct). Not wellcharacterized with few epidemiological data.

Target: PA pressureTherapy: nitrates, epoprostenol,phosphodiesterase inhibitors, endothelin-blockingagents, coronary reperfusion for RV infarcts,valve surgery

Postcardiac surgery HF ? Occurring in patients with or without previousventricular dysfunction, often related to worseningdiastolic function and volume overload immediatelyafter surgery and the subsequent early postoperativeinterval. Can also be caused by inadequateintraoperative myocardial protection resulting in cardiacinjury.

Target: volume management, improve cardiacperformance (output)Therapy: diuretic or fluid administration (directedby filling pressures and cardiac index), inotropicsupport, mechanical assistance (IABP, VAD)

ACS indicates acute coronary syndromes; AHFS, acute heart failure syndromes; EF, ejection fraction; HTN, hypertension; IABP, intraaortic balloon pump; MI,myocardial infarction; NIV, noninvasive ventilation; PA, pulmonary artery; RV, right ventricle; VAD, ventricular assist device.

*Of all AHFS admissions.†Treating etiology or precipitant is of equal of greater importance (eg, arrhythmia, ACS, infection).‡Represents initial therapies for early management and should be tailored to each patient’s unique presentation.§Probably preferred in patients with ACS or history of CAD.�Its incidence may be related to the definition used (clinical vs radiographic).¶Avoid if retaining CO2.Data from Gheorghiade and Pang4 and Gheorghiade et al.58

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Novel Risk Stratification: Low-Risk, NotHigh-Risk Markers Are NecessaryPrevious and ongoing research continues to identify individualmarkers of high risk associated with adverse events. Therecurrent theme is obvious—hypotension, hyponatremia, renaldysfunction, increased troponin levels, and elevated natriureticpeptides all portend a poor prognosis.12,31,34,103,104,107,126,142,212,213

Unfortunately, markers of high risk rarely impact acute decisionmaking, especially when prognosticating for events 6 to 12months in the future. Although we know that these markersidentify patients at risk for subsequent events, how does thisimpact disposition decisions? When risk is not immediate (ie,in-hospital morbidity or mortality), such markers have littlebearing on the administration of acute therapy or the triage levelfor inpatient care. Stated another way, when emergency physi-cians are already admitting 4 of every 5 patients with AHFS tothe hospital, will markers of high risk really alter practicepatterns? Such data may prompt initiation of life-saving thera-pies such as �-blockers or ACE inhibitors before hospitaldischarge, but these efforts would only modify intermediate- tolong-term risk.

In essence, the absence of high-risk markers does not, bydefault, define a low-risk patient. Decision making for thislarge cohort of patients without high-risk features (ie, thosewith normal troponins, serum sodium, and renal function) hasnot been well studied. Can they be safely discharged directlyfrom the ED or should they be managed in an observationunit? What if they have poor social support or lack access totimely outpatient follow-up? Biomarkers have emerged overthe past decade as an effective means of stratifying patientswith AHFS and, to varying degrees, may be useful for determi-nation of immediate or short-term risk. According to Morrowand de Lemos for a biomarker to be clinically useful it must meetthe following 3 criteria: (1) accuracy on repeated measurementsand available at a reasonable cost, (2) provision of additionalinformation not already available from careful clinical assess-ment, and (3) the measured level should aid in decision mak-ing.214 Millions of dollars are spent and many papers arepublished in an attempt to delineate criteria 1 and 2; however,when 80% of patients are ultimately admitted, it appears that fewif any AHFS prognostic biomarkers have fulfilled criteria 3 interms of risk stratification. We clearly need to identify sensitive,meaningful markers with strong negative likelihood ratios thatcan identify patients who are truly at low risk for adverse eventsand can be safely discharged home.

Predictive Instruments May Be the AnswerAlthough physicians and nurses exhibit intermediate accuracyfor prediction of postdischarge death, their ability to estimateother metrics of risk such as need for subsequent rehospitaliza-tion is poor.215 Given the heterogeneity of the AHFS population,

it is unlikely that any single biomarker will supersede others tosuch a degree that it will be the sole discriminator of dischargeeligibility. Predictive instruments represent the most likelymethod of successfully defining low-risk AHFS patients. “Med-ical decision making” is the science of statistically examiningdetailed clinical data to develop mathematical models or predic-tive instruments to guide appropriate clinical care of patientswith complex diseases.216–219 By accounting for commonlyoverlooked factors such as socioeconomic status and healthcareaccess, such predictive instruments can reduce the margin oferror and increase the likelihood that clinicians will successfullyidentify those who are truly at low risk. Because such predictiveinstruments are meant to aid, not replace, clinical decisions, theycan complement the often relied on gestalt approach to patientcare, supporting (or refuting) physician beliefs regarding stabil-ity for outpatient management. An example of the potentialutility of an AHFS predictive instrument was recently publishedby Hsieh and colleagues. They retrospectively analyzed anadministrative database to derive and validate a predictiveinstrument that identified 19.2% of AHFS patients at low risk for30-day adverse events.109 Their validated model incorporatedvital signs, renal function, white blood cell count, and glucose asrisk predictors. Events were infrequent in the low-risk cohortwith inpatient mortality, in-hospital complication, and 30-daymortality rates of 0.7%, 1.7%, and 2.9%, respectively.

These results notwithstanding, a prospectively derived, mul-ticenter, ED risk stratification model for patients with signs andsymptoms of HF is needed. Data suggest that emergencyphysicians would be comfortable discharging a patient if therewas a combined overall risk of in-hospital events or 30-daymortality of �2%.220 Prospectively performed studies collectingED-based data are needed to confirm preliminary findings andfacilitate safe, early ED discharge. Such an approach, which isthe focus of 2 ongoing National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institutegrants being directed by emergency medicine investigators,223

has proven effective at safely decreasing admissions for low-riskpatients with other disease processes such as acute coronarysyndromes222–224 and community-acquired pneumonia.225–227 In-herent to this is the need to alter risk-stratification standards fromprediction of remote adverse events (eg, 90 days, 1 year), whichare highly dependent on subacute to chronic care and patientbehavior, to those which occur sooner (eg, within 14 days) andare more likely to be associated with the patient’s acute HFepisode.106,142,145,228–232 Similar to the use of repeat troponinmeasurement or assessment of myocardial viability for acutecoronary syndromes,224 incorporation of objective, evidence-based end points into evolving predictive instruments willprovide important information regarding near-term risk thatcould, at last, be appropriately used in the acute setting toidentify AHFS patients who are safe for early ED, observationunit, and hospital discharge.

ED Enrollment of Patients With AHFSIt has become clear that there are many unanswered questionsregarding ED care of the patient with AHFS. Evidence-basedguidelines are needed for diagnostic, therapeutic, and dispositiondecision making. To conduct the clinical trials necessary todevelop the foundation for an adequate evidence base, research-ers will have to enroll patients early in their AHFS presentation,

Table 4. ACC/AHA Stages of Heart Failure

A: At high risk for HF but without structural heart disease or symptomsof HF

B: Structural heart disease but without signs or symptoms of HF

C: Structural heart disease with prior or current symptoms of HF

D: Refractory HF requiring specialized interventions

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while they are still in the ED. Some view the ED as too chaoticof an environment to successfully screen, consent, and enrollpatients. This is often the reason identified as the primary barrierto conducting clinical trials in the ED.3 However, this has beenfound to be largely untrue. Careful planning is necessary so thatidentification and enrollment in the ED is followed by transitionof the patient to an inpatient research team that assumes or sharesthe trial duties with the ED team. An example of this teamapproach is the Emergency Management and Research Group inAcute Heart Failure (EMERG-HF).3 This model, in general,uses 2 physicians to lead an interdisciplinary team of emergencyphysicians, cardiologists, research nurses, study coordinators,and research assistants. The emergency medicine team is respon-sible for screening, consenting, and performing randomization,as well as providing the initial care and data collection. Althoughdependent on bed availability, when the patient is admitted to thehospital, the care and trial responsibilities are transferred to thecardiology team.

Depending on departmental research infrastructure, thereare a few different ED methods of screening and enrollingpatients. One cost-efficient process of enrollment uses studyassistants to perform the initial screening. Once the patientpasses initial screening, the study team (nurse and/or physi-cian) is activated to complete the screening process andconsent and enroll the patient. Another alternative is to havea research nurse perform both screening and enrollment. Thismodel is usually used when there are multiple researchprotocols going on simultaneously, allowing the researchnurse to screen for more than one trial, and maximizingopportunities for enrollment.

Another issue to consider is a patient’s capacity to provideinformed consent, which may impede enrollment depending onthe severity of the acute illness. However, these issues aresurmountable with proper planning before trial initiation. Overthe past decade processes for satisfying regulatory requirementshave gone through rigorous review and are now well devel-oped.3,83,170,221 In extreme cases, when a patient’s decisionmaking capacity is expected to be so impaired as to impede theconsenting process, exception from informed consent may benecessary. Exception from informed consent requires significantresource allocation to obtain community input regarding thetrial, but allows inclusion of patients who otherwise could not beenrolled.

Successful ED enrollment requires a coordinated effort in-volving the physicians, nurses, and study assistants of bothemergency medicine and cardiology. Delineation of responsibil-ities and coordination of an on-call schedule for the study teamis critical for success. These processes often require severalweeks of meetings before trial commencement. However, oncethe infrastructure is put into place, it can be easily adapted fromone trial to the next.

SummaryThe economic burden of HF and AHFS on the healthcare systemcontinues to increase. The vast majority of patients hospitalizedfor AHFS present to the ED. As a result, emergency medicinephysicians have become the gatekeepers for patients with AHFS.It is clear there are many unanswered questions about theoptimal workup, treatment, and disposition of the ED patient

with AHFS. Although there have been significant life-sustainingadvancements in the outpatient management of chronic HF, withthe exception of natriuretic peptide testing, there have been nosignificant breakthroughs in AHFS care in the past severaldecades. Despite the profound heterogeneity in AHFS presenta-tions, therapeutic options for patients with AHFS have remainedlargely unchanged during this time period; AHFS therapycontinues to focus on fluid removal with intravenous diuretics.Even though this produces early and sustained improvement insymptoms in the majority of ED patients with AHFS, itsdownstream impact on renal and myocardial function, hemody-namics, and short-term outcomes has not been rigorously studiedin the acute setting.

Several possible reasons exist for the lack of improvement inAHFS care and the disappointing results of clinical trials.3

However, a common link among all of these trials has been auniversal paucity of ED enrollment. Although acute therapy andsymptomatic improvement occurs in less than 6 hours in the vastmajority of patients, patients are typically randomly assigned totherapeutic trials long after this time.83 Initial therapy remainslargely unaccounted for in trial design despite its impact onsymptoms and its association with untoward events such as renalinsufficiency and hypotension.7,89–91 Disease management pro-grams have targeted the high-risk hospitalized patient, but havefailed to enroll the ED patient who may be discharged home,where socioeconomic barriers are also prevalent and result in ahigh 30-day recidivism.230,233

ED patients have not been enrolled in AHFS trials largelybecause of a misconception about the inability to enroll patientsin the ED early in their course of therapy. This view has beenfound to be largely inaccurate. Emergency physicians have atrack record of enrolling complex patients in a variety oftherapeutic trials for ACS, major trauma, acute ischemic stroke,and recently AHFS.72,203,234–236 This critical momentum needs tocontinue through partnerships with cardiology, which will en-sure continuity in clinical trial management and improvement inAHFS care as patients transition from the ED through hospital-ization to hospital discharge. These collaborations need to beginat the local level and extend to national and international trialdesign and conduct.

Our current approach to AHFS is similar to the approachto ACS preceding the understanding of coronary arterypathophysiology (Table 5). Elucidation of the pathophys-iology, in conjunction with ED-based intervention trials of

Table 5. A Comparison of Characteristics, PathophysiologicTargets of Therapy and Evidence in Management of PatientsWith ACS and AHFS

ACS AHFS

Incidence 1 million/y 1 million/y

Mortality

Prehospital High ?

In-hospital 3%–4% 3%–4%

60–90 d 2% 10%

Targets of therapy Clearly defined-thrombosis Unclear

Clinical trial results Beneficial Minimal, no benefit, harmful

ACC/AHA Guidelines Level A Minimal level A/B, mostly C

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thrombolytic therapy and angioplasty, has resulted in amarked improvement in patient outcomes.237–239 Our diag-nostic, treatment, and disposition decision making haschanged dramatically over the past 20 years, resulting inmany patients with low-risk ACS features being evaluatedand discharged either directly from the ED or after a briefstay in an ED-based observation unit. Given the complex-ity of AHFS patients, the pathophysiologic target is likely

multifactorial, but we need a systematic approach tounderstanding the interaction between AHFS managementdecisions and their impact on outcomes. As the number ofpatients with HF and AHFS continues to grow, it isimperative that ongoing therapeutic trials and managementstrategies address the significant knowledge gaps thatcurrently exist in AHFS care if we expect to deliverevidence-based care and improve clinical outcomes.

Disclosures

Writing Group Disclosures

Writing Group Member Employment Research Grant

Other

Research

Support

Speakers’

Bureau/

Honoraria Expert Witness

Ownership

Interest

Consultant/Advisory

Board Other

Neal L. Weintraub University of Cincinnati None None None None None None None

Sean P. Collins University of Cincinnati Abbott Point of Care†;

Brahms Diagnostics*;

NIH/NHLBI†

None None None None Abbott Point of

Care*; Bayer

Pharmaceuticals*;

The Medicines Co.*

None

Allen S. Anderson University of Chicago Medical

Center

None None Johnson &

Johnson/Scios*

Medical

malpractice case

review on

cardiac

transplant

prognosis*

None None None

Cynthia Arslanian-

Engoren

University of Michigan School

of Nursing

Blue Cross Blue Shield

of Michigan†

None None None None None None

Gary S. Francis University of Minnesota None None None None None Sanofi-Aventis* DSMBs for Novartis*;

Corthera*

Mihai Gheorghiade Northwestern University None None None None None Bayer Schering

Pharma AG†;

DebioPharm S.A.†;

Medtronic†; Novartis

Pharma AG†; Otsuka

Pharmaceuticals†;

Sigma Tau†; Solvay

Pharmaceuticals†;

PeriCor Therapeutics†

None

W. Brian Gibler University of Cincinnati College

of Medicine

AstraZeneca†; Bristol-Myers

Squibb†; Sanofi-Aventis†;

Schering Plough†

None None None Inovise* AstraZeneca*; Daiichi

Sankyo/Lilly*;

Schering Plough*

None

Phillip D. Levy Wayne State University Astellas Pharm Inc.*; Corthera

Inc.*; Nile Therapeutics*;

Solvay Pharmaceuticals*

None The Society of

Chest Pain

Centers*

None None Bayer Schering

Pharma AG*;

Corthera, Inc*; EKR

Therapeutics*; The

Medicines Co.*

None

James K. McCord Henry Ford Health System Brahms Diagnostic*;

Nanosphere*; Siemens*

None Biosite

Diagnostics*

None None None None

Peter S. Pang Northwestern Memorial Faculty

Foundation

Merck† None Corthera Inc.*;

Supplement

sponsored by

Otsuka and

Abbott*; The

Society of

Chest Pain

Centers*

Provided expert

witness review

of a case

involving sepsis

management

(1 case only)

None Astellas†; Bayer†*

Johnson & Johnson*;

Palatin Technologies*;

PeriCor Therapeutics*;

Solvay

Pharmaceuticals†

DSMB for the

Medicines Co.*

Mark B. Parshall University of New Mexico None None None None None None None

This table represents the relationships of writing group members that may be perceived as actual or reasonably perceived conflicts of interest as reported on theDisclosure Questionnaire, which all members of the writing group are required to complete and submit. A relationship is considered to be “significant” if (a) the personreceives $10 000 or more during any 12-month period, or 5% or more of the person’s gross income; or (b) the person owns 5% or more of the voting stock or shareof the entity, or owns $10 000 or more of the fair market value of the entity. A relationship is considered to be “modest” if it is less than “significant” under thepreceding definition.

*Modest.†Significant.

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References1. Lloyd-Jones D, Adams RJ, Brown TM, Carnethon M, Dai S, De Simone

G, Ferguson TB, Ford E, Furie K, Gillespie C, Go A, Greenlund K,Haase N, Hailpern S, Ho PM, Howard V, Kissela B, Kittner S, LacklandD, Lisabeth L, Marelli A, McDermott MM, Meigs J, Mozaffarian D,Mussolino M, Nichol G, Roger V, Rosamond W, Sacco R, Sorlie P,Stafford R, Thom T, Wasserthiel-Smoller S, Wong ND, Wylie-Rosett J;American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke StatisticsSubcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics–2010 Update: a reportfrom the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2010;121:e46–e215.

2. Schappert SM, Rechtsteiner EA. Ambulatory medical care utilizationestimates for 2006. Natl Health Stat Report. 2008;1–29.

3. Collins SP, Levy PD, Lindsell CJ, Pang PS, Storrow AB, Miller CD,Naftilan AJ, Thohan V, Abraham WT, Hiestand B, Filippatos G, DiercksDB, Hollander J, Nowak R, Peacock WF, Gheorghiade M. The rationalefor an acute heart failure syndromes clinical trials network. J Card Fail.2009;15:467–474.

4. Gheorghiade M, Pang PS. Acute heart failure syndromes. J Am CollCardiol. 2009;53:557–573.

5. Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, Feldman AM, Francis GS, GaniatsTG, Jessup M, Konstam MA, Mancini DM, Michl K, Oates JA, RahkoPS, Silver MA, Stevenson LW, Yancy CW. 2009 focused update incor-porated into the ACC/AHA 2005 Guidelines for the Diagnosis andManagement of Heart Failure in Adults: a report of the AmericanCollege of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association TaskForce on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the Inter-national Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. Circulation. 2009;119:e391–e479.

6. Gibbons RJ, Smith S, Antman E; American College of Cardiology;American Heart Association. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association clinical practice guidelines: part I: wheredo they come from? Circulation. 2003;107:2979–2986.

7. Cotter G, Felker GM, Adams KF, Milo-Cotter O, O’Connor CM. Thepathophysiology of acute heart failure–is it all about fluid accumulation?Am Heart J. 2008;155:9–18.

8. Gray A, Goodacre S, Newby DE, Masson M, Sampson F, Nicholl J;3CPO Trialists. Noninvasive ventilation in acute cardiogenic pulmonaryedema. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:142–151.

9. Abraham WT, Adams KF, Fonarow GC, Costanzo MR, Berkowitz RL,LeJemtel TH, Cheng ML, Wynne J; ADHERE Scientific AdvisoryCommittee and Investigators; ADHERE Study Group. In-hospital mor-tality in patients with acute decompensated heart failure requiring intra-venous vasoactive medications: an analysis from the Acute Decom-pensated Heart Failure National Registry (ADHERE). J Am CollCardiol. 2005;46:57–64.

10. Fonarow GC, Peacock WF, Phillips CO, Givertz MM, Lopatin M,ADHERE Scientific Advisory Committee and Investigators. AdmissionB-type natriuretic peptide levels and in-hospital mortality in acutedecompensated heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:1943–1950.

11. Fonarow GC, Stough WG, Abraham WT, Albert NM, Gheorghiade M,Greenberg BH, O’Connor CM, Sun JL, Yancy CW, Young JB;

OPTIMIZE-HF Investigators and Hospitals. Characteristics, treatments,and outcomes of patients with preserved systolic function hospitalizedfor heart failure: a report from the OPTIMIZE-HF Registry. J Am CollCardiol. 2007;50:768–777.

12. Gheorghiade M, Abraham WT, Albert NM, Greenberg BH, O’ConnorCM, She L, Stough WG, Yancy CW, Young JB, Fonarow GC;OPTIMIZE-HF Investigators and Coordinators. Systolic blood pressureat admission, clinical characteristics, and outcomes in patients hospi-talized with acute heart failure. JAMA. 2006;296:2217–2226.

13. Peacock WF, Braunwald E, Abraham W, Albert N, Burnett J, Chris-tenson R, Collins S, Diercks D, Fonarow G, Hollander J, Kellerman A,Gheorghiade M, Kirk D, Levy P, Maisel A, Massie BM, O’Connor C,Pang P, Shah M, Sopko G, Stevenson L, Storrow A, Teerlink J. NationalHeart, Lung, and Blood Institute working group on emergencydepartment management of acute heart failure: research challenges andopportunities. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:343–351.

14. ACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Manual for ACC/AHAGuideline Writing Committees: Methodologies and Policies from theACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Available at: http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier�3039684. AccessedDecember 26, 2009.

15. Kapoor JR, Perazella MA. Diagnostic and therapeutic approach to acutedecompensated heart failure. Am J Med. 2007;120:121–127.

16. Gheorghiade M, Mebazaa A. The challenge of acute heart failure syn-dromes. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:86G–89G.

17. Nohria A, Mielniczuk LM, Stevenson LW. Evaluation and monitoringof patients with acute heart failure syndromes. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:32G–40G.

18. Mebazaa A, Gheorghiade M, Pina IL, Harjola VP, Hollenberg SM,Follath F, Rhodes A, Plaisance P, Roland E, Nieminen M, Komajda M,Parkhomenko A, Masip J, Zannad F, Filippatos G. Practical recommen-dations for prehospital and early in-hospital management of patientspresenting with acute heart failure syndromes. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(suppl):S129–S139.

19. Neuenschwander JF 2nd, Baliga RR. Acute decompensated heart failure.Crit Care Clin. 2007;23:737–758, vi.

20. Peacock WF, Soto-Ruiz KM. Risk stratification for suspected acutecoronary syndromes and heart failure in the emergency department.Acute Card Care. 2009;11:138–145.

21. Collins S, Storrow AB, Kirk JD, Pang PS, Diercks DB, Gheorghiade M.Beyond pulmonary edema: diagnostic, risk stratification, and treatmentchallenges of acute heart failure management in the emergencydepartment. Ann Emerg Med. 2008;51:45–57.

22. Diercks DB, Peacock WF, Kirk JD, Weber JE. ED patients with heartfailure: identification of an observational unit-appropriate cohort. AmJ Emerg Med. 2006;24:319–324.

23. Peacock WF. Using the emergency department clinical decision unit foracute decompensated heart failure. Cardiol Clin. 2005;23:569–588, viii.

24. Collins SP, Lindsell CJ, Storrow AB, Abraham WT. Prevalence ofnegative chest radiography results in the emergency department patientwith decompensated heart failure. Ann Emerg Med. 2006;47:13–18.

Reviewer Disclosures

Reviewer Employment Research Grant

Other

Research

Support

Speakers’

Bureau/Honoraria Expert Witness

Ownership

Interest Consultant/Advisory Board Other

Brian Hiestand Ohio State University Biosite Inc.*; Inovise Medical*;

Medtronic*; The Medicines

Company*

Inovise

Medical*

None None None newMentor, a medical

writing/editing company that

makes frequent use of the

ACC/AHA guidelines*

None

Jim Januzzi Massachusetts General Hospital Roche Diagnostics†;

Siemens†; Critical

Diagnostics*

None None None None Roche Diagnostics*; Critcal

Diagnostics*

None

Donna Mancini Columbia University None None None None None Celladon† None

Frank Peacock Cleveland Clinic Foundation None None None None None None None

This table represents the relationships of reviewers that may be perceived as actual or reasonably perceived conflicts of interest as reported on the DisclosureQuestionnaire, which all reviewers are required to complete and submit. A relationship is considered to be “Significant” if (a) the person receives $10 000 or moreduring any 12 month period, or 5% or more of the person’s gross income; or (b) the person owns 5% or more of the voting stock or share of the entity, or owns$10 000 or more of the fair market value of the entity. A relationship is considered to be “Modest” if it is less than “Significant” under the preceding definition.

*Modest.†Significant.

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212. Maisel A, Hollander JE, Guss D, McCullough P, Nowak R, Green G,Saltzberg M, Ellison SR, Bhalla MA, Bhalla V, Clopton P, Jesse R;Rapid Emergency Department Heart Failure Outpatient Trial investi-gators. Primary results of the Rapid Emergency Department HeartFailure Outpatient Trial (REDHOT). A multicenter study of B-typenatriuretic peptide levels, emergency department decision making, andoutcomes in patients presenting with shortness of breath. J Am CollCardiol. 2004;44:1328–1333.

213. Gheorghiade M, Rossi JS, Cotts W, Shin DD, Hellkamp AS, Pina IL,Fonarow GC, DeMarco T, Pauly DF, Rogers J, DiSalvo TG, Butler J,Hare JM, Francis GS, Stough WG, O’Connor CM. Characterization andprognostic value of persistent hyponatremia in patients with severe heartfailure in the ESCAPE Trial. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:1998–2005.

214. Morrow DA, de Lemos JA. Benchmarks for the assessment of novelcardiovascular biomarkers. Circulation. 2007;115:949–952.

215. Yamokoski LM, Hasselblad V, Moser DK, Binanay C, Conway GA,Glotzer JM, Hartman KA, Stevenson LW, Leier CV. Prediction ofrehospitalization and death in severe heart failure by physicians andnurses of the ESCAPE trial. J Card Fail. 2007;13:8–13.

216. Wasson JH, Sox HC, Neff RK, Goldman L. Clinical prediction rules.Applications and methodological standards. N Engl J Med. 1985;313:793–799.

217. Wasson JH, Sox HC. Clinical prediction rules. Have they come of age?JAMA. 1996;275:641–642.

218. Goldman L, Weinberg M, Weisberg M, Olshen R, Cook EF, SargentRK, Lamas GA, Dennis C, Wilson C, Deckelbaum L, Fineberg H,Stiratelli R. A computer-derived protocol to aid in the diagnosis ofemergency room patients with acute chest pain. N Engl J Med. 1982;307:588–596.

219. Laupacis A, Sekar N, Stiell IG. Clinical prediction rules. A review andsuggested modifications of methodological standards. JAMA. 1997;277:488–494.

220. McCausland JB, Machi MS, Yealy DM. Emergency physicians’ riskattitudes in acute decompensated heart failure patients. Acad EmergMed. 2010;17:108–110.

221. Storrow AB, Collins S, Lindsell CJ, Disalvo T, Han J, Weintraub NL.Improving Heart Failure Risk Stratification in the ED: Stratify1R01HL088459-01; Treatment Endpoints in Acute DecompensatedHeart Failure 1K23HL085387-01A2. Vanderbilt University and Uni-versity of Cincinnati: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; 2007.

222. Tatum JL, Jesse RL, Kontos MC, Nicholson CS, Schmidt KL, RobertsCS, Ornato JP. Comprehensive strategy for the evaluation and triage ofthe chest pain patient. Ann Emerg Med. 1997;29:116–125.

223. Gibler WB, Runyon JP, Levy RC, Sayre MR, Kacich R, Hattemer CR,Hamilton C, Gerlach JW, Walsh RA. A rapid diagnostic and treatmentcenter for patients with chest pain in the emergency department. AnnEmerg Med. 1995;25:1–8.

224. Storrow AB, Gibler WB. Chest pain centers: diagnosis of acute coronarysyndromes. Ann Emerg Med. 2000;35:449–461.

225. Yealy DM, Auble TE, Stone RA, Lave JR, Meehan TP, Graff LG, FineJM, Obrosky DS, Edick SM, Hough LJ, Tuozzo K, Fine MJ. Theemergency department community-acquired pneumonia trial: meth-odology of a quality improvement intervention. Ann Emerg Med. 2004;43:770–782.

226. Marrie TJ, Lau CY, Wheeler SL, Wong CJ, Vandervoort MK, FeaganBG. A controlled trial of a critical pathway for treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. CAPITAL Study Investigators. Community-Acquired Pneumonia Intervention Trial Assessing Levofloxacin. JAMA.2000;283:749–755.

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227. Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, Hanusa BH, Weissfeld LA, Singer DE,Coley CM, Marrie TJ, Kapoor WN. A prediction rule to identifylow-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med.1997;336:243–250.

228. Villacorta H, Rocha N, Cardoso R, Gaspar S, Maia ER, Bonates T,Kopiler D, Dohmann HJ, Mesquita ET. Hospital outcome and short-termfollow-up of elderly patients presenting to the emergency unit withcongestive heart failure [in Portuguese]. Arq Bras Cardiol. 1998;70:167–171.

229. Ghali JK, Kadakia S, Cooper R, Ferlinz J. Precipitating factors leadingto decompensation of heart failure: traits among urban blacks. ArchIntern Med. 1988;148:2013–2016.

230. Rich MW, Beckham V, Wittenberg C, Leven CL, Freedland KE, CarneyRM. A multidisciplinary intervention to prevent the readmission ofelderly patients with congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1190–1195.

231. Ashton CM, Kuykendall DH, Johnson ML, Wray NP, Wu L. Theassociation between the quality of inpatient care and early readmission.Ann Intern Med. 1995;122:415–421.

232. Krumholz HM, Parent EM, Tu N, Vaccarino V, Wang Y, Radford MJ,Hennen J. Readmission after hospitalization for congestive heart failureamong Medicare beneficiaries. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:99–104.

233. Stewart S, Marley JE, Horowitz JD. Effects of a multidisciplinary,home-based intervention on unplanned readmissions and survivalamong patients with chronic congestive heart failure: a randomisedcontrolled study. Lancet. 1999;354:1077–1083.

234. Roe MT, Christenson RH, Ohman EM, Bahr R, Fesmire FM, Storrow A,Mollod M, Peacock WF, Rosenblatt JA, Yang H, Fraulo ES, HoekstraJW, Gibler WB; EARLY Investigators; Emergency Medicine CardiacResearch and Education Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled trialof early eptifibatide for non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syn-dromes. Am Heart J. 2003;146:993–998.

235. Moore EE, Johnson JL, Moore FA, Moore HB. The USA MulticenterPrehosptal Hemoglobin-based Oxygen Carrier Resuscitation Trial: sci-entific rationale, study design, and results. Crit Care Clin. 2009;25:325–356.

236. Pancioli AM, Broderick J, Brott T, Tomsick T, Khoury J, Bean J, delZoppo G, Kleindorfer D, Woo D, Khatri P, Castaldo J, Frey J, Gebel JJr, Kasner S, Kidwell C, Kwiatkowski T, Libman R, Mackenzie R, ScottP, Starkman S, Thurman RJ; CLEAR Trial Investigators. The combinedapproach to lysis utilizing eptifibatide and rt-PA in acute ischemicstroke: the CLEAR stroke trial. Stroke. 2008;39:3268–3276.

237. Randomised trial of intravenous streptokinase, oral aspirin, both, orneither among 17,187 cases of suspected acute myocardial infarction:ISIS-2. ISIS-2 (Second International Study of Infarct Survival) Collab-orative Group. Lancet. 1988;2:349–360.

238. Reimer KA, Lowe JE, Rasmussen MM, Jennings RB. The wavefrontphenomenon of ischemic cell death. 1. Myocardial infarct size vsduration of coronary occlusion in dogs. Circulation. 1977;56:786–794.

239. Boersma E, Maas AC, Deckers JW, Simoons ML. Early thrombolytictreatment in acute myocardial infarction: reappraisal of the golden hour.Lancet. 1996;348:771–775.

240. Publication Committee for the VMAC Investigators (Vasodilatation inthe Management of Acute CHF). Intravenous nesiritide vs nitroglycerinfor treatment of decompensated congestive heart failure: a randomizedcontrolled trial. JAMA. 2002;287:1531–1540.

241. Cuffe MS, Califf RM, Adams KF Jr, Benza R, Bourge R, Colucci WS,Massie BM, O’Connor CM, Pina I, Quigg R, Silver MA, GheorghiadeM; Outcomes of a Prospective Trial of Intravenous Milrinone for Exac-erbations of Chronic Heart Failure (OPTIME-CHF) Investigators.Short-term intravenous milrinone for acute exacerbation of chronic heartfailure: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;287:1541–1547.

242. McMurray JJ, Teerlink JR, Cotter G, Bourge RC, Cleland JG, JondeauG, Krum H, Metra M, O’Connor CM, Parker JD, Torre-Amione G, vanVeldhuisen DJ, Lewsey J, Frey A, Rainisio M, Kobrin I; VERITASInvestigators. Effects of tezosentan on symptoms and clinical outcomesin patients with acute heart failure: the VERITAS randomized controlledtrials. JAMA. 2007;298:2009–2019.

243. Mebazaa A, Nieminen MS, Packer M, Cohen-Solal A, Kleber FX,Pocock SJ, Thakkar R, Padley RJ, Poder P, Kivikko M; SURVIVEInvestigators. Levosimendan vs dobutamine for patients with acutedecompensated heart failure: the SURVIVE Randomized Trial. JAMA.2007;297:1883–1891.

244. Cleland JG, Freemantle N, Coletta AP, Clark AL. Clinical trials updatefrom the American Heart Association: REPAIR-AMI, ASTAMI, JELIS,MEGA, REVIVE-II, SURVIVE, and PROACTIVE. Eur J Heart Fail.2006;8:105–110.

245. Konstam MA, Gheorghiade M, Burnett JC Jr, Grinfeld L, Maggioni AP,Swedberg K, Udelson JE, Zannad F, Cook T, Ouyang J, Zimmer C,Orlandi C; Efficacy of Vasopressin Antagonism in Heart FailureOutcome Study With Tolvaptan (EVEREST) Investigators. Effects oforal tolvaptan in patients hospitalized for worsening heart failure: TheEVEREST Outcome Trial. JAMA. 2007;297:1319–1331.

246. Hernandez AF, O’Connor CM, Starling RC, Reist CJ, Armstrong PW,Dickstein K, Lorenz TJ, Gibler WB, Hasselblad V, Komajda M, MassieB, McMurray JJ, Nieminen M, Rouleau JL, Swedberg K, Califf RM.Rationale and design of the Acute Study of Clinical Effectiveness ofNesiritide in Decompensated Heart Failure Trial (ASCEND-HF). AmHeart J. 2009;157:271–277.

247. Cleland JG, Coletta AP, Yassin A, Buga L, Torabi A, Clark AL. Clinicaltrials update from the European Society of Cardiology Meeting 2009: AAA,RELY, PROTECT, ACTIVE-I, European CRT survey, German pre-SCD IIregistry, and MADIT-CRT. Eur J Heart Fail. 2009;11:1214–1219.

KEY WORDS: AHA Scientific Statements � acute care � diagnosis �emergency medicine � heart failure � outcomes � prognosis � treatment

1996 Circulation November 9, 2010

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Cardiology and Council on Cardiopulmonary, Critical Care, Perioperative and ResuscitationMihai Gheorghiade and on behalf of the American Heart Association Council on Clinical

Arslanian-Engoren, W. Brian Gibler, James K. McCord, Mark B. Parshall, Gary S. Francis, Neal L. Weintraub, Sean P. Collins, Peter S. Pang, Phillip D. Levy, Allen S. Anderson, Cynthia

American Heart AssociationDisposition: Current Approaches and Future Aims: A Scientific Statement From the

Acute Heart Failure Syndromes: Emergency Department Presentation, Treatment, and

Print ISSN: 0009-7322. Online ISSN: 1524-4539 Copyright © 2010 American Heart Association, Inc. All rights reserved.

is published by the American Heart Association, 7272 Greenville Avenue, Dallas, TX 75231Circulation doi: 10.1161/CIR.0b013e3181f9a223

2010;122:1975-1996; originally published online October 11, 2010;Circulation. 

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Rapport scientifique de l’AHA

Syndromes d’insuffisance cardiaque aiguë : tableau clinique,traitement et orientation des patients en service d’urgences :

approches actuelles et orientations futuresUn rapport scientifique de l’American Heart Association

Neal L. Weintraub, MD, président ; Sean P. Collins, MD, MSc, Co-président ; Peter S. Pang, MD ;Phillip D. Levy, MD, MPH ; Allen S. Anderson, MD ; Cynthia Arslanian-Engoren, PhD, RN, FAHA ;

W. Brian Gibler, MD, FAHA ; James K. McCord, MD ; Mark B. Parshall, PhD, RN ;Gary S. Francis, MD, FAHA ; Mihai Gheorghiade, MD ; pour le Conseil sur la

cardiologie clinique et le Conseil pour les soins d’urgence, périopératoires etde réanimation cardiopulmonaire de l’American Heart Association

Par sa prévalence de 5 800 000 cas en 2009 (soit près de2 % de la population totale) et son incidence annuelle

estimée à 550 000 nouveaux cas, l’insuffisance cardiaque (IC)constitue un énorme fardeau pour le système de santé desEtats-Unis.1 Bien que l’IC soit en grande partie une affectionqui se caractérise par son évolution chronique, quasimenttous les patients sont sujets, à un moment ou à un autre, à dessymptômes aigus qui les conduisent à se rendre dans unservice d’accueil des urgences (SAU). Les symptômesprésentés peuvent être de sévérité variable, mais réclamentdans la majorité des cas une prise en charge rapide, faisantsouvent appel à un traitement intraveineux et, plus rarement,à une assistance respiratoire. Comme l’indiquent les donnéescombinées de la NAMCS (National Ambulatory MedicalCare Survey [enquête nationale sur les soins médicauxambulatoires]) et de la NHAMCS (National HospitalAmbulatory Medical Care Survey [enquête nationale surles soins médicaux ambulatoires prodigués en milieuhospitalier]), ces épisodes d’IC aiguë constituent uneéventualité fréquente : à eux seuls, ils motivent chaque annéequelque 658 000 consultations dans les SAU des Etats-Unis,ce qui représente près de 20 % de l’ensemble des soins

ambulatoires délivrés annuellement aux patients insuffisantscardiaques.2

Il est important d’observer que, en dehors des SAU, peu destructures sont en mesure d’offrir un libre accès au traitementou de procurer aux patients le niveau et l’intensité desoins nécessaires pour traiter efficacement un tel épisodede décompensation aiguë, également appelé « syndromed’insuffisance cardiaque aiguë » (SICA). Près de 80 % despatients pris en charge pour un SICA en SAU sontsecondairement hospitalisés, de sorte que cette structure est laprincipale voie d’admission pour les personnes hospitaliséespour SICA.34 Le SAU joue donc un rôle sans égal dansla continuité des soins à ces patients, car, pour la plupartd’entre eux, il constitue le premier endroit où une prise encharge adaptée leur est prodiguée ; c’est également là que lastabilisation de leur état est initialement acquise et qu’il estgénéralement décidé du lieu où ils seront transférés.4 Alorsque le SAU constitue le site d’accueil pivot pour la grandemajorité des patients hospitalisés pour un épisode d’IC aiguë,le faisceau de preuves sur lequel ce dispositif de soinsimmédiats s’appuie est étonnamment mince. Ce rapportscientifique a donc pour buts de décrire la manière dont l’IC

L’American Heart Association s’efforce au mieux d’éviter tout conflit d’intérêts effectif ou potentiel susceptible d’être généré du fait de relationsentretenues avec des tiers par les membres du comité de rédaction ou d’intérêts personnels, professionnels ou commerciaux de ces derniers. De fait, il estdemandé à tous les membres de ce comité de répondre à un questionnaire déclaratif en indiquant toutes les collaborations susceptibles d’apparaître commegénératrices de conflits d’intérêts effectifs ou potentiels.

Ce rapport a été validé par le comité de coordination et de consultation scientifiques de l’American Heart Association le 11 août 2010. Leprésent rapport peut être téléchargé à partir du site http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3003999 en sélectionnant le lien « topiclist » ou le lien « chronological list » (N° KB-0104). Pour acquérir des tirés-à-part supplémentaires, appeler le +1 843–216–2533 ou envoyer un « chronologicallist » e-mail à [email protected].

Si référence est faite à ce document, l’American Heart Association souhaite que celui-ci soit cité comme suit : Weintraub NL, Collins SP, Pang PS, LevyPD, Anderson AS, Arslanian-Engoren C, Gibler WB, McCord JK, Parshall MB, Francis GS, Gheorghiade M; on behalf of the American Heart AssociationCouncil on Clinical Cardiology and Council on Cardiopulmonary, Critical Care, Perioperative and Resuscitation. Acute heart failure syndromes: emergencydepartment presentation, treatment, and disposition: current approaches and future aims: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association.Circulation. 2010;122:1975–1996.

L’examen des rapports scientifiques de l’AHA par le comité d’experts est effectué au centre national de l’AHA. Pour de plus amples informations sur lesmodalités d’élaboration des rapports et des recommandations de l’AHA, consulter le site : http://www.americanheart.org/presenter. jhtml?identifier=3023366.

Autorisations : le présent document ne peut faire l’objet d’une quelconque forme de polycopie, modification, remaniement, ajout et/ou diffusionsans l’autorisation expresse de l’American Heart Association. Tous les renseignements utiles à l’obtention d’une telle autorisation sont fournis sur le site :http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4431. Un lien vers le formulaire de demande d’autorisation figure sur la partie droite de la page.

(Traduit de l’anglais : Acute Heart Failure Syndromes: Emergency Department Presentation, Treatment, and Disposition: Current Approaches and FutureAims; A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2010;122:1975–1996.)

© 2011 Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins

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est actuellement prise en charge par les médecins, de mettre enlumière les lacunes qui subsistent dans les connaissances etd’inciter tous ceux qui sont impliqués dans la prise en chargedes SICA à entreprendre des recherches dans le domaine dela médecine d’urgence.

La nécessité d’améliorer notre approche de la prise encharge des SICA a clairement été prise en compte dans ledocument que l’American College of Cardiology (ACC) etl’American Heart Association (AHA) ont publié en 2009 àtitre de réactualisation de leurs recommandations de 2005sur le diagnostic et la prise en charge de l’IC de l’adulte. Pourla première fois, il a été fait état de recommandations relativesaux patients hospitalisés pour un SICA.5 Elaborées selon laméthodologie standardisée définie par ces deux institutions(Tableau 1),6 ces recommandations constituent une étapeimportante dans la recherche continue d’une meilleure priseen charge des patients atteints d’un SICA. S’agissant des soinsen SAU, plusieurs défauts majeurs méritent toutefois d’êtrerelevés : (1) les procédures et traitements dont il est faitmention forment une combinaison visant à gérer les SICAaussi bien en phase aiguë (au cours des 24 à 48 premièresheures) qu’en période subaiguë (à partir de la 48ème heure) etne sont pas des mesures spécifiques à une prise en chargeimmédiate ; (2) au-delà des orientations générales qu’ellesdonnent en matière de traitement, ces recommandationsne fournissent que peu d’indications sur la manière dont ilconvient de prendre en charge certains sous-groupes ouformes cliniques particulières couramment rencontrésen SAU, comme cela est, en particulier, le cas des patientsprésentant un épisode d’hypertension artérielle aiguës’accompagnant non pas d’une surcharge liquidienne maisd’une redistribution des fluides7 ; (3) le document ne fait nullemention de l’applicabilité potentielle des gestes d’urgenced’une extrême importance qui, telles les mesures ventilatoiresnon invasives8 et l’intubation endotrachéale, sont classique-ment mis en œuvre en SAU ; (4) il n’est pas davantage traitéde la stratification des risques ni proposé d’éléments objectifssur lesquels fonder les décisions d’orientation despatients, lesquelles ont un impact majeur sur l’utilisation desressources, notamment dans le cas de patients dont l’étatautorise une mise en observation de courte durée ; et (5), alorsque l’immense majorité des recommandations est considéréecomme étant de classe I, une seule repose sur des preuves deniveau A, contrairement à celles présentées dans les rubriquesconsacrées à la prise en charge de l’IC chronique. Ce dernierpoint est peut-être le plus épineux et met en lumière combienil est malaisé d’édicter des recommandations de bonnespratiques médicales fondées sur les données pour guider laprise en charge des patients atteints de SICA dans le cadred’un SAU.

Le manque de données probantes sur la prise en charge desSICA a de multiples causes, mais découle pour une large partde l’absence de programme de recherche coordonné entre lesdifférents acteurs impliqués. En effet, alors que d’importantesinformations sur le tableau clinique et le traitementinauguraux ont été rassemblées dans les bases de données deregistres tels que ADHERE (Acute Decompensated HeartFailure National Registry [registre américain sur l’insuffi-sance cardiaque aiguë décompensée])9,10 ou OPTIMIZE-HF

(Organized Program to Initiate Lifesaving Treatment inHospitalized Patients With Heart Failure [projet coordonnéd’instauration d’un traitement salvateur chez les patientshospitalisés pour insuffisance cardiaque]),11,12 il n’a pas étéconçu d’essai clinique à grande échelle visant à recueillir desdonnées selon une approche prospective chez des patientsrecrutés en SAU. Cela s’explique notamment par les difficultésque les investigateurs ont toujours rencontrées à s’accordersur des événements cibles pertinents4 et par le désir de porterun diagnostic précis avant d’inclure les patients. Surtout,s’ajoute à cela le sentiment erroné qu’ont les spécialistesde l’IC que la sélection et l’inclusion sont des procéduresdélicates à gérer s’agissant de patients pris en charge en SAU.3

Tout cela fait qu’il règne une certaine incertitude quantà l’impact que peut avoir une intervention précoce sur lepronostic clinique, ce qui, de facto, fait douter de l’intérêtd’inclure des patients présentant des symptômes réfractairesau traitement.3,4 Ce dernier point, en particulier, pourraitexpliquer le fait que la plupart des études menées à ce jour surles SICA aient essentiellement abouti à des résultats neutres.

Comme le montre clairement cette introduction, il estindispensable de faire évoluer les conceptions actuelles enmatière de pratiques cliniques et d’organisation des recherchescentrées sur les SICA. Prenant acte de l’urgence d’une telleévolution, le National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute(Institut américain de cardiologie, de pneumologie etd’hématologie) a récemment constitué un groupe de travailmultidisciplinaire réunissant des experts spécialisés dans laprise en charge des SICA, auquel il a donné pour mission delui indiquer quels devraient être ses futurs axes de recherchesur cette pathologie.13 Bien que le compte rendu des débats aitété publié ailleurs, tous les participants ont affirmé leurferme conviction qu’il était nécessaire d’améliorer le socle dedonnées factuelles sur les SICA en entreprenant des étudescentrées sur la prise en charge des patients en SAU et que seuleune vaste collaboration permettrait de faire progresser notrecompréhension de ces syndromes.

Constitution du comité de rédaction et liens de cedernier avec l’industrieDes spécialistes des SICA ont été choisis et chargésd’examiner les données disponibles en la matière puis derédiger le présent rapport scientifique. Ce comité de rédactiona procédé à une analyse approfondie de la littérature etévalué la robustesse des données en faveur ou en défaveurdes procédures et traitements existants en employant lesméthodes définies pour l’élaboration des rapports et desrecommandations de l’AHA. Les discussions ont notammentporté sur les caractéristiques individuelles, les pathologiesassociées et les préférences des patients susceptiblesd’influencer le choix d’examens ou de traitements particuliers,ainsi que sur la périodicité des consultations de suivi et sur lerapport coût/efficacité. Lorsque des études de coût étaientdisponibles, les informations fournies ont été prises encompte ; toutefois, ce sont les données relatives à l’efficacitéet au pronostic clinique qui ont constitué le fondementprincipal de toutes les recommandations élaborées en lamatière. Afin de garantir la prise en compte de tous les conflitsd’intérêts effectifs, potentiels ou supposés, il a été demandé à

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Tableau 1. Classification des recommandations et niveaux de preuve6

tous les membres du comité de rédaction et de celui chargé derelire le document de remplir un formulaire détaillant leurs« relations avec l’industrie » lorsque ce comité de rédactiona été constitué. Les membres de ce dernier ont égalementété invités à vérifier et réactualiser les informations ainsicommuniquées préalablement à la publication du document.Pour élaborer ce rapport, le comité de rédaction s’est appuyésur le « manuel méthodologique à l’usage des comités derédaction chargés de rédiger des recommandations pourle compte de l’ACC/AHA ».14 En fin du présent documentfigurent les déclarations en matière de conflits d’intérêts

formulées par les membres des comités de rédaction et derelecture et qui méritent d’être mentionnées dans le cadrede ce rapport scientifique.

Que se passe-t-il aujourd’hui dans les SAU enmatière de diagnostic, de traitement et

d’orientation des patients ?Diagnostiquer et traiter un SICA en SAU constitue un déficlinique qui exige une haute capacité à prendre des mesurescomplexes afin de rétablir l’équilibre hémodynamique

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du patient, améliorer sa capacité fonctionnelle, diminuer sonrisque de décès et réduire sa durée d’hospitalisation.15–19 Cettetâche est rendue encore plus ardue par le mode d’organisationet le type d’interventions qui caractérisent la plupart des SAU,la vocation de ces derniers étant davantage de stabiliser, traiteret orienter le plus rapidement possible des urgences aiguëstelles qu’un état de choc, un trouble du rythme cardiaque ouun infarctus du myocarde avec anomalie du segment STque d’identifier et prendre en charge dans les temps requisdes formes de SICA plus subtiles ou plus compliquées quitraduisent le plus souvent la décompensation d’une ICchronique préexistante.20 Il est, en effet, plus facile de jugerde la gravité de l’état d’un patient lorsque, avant l’apparitiondes troubles ayant motivé son admission, il était en bonnesanté apparente que lorsque le tableau qu’il présenteexprime l’aggravation d’une affection chronique par essenceprotéiforme et ce, d’autant plus que le médecin urgentiste neconnaît pas le patient.

La phase de prise en charge du SICA au sein du SAU seconclue par une décision d’orientation du patient (transfertvers l’unité d’hospitalisation de très courte durée spécifique auSU, vers l’unité d’hospitalisation de court séjour ou versl’unité de soins intensifs ou encore sortie du patient en vued’une prise en charge ambulatoire).21 Comme il est trèsdifficile pour le personnel du SAU d’identifier les cas demauvais pronostic, notamment ceux susceptibles de donnerlieu à la survenue de complications cardiaques aiguës et à 30jours,22 et que, de plus, la complète normalisation dessymptômes n’est que rarement obtenue au sein de cettestructure, 80 % des patients qui se présentent dans un SAUpour un SICA sont secondairement hospitalisés.23 De fait, iln’existe, à l’heure actuelle, que peu d’éléments sur lesquelss’appuyer pour décider de la voie vers laquelle les patientsdoivent être orientés ; l’imprécision de la stratificationdes niveaux de risque et l’incertitude qui prévaut quant àl’étiologie des SICA conduisent souvent les médecins à fairele choix d’hospitaliser les patients afin qu’ils bénéficientde traitements et d’examens plus approfondis.21

Eléments diagnostiques actuelsL’évaluation d’une suspicion de SICA en SAU repose sur lesantécédents du patient, l’examen physique, la radiographiethoracique, l’enregistrement d’un ECG à douze dérivations,le dosage du taux de troponine cardiaque (I ou T),l’ionogramme sanguin et la numération-formule sanguinecomplète. La radiographie thoracique demeure un élémentessentiel du diagnostic, mais, chez plus de 15 % de patients,elle ne montre pas de signe de congestion, ce qui limite sonintérêt en tant qu’instrument de dépistage.24 Dans certainscas, il peut être utile d’explorer les fonctions hépatique etthyroïdienne. Le dosage du peptide natriurétique de type B(BNP) et du fragment N-terminal (NT) de son précurseur(proBNP) peut aider au diagnostic, dans cette populationde patients, lorsqu’un doute clinique persiste en dépit desrenseignements initialement fournis par les antécédents,l’examen physique et la radiographie thoracique. Cesmarqueurs biologiques se forment à la suite de la libérationd’une prohormone à partir des cardiomyocytes en réponseà la dilatation ventriculaire et à l’augmentation de la

postcharge.25–27 Après sa libération par les cardiomyocytes, laprohormone proBNP est clivée en BNP, métaboliquementactif, et en NT-proBNP, dépourvu d’activité métabolique. Lestaux de BNP et de NT-proBNP sont tous deux augmentésdans les SICA, leur degré d’élévation étant corrélé avec lasévérité du trouble.28–32

L’intérêt diagnostique des peptides natriurétiques a étéétudié dans le cadre du Breathing Not Properly trial (essai surles patients dyspnéiques), un vaste essai mené chez 1 586patients et dans lequel les taux de BNP ont été mesurés chezdes patients pris en charge en SAU pour une suspicionde SICA.28 Le seuil diagnostique étant établi à 100 pg/ml, lasensibilité, la spécificité et les valeurs prédictives négativeet positive du dosage ont été de, respectivement, 90, 76, 79 et89 %. Compte tenu de ce haut niveau de performance, lamesure du taux de BNP apparaît extrêmement utile pouréliminer l’éventualité d’un SICA. Une analyse par régressionlogistique multiple ayant pris en compte les antécédents etles données de l’examen physique et de la radiographiethoracique a montré qu’un taux de BNP augmenté est leplus puissant facteur indépendant prédictif de la survenued’un SICA, l’odds ratio ayant été estimé à 29,6 (intervalle deconfiance [IC] à 95 % : 17,75 à 49,37). Dans une analysesecondaire de cette même étude, le taux de BNP a permisde classer correctement 74 % des patients chez lesquelsla probabilité de présence d’un SICA était de niveau inter-médiaire.33 Lorsque le jugement clinique porté au terme dubilan standard a été enrichi de la connaissance du taux deBNP, cela a eu pour effet d’augmenter significativement l’airesous la courbe (AUC) de caractéristique de fonctionnementdu récepteur de 0,86 à 0,93 (p <0,0001). De même, une étudemonocentrique a évalué l’utilité diagnostique du taux deNT-proBNP en SAU chez 600 patients dyspnéiques.31 Làencore, l’AUC a augmenté de 0,90 à 0,96 après que le tauxde NT-proBNP ait été ajouté au jugement clinique. Lesinvestigateurs considèrent que la valeur seuil de 300 pg/mlsuffit à elle seule pour écarter l’éventualité d’un SICA, maisque, pour un diagnostic positif, le seuil à retenir diffère selonque le patient est âgé de moins de 50 ans (>450 pg/ml) ou deplus de 50 ans (>900 pg/ml). Les auteurs d’études ultérieuresont toutefois proposé d’affiner la délimitation (1) en fixantle seuil à 900 pg/ml quel que soit l’âge ou (2) en opérantune stratification plus précise (mais aussi plus complexe) enfonction de l’âge, à savoir 450 pg/ml en dessous de 50 ans,900 pg/ml de 50 à 75 ans et 1 800 pg/ml au-delà de 75 ans.34,35

D’autres études de taille plus réduite ont également démontrél’intérêt des taux de BNP et de NT-proBNP pour le diagnosticdes SICA.29,30,36,37

La majorité des études suggère que les taux de BNP etde NT-proBNP seraient de même valeur diagnostique. Ilsemblerait toutefois que de très légères différences decaractéristiques des patients aient pour effet de conférer unecertaine supériorité à l’un de ces biomarqueurs comparative-ment à l’autre. Les taux de BNP et de NT-proBNP sont tousdeux augmentés lorsqu’il existe une insuffisance rénale, ce quiest plus fréquemment le cas des patients âgés.38,39 Néanmoins,le taux de NT-proBNP paraît être davantage influencé parl’état de la fonction rénale.40 Quatre études ont directementcomparé l’intérêt diagnostique des taux de BNP et de

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NT-proBNP.29,36,41,42 Ces deux peptides natriurétiques ont faitpreuve d’un pouvoir discriminant similaire dans trois études,mais dans la quatrième, le taux de BNP s’est montré plusperformant que celui de NT-proBNP.42 L’AUC mesurantl’exactitude du diagnostic de SICA a, en effet, été de 0,80 pourle NT-proBNP, contre 0,85 pour le BNP (p <0,05). Cela tientprincipalement au fait que la spécificité du NT-proBNP estplus faible que celle du BNP (76 % contre 91 %). Cettedernière étude n’a toutefois porté que sur des patients âgés deplus de 65 ans, ce qui porte à penser que le taux de BNPest peut-être d’une plus grande valeur chez les patients âgés.Cela demande néanmoins à être confirmé par d’autres études.Le dosage des peptides natriurétiques est particulièrementprécieux pour éliminer un SICA ; le rapport de vraisemblancenégatif d’un taux de BNP de 100 pg/ml est de 0,13,28 alors quecelui d’un taux de NT-proBNP de 300 pg/ml est de 0,015.31 Enrevanche, le rapport de vraisemblance positif a un intérêtplus limité (3,8 pour le BNP et 3,1 pour le NT-proBNP),car les taux de ces peptides natriurétiques peuvent être aug-mentés dans de nombreuses affections, dont les septicémies,l’hypertension artérielle pulmonaire, l’insuffisance rénale, lafibrillation auriculaire et l’embolie pulmonaire, ainsi que chezle sujet âgé.43–47 A l’inverse, l’obésité est à l’origine de trèsfortes diminutions du taux de BNP.48 Les mécanismesinvoqués pour expliquer ces faibles taux de BNP sont unediminution de la synthèse et/ou de la sécrétion de ce peptidechez les sujets obèses, une augmentation de l’expressiondes récepteurs ayant pour fonction d’éliminer les peptidesnatriurétiques des tissus adipeux et, plus accessoirement, uneélévation des taux circulants d’endopeptidases neutres,sécrétées par les adipocytes.49 Chez les patients ayant desantécédents d’IC, les taux de BNP ou de NT-proBNP peuventêtre augmentés de manière chronique. Une élévation au-dessus du niveau basal (ou en poids sec) pourrait permettre dedépister un SICA chez un patient. Pour l’heure, on ignoretoutefois ce qu’il y a lieu de considérer comme une élévationsignificative au-dessus du niveau basal chez un individudonné. La variabilité biologique ajoute à la complexitédu problème. Selon certaines études, il faudrait que le taux deBNP augmente d’au moins 70 % et celui de NT-proBNPde 50 % pour que la modification ait une réelle valeurdiagnostique.50–53

L’intérêt clinique du dosage du taux de BNP et lesressources mobilisées pour sa réalisation ont été évaluésdans une étude monocentrique randomisée menée chez 453patients dyspnéiques pris en charge dans un SAU suisse.32 Aucours de la randomisation, 225 patients ont été inclus dans ungroupe relevant de la stratégie diagnostique classique et 227autres dans un groupe où cette approche a été complétée parla mesure du taux de BNP. Comparativement à la stratégiestandard, celle incluant le dosage du taux de BNP a permis deréduire le pourcentage de patients hospitalisés (75 % contre85 % : p = 0,008), la durée d’hospitalisation (8,0 jours au lieude 11,0 : p = 0,001), les coûts (5 410 dollars américains contre7 264 : p = 0,006) et le délai d’instauration du traitement(63 minutes au lieu de 90 : p = 0,03). Une analyse séparée de cemême essai a montré que le rapport coût/efficacité du dosagedu taux de BNP en SAU s’était maintenu à 180 jours.54 Celaétant, l’énorme différence de durée d’hospitalisation par

rapport aux centres américains permet difficilement l’extra-polation de ces résultats. Dans un autre essai mené au Canadachez 500 patients dyspnéiques pris en charge en SAU, 250d’entre eux ont fait l’objet d’une enquête diagnostiqueclassique et les 250 autres de la même stratégie complétéepar un dosage du taux de NT-proBNP.55 L’AUC mesurantl’exactitude du diagnostic porté par le médecin urgentistea été de 0,83 (IC à 95 % : 0,80 à 0,84) lorsque le praticienne disposait pas du taux de NT-proBNP alors qu’elle aatteint 0,90 (IC à 95 % : 0,90 à 0,93, p <0,001) lorsqu’ilpossédait cette information. Aucune différence cliniquementsignificative n’a été notée aussi bien en termes de duréesde séjour en SAU ou en hôpital que de coûts ; en revanche,s’agissant du taux de réhospitalisation et des coûts à 60 jours,il a été objectivé une différence significative en faveur dugroupe dans lequel le NT-proBNP avait été dosé. Toutefois,des essais randomisés visant à déterminer si le dosage du tauxde BNP à l’admission était à même d’améliorer l’exactitudediagnostique et si la mesure répétée de ce paramètre pouvaitêtre utilisée pour orienter le traitement à la phase aiguën’ont pas mis en évidence d’amélioration de l’exactitudediagnostique ni des éléments pronostiques cliniquementimportants tels que la durée d’hospitalisation, la mortalitéou le taux de réhospitalisation.56,57 Ces essais randomisésn’ont pas permis d’établir clairement si l’amélioration del’exactitude diagnostique susceptible d’être apportée par ledosage des peptides natriurétiques pouvait ou non contribuerà traiter les patients de manière plus appropriée avec unbon rapport coût/efficacité. Ce point demande donc à êtreapprofondi, de préférence par la réalisation d’un essaimulticentrique.

En résumé, chez les patients pris en charge en SAU pourune suspicion de SICA, la mesure du taux de BNP ou deNT-proBNP améliore l’exactitude diagnostique compara-tivement aux méthodes conventionnelles. Lorsque leséléments cliniques ne permettent pas de porter un diagnosticde certitude, il y a donc lieu de doser le BNP ou leNT-proBNP.

Stratégie thérapeutique actuelle : face à destableaux cliniques disparates le traitement resteuniformeBien que la dyspnée, qui est le principal symptôme du SICA,soit attribuée au commun dénominateur physiopathologiquereprésenté par l’augmentation de la pression télédiastoliqueventriculaire gauche, l’affection ne répond pas à la mêmeétiologie ou au même facteur déclenchant chez tousles patients.58,59 Indépendamment du fondement physio-pathologique initial du trouble cardiaque, sa prise en chargeest fortement influencée par certaines caractéristiquesmajeures telles que le statut hémodynamique et la présence(ou l’absence) d’une ischémie myocardique et d’unedysfonction rénale. De fait, cette variabilité phénotypique estloin d’être reconnue par tous,60–62 peut-être parce que le SICAest considéré comme une entité univoque plutôt que commeun trouble à plusieurs facettes.58

De plus, les symptômes liés à l’œdème pulmonaire sont cequi pousse les patients atteints d’un SICA à rechercher uneassistance médicale.63 A l’heure actuelle, les objectifs de

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traitement des médecins de SAU sont de soulager l’œdème,d’équilibrer les paramètres hémodynamiques, de normaliserla volémie et de prévenir les dommages secondaires,notamment aux niveaux myocardique et rénal. La miseen œuvre de la stabilisation initiale implique d’apprécier sile patient requiert une assistance ventilatoire, réalisée parintubation endotrachéale ou par ventilation non invasive(VNI). Cette dernière approche est utilisée en complément dutraitement pharmacologique de première intention chez lespatients présentant une détresse respiratoire. Bien que, selonun vaste essai randomisé, la VNI n’aurait aucun impactbénéfique sur la mortalité, elle améliore néanmoins la dyspnéeet permet de diminuer la précharge en attendant que les autresmesures thérapeutiques soient instaurées.8 Les diurétiquessont un élément central du traitement en SAU, dont l’emploiest validée par les recommandations édictées tant aux Etats-Unis qu’en Europe.5,64–66 Des études plus approfondies sonttoutefois nécessaires pour apporter une réponse définitive à laquestion de savoir quelle est, de l’administration de bolusespacés ou de la perfusion continue, l’approche la plusefficace, les données actuelles étant contradictoires.67,68 Lesvasodilatateurs, dont les inhibiteurs de l’enzyme de conversionde l’angiotensine (IEC) par voie intraveineuse, sont fréquem-ment employés dans le traitement des patients atteints d’unSICA et qui présentent des signes de congestion et une pres-sion artérielle normale ou augmentée. Outre sa présentationintraveineuse, la trinitrine est également disponible sousformes sublinguale et topique. La voie locale est volontiersutilisée dans les SAU et ce, malgré le peu de données d’essaiscliniques attestant de son utilité. Par ailleurs, selon une étudemenée sur une cohorte fortement sélectionnée de patientsatteints d’un SICA et ayant un faible débit cardiaque, chezlesquels un monitorage a été réalisé au moyen d’une sondeplacée dans l’artère pulmonaire, l’administration de 0,8 mgde trinitrine par voie sublinguale induirait une diminutioncliniquement significative des résistances vasculaires péri-phériques et une augmentation de l’indice cardiaque enmoins de 30 minutes.69 De même, l’application locale detrinitrine sous forme d’onguent (2,5 à 5 cm) chez des patientsatteints d’un SICA a été suivie d’améliorations cliniquementsignificatives de leur pression capillaire pulmonaire bloquéeet de leur indice cardiaque.70

Les patients pris en charge en SAU pour un SICA peuventêtre globalement répartis en deux catégories en fonction de lavaleur de leur pression artérielle (PA) à leur admission : (1)hypertendus (PA supérieure à 140 mmHg) et (2) normotendus(PA inférieure à 140 mmHg). L’hypotension (PA inférieure à90 mmHg) et le choc cardiogénique sont des éventualitésrares, observées dans moins de 5 % des cas traités en SAU.12,65

A priori, on pourrait penser que les patients hypertendus sontceux dont l’état est le plus grave ; néanmoins, la prise encharge agressive de leur hypertension artérielle entraînesouvent la disparition rapide des symptômes. Plus encore, unefois que les symptômes aigus de ces patients sont correctementmaîtrisés, leurs taux de mortalité à 60 et 90 jours sont souventtrès inférieurs à ceux des patients normotendus.12,18,71,72

Bien que des signes et symptômes de congestion pulmonairesoient présents dans l’un et l’autre de ces sous-groupes, lesmécanismes du trouble et le statut volémique peuvent

différer. Dans les modèles de SICA conventionnels, surchargeliquidienne et symptômes aigus sont considérés comme étantdes quasi-synonymes. De récentes données suggèrent que,chez les patients hypertendus (c’est-à-dire présentant une crisevasculaire), l’œdème pulmonaire pourrait être causé par unemauvaise adéquation entre une postcharge qui augmenterapidement et une fonction systolique devenue défaillante,d’où une redistribution des volumes liquidiens.7,73–75 Néan-moins, les deux catégories de patients présentent dessymptômes similaires et sont souvent uniquement traitées parl’administration de diurétiques intraveineux, sans tenircompte des différences de mécanismes physiopathologiqueset de statuts volémiques.

Il est possible d’affiner le classement des patients ensous-catégories en se fondant sur les causes et facteursayant présidé à la décompensation ; en effet, le SICA peut,par exemple, être secondaire à la non-observance desprescriptions diététiques et médicamenteuses, à une ischémie,à l’aggravation de la dysfonction rénale, à un trouble durythme cardiaque ou à un trouble pulmonaire concomitant.76

Dans certains cas, cette approche peut permettre au médecind’envisager l’adjonction d’autres thérapeutiques telles que desantiarythmiques ; cela étant, quelle que soit l’étiologie duSICA, les patients sont le plus souvent hospitalisés afinde poursuivre le traitement destiné à réduire l’œdèmepulmonaire.12,77–79 Pendant l’hospitalisation, très peu demodifications sont apportées aux protocoles pharma-cologiques et seule une minorité de patients fait l’objetd’une procédure thérapeutique ou de la pose d’un dispositifmédical au cours du séjour.80–82

Selon l’étude sur la dyspnée URGENT (Ularitide GlobalEvaluation in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure [évalu-ation globale de l’ularitide dans les décompensations aiguësd’insuffisance cardiaque]) qui s’est récemment achevée, laprise en charge en SAU améliore les symptômes dyspnéiquespatents chez la plupart des patients dans les 6 heures.83 Toute-fois, les données d’un registre montrent également que, endépit de cette rapide amélioration de la symptomatologie,seulement 50 % des patients sont totalement soulagés de leurssymptômes congestifs à leur sortie d’hôpital.11 De plus, lesdonnées d’essais randomisés font défaut pour permettrede juger des éventuels effets bénéfiques exercés par lesdiurétiques au-delà de l’amélioration des symptômes, caraucun essai de ce type n’a été entrepris84 ; il convient d’ajouterà cela qu’un nombre croissant d’observations tend à montrerque l’administration de diurétiques peut avoir des effetsdélétères et ce, qu’elle soit pratiquée sur un mode aigu85,86 ouchronique.87 De fait, des études précédemment menées surles diurétiques font apparaître que l’administration de telsmédicaments serait non seulement corrélée avec la survenued’événements défavorables, mais pourrait, en outre, en être lacause directe.71,86,88–91 Un lien a, par ailleurs, été établi entrele développement d’une insuffisance rénale aiguë pendantl’hospitalisation et l’augmentation de la mortalité intra-hospitalière.92–94 Même si certains considèrent que l’inductiond’une diurèse est une mesure importante et justifiée, l’attitudequasi universelle consistant à appliquer un traitementuniforme à un trouble par essence polymorphe n’est-ellepas susceptible de retentir défavorablement sur les taux élevés

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de récidive à court terme95 et de décès1 observés chez lespatients atteints d’un SICA ?3,58

Le SICA a de tous temps été considéré comme unévénement transitoire, essentiellement caractérisé par unedysfonction systolique, un faible débit cardiaque et unesurcharge liquidienne. Ce modèle physiopathologique est,en outre, jugé applicable à toutes les catégories de patients,les seules variations tenant à son degré de sévérité.96–98 Celaa conduit à adopter des stratégies thérapeutiques à courtterme telles que celle faisant appel à l’administration dediurétiques intraveineux dans le but de réduire rapidementla surcharge liquidienne, cela sans qu’aucun essai cliniquen’ait été entrepris pour vérifier la tolérance et l’efficacité àlong terme de ces traitements. Or, force est de constater que lesdonnées émanant de plusieurs registres de patients insuffisantscardiaques écornent notablement le classique modèle de basdébit cardiaque personnifié par le patient de sexe masculinatteint d’IC ischémique en montrant que le syndromeconsidéré sous-tend un ensemble beaucoup plus complexed’entités physiopathologiques différentes.77,78 En dépit del’hétérogénéité des tableaux cliniques dont il est fait mentionplus haut et qui porte à penser qu’il y aurait peut-être lieu derecourir à des traitements ciblés, la majorité des patientsatteints d’un SICA fait l’objet d’un traitement univoque,fondé sur les diurétiques intraveineux. Une prochaine étapedevrait consister, en toute logique, à rechercher si certainescatégories particulières de patients, établies sur la base demesures objectives et fiables pratiquées à la suite du bilaninitial, ne tireraient pas profit d’un traitement ciblé, fondésur leur profil de risque, l’étiologie de leur IC et la cause de ladécompensation.

Principes de l’orientation des patients enservice d’urgencesLes patients qui sont pris en charge en SAU pour un SICAsont en majorité hospitalisés.99,100 Cette attitude tient engrande partie au fait qu’il est très difficile pour les médecinsopérant dans le cadre d’une telle structure de reconnaître lespatients qui n’encourent qu’un faible risque de complications.Chez les personnes atteintes d’un SICA, la stratificationdes niveaux de risque s’est toujours révélée délicate, nonseulement en raison de l’IC sous-jacente, mais aussi du fait desmultiples pathologies associées présentes chez ces sujets. Deplus, même lorsqu’un patient ne présente aucun élémentobjectif témoignant d’un haut risque, il est difficilementenvisageable pour les médecins du SAU de le laisser repartirdirectement chez lui en sachant qu’il ne sera pas possibled’assurer sa surveillance étroite, de lui prodiguer lesinformations indispensables sur sa maladie et de le sensibiliserà l’importance qu’il y a à suivre scrupuleusement lesrecommandations thérapeutiques.

On pourrait penser que ces patients qui consultentin extremis alors qu’ils sont hautement dyspnéiques etprésentent des chiffres tensionnels élevés encourent un risqueextrême d’événements défavorables à court terme. En réalité,une fois que les symptômes aigus ont été maîtrisés, leur risquede complications à moyen terme (c’est-à-dire dans les 30 à 60jours) est faible comparativement à celui encouru par despatients ayant une pression artérielle normale et dont les

symptômes à leur arrivée dans le service sont souvent moinsgraves.12,18,101 Seule une minorité de patients présente dessignes de bas débit tels qu’une oligurie ou une hypoperfusionsystémique.12

Les autres tableaux d’admission sous-tendant une aug-mentation du risque de décès pendant l’hospitalisation sontreprésentés par les SICA secondaires à un infarctus dumyocarde ou à un épisode ischémique, à une détérioration dela fonction rénale ou à une pneumopathie concomitante.76

Cela étant, dans un tiers des cas, la décompensation résulte dela mauvaise observance du traitement médicamenteux ou desprescriptions diététiques ou encore de l’existence d’unehypertension artérielle mal contrôlée. Chez ces patients, lepronostic à court terme est meilleur, marqué par un moindrerisque de décès précoce.102 Les études menées au cours des dixdernières années ont permis d’identifier un certain nombrede paramètres et de marqueurs biologiques comme étant pré-dictifs d’une évolution défavorable ; il s’agit : (1) de l’élévationde l’azotémie ou de la créatininémie, (2) de l’hyponatrémie,(3) des signes électrocardiographiques d’ischémie, (4) del’élévation des taux de peptides natriurétiques, (5) de celle destaux de troponines et (6) et du faible niveau de la pressionartérielle systolique.12,65,101,103,104–107 En revanche, on connaîtmoins bien les facteurs faisant qu’un SICA n’induit qu’unfaible risque. Selon des données préliminaires, une pressionartérielle systolique initialement supérieure à 160 mmHg et untaux de troponine cardiaque de type I normal à l’admissionseraient des éléments témoignant d’un moindre risqued’événements défavorables.22 Dans la vaste analyse rétro-spective effectuée à partir d’une base de données nationaleaméricaine en utilisant la méthode de segmentation récursive,17 % des patients pris en charge en SAU ont été jugés commeétant à faible risque.108 Ce modèle assez complexe a égalementpermis d’établir que la pression artérielle systolique,la natrémie et la créatininémie étaient des paramètresutilisables pour faire la distinction entre risques faible et élevé.Ce modèle statistique a par la suite été validé chez plusde 8 300 patients. Son rapport de vraisemblance négatif est de0,24 (0,18 à 0,32) s’agissant d’estimer le risque de décès ou decomplication grave dans les 30 jours.109

Bien que les marqueurs des formes à faible risquedemeurent mal connus, des alternatives à l’hospitalisationfont également l’objet de recherches. Etant donné que leshospitalisations font essentiellement suite à une admissionen SAU, les médecins œuvrant dans ces structures ont uneexcellente expérience des mesures de stabilisation des patientsatteints d’un SICA, des traitements à mettre en œuvre et de laconduite à tenir en termes d’orientation ultérieure de cessujets.64,110 Par ailleurs, dans la mesure où la plupart despatients relèvent d’un traitement visant à combattre l’œdèmepulmonaire résultant de la décompensation de leur ICchronique, une brève période de prise en charge au sein duSAU ou de l’unité d’hospitalisation de très courte durée quilui est rattachée peut constituer une alternative raisonnableà l’hospitalisation classique pour ces patients ne présentantpas de caractéristiques sous-tendant un haut risque. Cetteattitude a fait la preuve de sa faisabilité et permet d’épargnerles ressources hospitalières.111,114 Bien qu’une surveillancecardiologique étroite en ambulatoire soit essentielle au succès

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d’une telle stratégie de prise en charge thérapeutique de courtedurée en SAU, il est permis de penser que les résultatscliniques devraient être encore meilleurs lorsqu’on sera enmesure de stratifier plus efficacement les risques encourus parles patients. Au demeurant, il apparaît nécessaire d’identifierles caractéristiques témoignant d’un faible risque et de savoirreconnaître les patients dont le SICA est de bon pronosticà moyen terme. Il y a donc lieu d’entreprendre des étudesprospectives visant à rechercher les marqueurs de faible risquechez les patients atteints d’un tel syndrome.

Devenir des patients après leurpassage en SAU

L’hospitalisation d’un patient pour SICA marque un tournantdans le processus évolutif de sa maladie. Que ce soit pourtraiter un SICA nouvellement diagnostiqué ou pour prendreen charge une récurrence d’aggravation ou complication d’uneIC chronique, le fait de se trouver hospitalisé a un profondimpact sur le patient. De tels événements médicaux ne peuventque retentir sur sa santé, son bien-être psychologique, saqualité de vie, sa capacité de travail et son pronostic à longterme. Une prise en charge efficiente, fondée sur l’instaurationd’un traitement médical et sur son optimisation, améliore nonseulement les symptômes immédiats du patient mais aussi lepronostic à long terme.115–117 L’une des principales clés dusuccès est, pour le praticien, de s’assurer que les traitementsindiqués et fondés sur les preuves sont effectués de façoncorrecte et en temps utile. En dépit des données apportéesdepuis vingt ans par les essais cliniques, de nombreuxétablissements ne satisfont toujours pas à cet objectif. Celatient probablement tout à la fois à l’imparfaite prise encompte des récentes recommandations dans la pratiquecourante et à la difficulté d’appliquer celles-ci à des patientsprésentant des troubles hémodynamiques complexes et demultiples pathologies associées. De plus, malgré les annéesconsacrées à la recherche clinique sur l’IC, de nombreusesquestions fondamentales demeurent encore sans réponse.De ce fait, les médecins doivent continuer à s’en remettreà leur jugement clinique pour traiter cette affection sirépandue.

Comme cela a été indiqué au début de ce rapport, lesrecommandations de prise en charge de l’IC formuléesconjointement par l’AHA et l’ACC ont été réactualisées en2009.5 Bien que, pour les patients atteints d’un SICA, lesdonnées factuelles soient peu nombreuses puisque la plupartdes propositions reposent sur les opinions consensuellesd’experts (niveau C), ces recommandations procurentnéanmoins des orientations aux praticiens assurant la prise encharge de ces patients lorsque, une fois leur état stabilisé,ils sont transférés du SAU vers un lit d’hôpital puis suivis enambulatoire.

Traitement hospitalier des SICALe traitement de l’œdème pulmonaire et des symptômes quien découlent constitue la pierre angulaire de la prise en chargedes SICA depuis plus de cinquante ans. L’œdème pulmonaire,même s’il est parfois difficile à apprécier, est un symptôme quitraduit l’élévation de la pression intra-auriculaire gauche.

Pour l’heure, les cliniciens ne disposent d’aucun moyensimple, économique, précis, fiable et non invasif d’évaluercette cible thérapeutique. Diverses approches ont étéexplorées, dont l’examen physique, l’échocardiographie, lecathétérisme de l’artère pulmonaire, l’implantation demoniteurs des paramètres hémodynamiques et l’impédancethoracique, mais leur intérêt dans la prise en charge desSICA s’est révélé limité.118–123 En outre, il n’existe pas demoyen fiable permettant de savoir quand le traitementdiurétique doit être mis en œuvre et quand il y a lieu del’interrompre avant que n’apparaissent des signes cliniquespatents tels qu’une dysfonction rénale ou une hypotension.

Morbidité et mortalité chez les patients hospitaliséspour SICASelon les données d’ADHERE et OPTIMIZE-HF,11,63 lerisque moyen de décès pendant l’hospitalisation pour unSICA serait de l’ordre de 4 %. Il semblerait que, chez lespatients hospitalisés pour un tel syndrome et qui relèvent del’administration de thérapeutiques vasoactives, le pronosticsoit plus péjoratif et le risque de décès plus élevé.9,124

Dans ADHERE,9 les patients auxquels il a été nécessaired’administrer des agents inotropes ont présenté un taux demortalité de 12 à 13 %. Les vasodilatateurs intraveineux ontdes effets hémodynamiques bénéfiques à court terme, maisleur impact sur la morbidité et la mortalité à long terme n’apas encore été clairement établi. Leur emploi a été corrélé avecun risque de décès de 4,7 % pour la trinitrine et de 7,1 % pourle nésiritide.9 Les facteurs contribuant à augmenter le risquede décès intrahospitalier sont l’âge avancé, une fréquencecardiaque élevée, l’hyponatrémie, l’hypotension, la dys-fonction systolique ventriculaire gauche, l’augmentation dela créatininémie, de l’azotémie et des taux de peptidesnatriurétiques ainsi que le SICA lui-même lorsqu’il constituele premier motif d’hospitalisation.9,34,63,125 L’augmentationdu taux de troponine cardiaque a également été rattachée à unrisque de décès intrahospitalier près de trois fois supérieur.126

Plusieurs pathologies associées contribuent, par ailleurs,à augmenter la mortalité intrahospitalière. Il s’agit desaffections hépatiques, des antécédents d’événementsvasculaires cérébraux, des artériopathies périphériques etdes bronchopneumopathies chroniques obstructives. Lesfacteurs tendant à rendre le pronostic intrahospitalier plusfavorable sont l’admission pour un premier épisode de SICAet l’instauration d’un traitement par IEC ou bêtabloquantantérieurement à l’hospitalisation.63

Opportunité de la sortie d’hôpitalLes taux de morbidité et de mortalité dans les 60 à 90 joursqui suivent la sortie d’hôpital sont loin d’être négligeablespuisque, chez les patients ayant fait l’objet d’un suivi dansle cadre de l’essai OPTIMIZE-HF, le pourcentage de décèsa atteint 8,6 % et le taux de réhospitalisation 29,6 %.127 Il fautajouter à cela que, parmi les patients affiliés à Medicare (lesystème d’assurance-santé géré par le gouvernement desEtats-Unis), l’IC est la plus fréquente des causes de réadmis-sion dans les 30 jours faisant suite à la sortie d’hôpital et ce,indépendamment de l’événement ayant motivé la précédentehospitalisation.95 Pour abaisser le plus possible l’incidence

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des événements après sortie d’hôpital, il convient donc derechercher avec soin les facteurs à l’origine du SICA afin de lesprendre en charge. L’identification, pendant l’hospitalisation,des causes réversibles telles qu’une maladie coronaire ou unedysfonction valvulaire peut contribuer à raccourcir la duréede séjour et à limiter la morbidité et la mortalité après la sortied’hôpital. Cela étant, on ne dispose pour l’heure d’aucuncritère permettant de porter un jugement précoce, objectifet sans risque sur les conditions d’hospitalisation. Lesactuelles recommandations en matière de prise en charge desSICA en SAU et d’orientation des patients hospitalisésne reposent que sur un nombre restreint de donnéesempiriques.64,110,128,129 Il en résulte une grande incertitudeclinique quant au traitement à mettre en œuvre pendantla phase aiguë et aux critères sur lesquels s’appuyer pourenvisager sans risque la sortie d’hôpital des patients. Dans lamajorité des cas, celle-ci est décidée après la disparition dessymptômes aigus, sous réserve que le patient ne présentepas d’éléments témoignant d’un haut risque, tels qu’uneaggravation de sa fonction rénale, une hypotension ou destaux élevés de troponines.

Malgré les problèmes que pose la prise en charge aiguëdes SICA, il existe de solides données démontrant l’impactbénéfique du traitement médical de l’IC classiquementfondé sur les IEC, les antagonistes des récepteurs à l’angio-tensine II, les bêtabloquants et les antialdostérones sélectifs.L’instauration précoce d’un tel traitement, avant même lasortie d’hôpital et en ajustant les doses comme il convient,améliore les symptômes, réduit le nombre d’hospitalisationset permet de sauver des vies. Néanmoins, ces thérapeutiquesdemeurent sous-utilisées82 et différents paramètres couram-ment employés pour juger du niveau de performance descentres médicaux ne font apparaître aucune améliorationdes résultats cliniques.130 La mise en œuvre de programmesdestinés à augmenter les niveaux de performance serait toute-fois en mesure d’améliorer le degré de recours à des pratiquesmédicales optimales.131

Dès lors que l’épisode de SICA est jugulé, les théra-peutiques fondées sur les recommandations sont instauréeset le patient est préparé en vue de sa sortie d’hôpital. Desconsidérations en rapport avec les impératifs financiers, lasanté, la sécurité et la disponibilité des moyens pèsent dans lesens d’une durée d’hospitalisation la plus courte possible, denombreux indicateurs de performance étant fondés sur unséjour d’une durée maximale de 3 à 4 jours, bien que la duréemoyenne ait été de 4 à 5 jours dans le registre OPTIMIZE-HF.63 Il y a un équilibre à trouver entre des soins efficacesprodigués dans les temps et une prise en charge conduisant àune sortie prématurée sanctionnée par une réhospitalisationrapide. Les patients qui quittent l’hôpital alors qu’ils pré-sentent encore des symptômes liés à leur SICA encourent unrisque majoré de nouvelle décompensation ou d’événementsautres et, notamment, de décès peu après leur sortie.127

Compte tenu du risque élevé de SICA récidivant, il peut êtrebénéfique d’opérer une transition planifiée vers les soinsambulatoires sous couvert d’une surveillance étroite parun centre de traitement de l’IC ou par un cardiologue. Ceprocessus doit débuter par une éducation du patientpréalablement à sa sortie d’hôpital. Il a été démontré que ne

serait-ce qu’une heure de pédagogie sur le SICA assurée parun infirmier éducateur améliore les résultats cliniques,augmente la part personnelle que le patient prend en charge etdiminue les coûts.132 La forme optimale que doit revêtir cesuivi de la prise en charge reste à définir, mais au nombre desapproches ayant fait la preuve de leur efficacité figurent laprogrammation de rendez-vous en consultations externesdans les jours qui suivent la sortie d’hôpital, le suivi par uneinfirmière par téléphone ou au domicile du patient, lapoursuite de la prise en charge dans un centre de traitement del’IC, la surveillance des signes vitaux, du poids corporel et dessymptômes du patient à son domicile au moyen d’un appareilde télémétrie et, éventuellement, des moyens plus sophistiquéstels que l’enregistrement des paramètres hémodynamiques etdu rythme cardiaque.133–136

L’après-sortie d’hôpital : surveillance continue etprévention des réhospitalisationsLes patients atteints d’IC chronique demeurent exposés à unimportant risque de complications et de décès en dépit del’arsenal thérapeutique existant. Ces risques peuvent êtresous-estimés non seulement par le patient lui-même, maisaussi par son médecin traitant, d’où l’utilité de disposer deméthodes d’évaluation objective des risques et du pronostic.Autrefois, de tels instruments pronostiques étaient principale-ment employés pour déterminer le moment optimal d’unetransplantation cardiaque chez les patients ambulatoires declasse III de la New York Heart Association. Plusieursmodèles multivariés d’évaluation du pronostic ont toutefoisété développés afin de mieux définir le risque encouru par unpatient. Le Heart Failure Survival Score (score de survie dansl’insuffisance cardiaque), qui prend en compte la consomma-tion maximale en oxygène (VO2 max), la fréquence cardiaque,la pression artérielle moyenne, la présence ou l’absence d’unemaladie coronaire, les troubles de la conduction inter-ventriculaire, la natrémie et la fraction d’éjection, permet declasser les patients comme étant exposés à un risque faible,intermédiaire ou élevé de décès dans l’année si une greffecardiaque n’est pas rapidement pratiquée.137 Le modèled’insuffisance cardiaque de Seattle prend en compte demultiples paramètres et permet, à l’aide d’un calculateur enligne, d’estimer les risques de décès à un, deux et trois ansen fonction du statut clinique et des interventions médicalespratiquées.138 Un score d’épreuve d’effort cardiopulmonairea été également élaboré, qui prend en considération nonseulement la VO2 max, mais aussi la courbe V /V2, le tauxde CO2 de fin d’expiration au repos et la courbe d’efficience dela captation d’oxygène dans un modèle multivarié destinéà estimer les risques à un an de décès, de transplantation,d’implantation d’un système d’assistance ventriculaire et deréhospitalisation pour SICA.139

La réhospitalisation d’un patient atteint d’IC chroniquemarque une aggravation de son état clinique qui a probable-ment une incidence pronostique.140,141 C’est aussi l’occasiond’étudier les changements intervenus dans le cours de lamaladie, notamment du fait de facteurs tels qu’un trouble durythme cardiaque et d’affections concomitantes telles qu’unepneumopathie,76 de revoir le protocole thérapeutique afind’assurer une prise en charge optimale, éventuellement

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par l’emploi de dispositifs médicaux, et d’évaluer le degréd’observance du patient, le soutien que lui apporte sonentourage et la qualité de sa rééducation. Divers facteursayant un impact défavorable doivent être recherchés :infections pulmonaires, angor, hypertension artérielle,trouble du rythme cardiaque, non-observance du traitementmédicamenteux et/ou des consignes diététiques et autresproblèmes médicaux non cardiaques.142–144 Chez les patientsâgés, les facteurs prédictifs de réhospitalisation sontl’hospitalisation pour IC au cours de l’année écoulée, lediabète et une créatininémie supérieure à 2,5 mg/dl.127,145

La prise de poids après la sortie d’hôpital est égalementprédictive d’hospitalisation pour un nouvel épisode deSICA.146 Lorsqu’un patient doit être réhospitalisé pourson IC, cela peut, en outre, signifier qu’il n’a pas été correcte-ment traité lors de sa précédente hospitalisation pour unSICA.147,148

Prise en charge multidisciplinaire del’insuffisance cardiaque

Nécessité d’une expérience approfondie del’éducation des patients et de la prévention desrécidives : rôle du personnel infirmier spécialisé,des diététiciennes et des pharmaciensLes diététiciennes, les pharmaciens, les infirmiers etinfirmières de base, de catégorie spécialisée et praticien(ne)s[NdT : ces deux dernières qualifications, respectivementdésignées en anglais par advanced practice nurse et nursepractitioner, sont spécifiques aux Etats-Unis et au Canada]jouent tous un rôle clé dans la sensibilisation des patientsinsuffisants cardiaques hospitalisés et de leurs proches àl’importance de l’adhésion au traitement médicamenteux,de la restriction hydrosodée, de l’arrêt du tabac et des soinsauto-administrés.149–152 L’éducation du patient hospitalisédébute dans le SAU,153 car c’est là que sa « réceptivité » estpeut-être la plus élevée,154 et doit être poursuivie jusqu’à sasortie d’hôpital.152 Bien qu’elle ait été engagée dans le cadred’une hospitalisation, cette démarche d’éducation et deconseil doit également être mise en application lors desconsultations de suivi du patient. Les indicateurs de perfor-mance de la Joint Commission (commission paritaire) stipulentque, avant de quitter l’hôpital pour rentrer chez lui, toutpatient insuffisant cardiaque doit recevoir des instructionsécrites complètes ou tout autre matériel éducatif décrivant leniveau d’activité physique à observer, le régime alimentaire,les médicaments qu’il y a lieu de prendre, les consultations desuivi, le contrôle du poids corporel ainsi que ce qu’il convientde faire en cas d’aggravation des symptômes.155 Bien qu’ellesoit obligatoire, la délivrance de telles informations à la sortied’hôpital ne semble pas pouvoir remplacer l’enseignement desgestes et des comportements que le patient doit être à mêmed’effectuer pour prendre en charge sa maladie,156 ce qui estessentiel à l’optimisation du pronostic clinique.157

Les personnes impliquées dans ce rôle d’éducation doiventactivement encourager les patients, leurs proches et ceux quiassurent les soins primaires à reconnaître et pallier tout cequi fait obstacle à une bonne prise en charge du patient parlui-même, comme, par exemple, un manque de motivation, un

protocole médicamenteux complexe, un trouble cognitif, desconditions socio-économiques médiocres, un faible niveaud’instruction ou un soutien familial et social insuffisant,157,158

cela afin de favoriser l’auto-administration des soins et deréduire le risque de récidive.152 A cette fin, le personnelinfirmier de catégorie spécialisée (ICS), intégré à une équipemultidisciplinaire, se doit de promouvoir des soins intégrésfondés sur les preuves qui prennent en compte la famille,l’environnement et la manière dont le patient réagit à la santéet à la maladie.159 Les approches opérées par les ICS pouraméliorer la part prise par le patient insuffisant cardiaquedans l’administration de ses soins au cours de son hospitalisa-tion consistent à lui rendre visite quotidiennement, à évaluerla connaissance que lui-même et ses proches ont de samaladie, à collaborer avec l’équipe soignante et la famille et àévaluer les capacités et les méthodes d’apprentissage.160,161

Lorsqu’elle est couplée à des interventions de l’ICS visantà faciliter la planification de la sortie et la continuitédes soins au domicile du patient, cette série de mesurespermet de programmer une sortie d’hôpital dans desconditions optimales, améliore la relation patient-soignantet diminue le taux de réhospitalisation, les coûts moyenset les complications ultérieures.160,161

Comment faire évoluer les conceptions : aspectsà privilégier dans les futures recherches

Concevoir de nouveaux instruments diagnostiquesL’avènement du dosage des peptides natriurétiques abouleversé l’approche diagnostique des SICA, car il aintroduit de l’objectivité à ce qui, jusqu’alors, n’était qu’unedémarche empirique.28,31 Néanmoins, ces marqueurs bio-logiques présentent certaines limites. Etant donné qu’ils sontlibérés en réponse à toute forme de stress des cardiomyocytesquelle qu’en soit la cause sous-jacente, ils ne possèdent pas laspécificité requise pour pouvoir être considérés comme desindicateurs absolus de l’existence d’un SICA, même lorsqueleurs concentrations sériques dépassent les seuils diag-nostiques établis. Les taux décelables varient fortement selonl’âge,162 le sexe,163 la morphologie du sujet,164 la fonctionrénale39,165 et le caractère plus ou moins brutal de l’apparitiondes symptômes,166 ce qui est source d’erreurs de diagnosticet, dans les études cliniques, d’un biais de classification.Certains auteurs ont récemment suggéré qu’il serait possibled’augmenter l’utilité des peptides natriurétiques en considé-rant les valeurs mesurées comme des variables continuesplutôt que discontinues167 ; l’amélioration apportée par cetteapproche demande toutefois à être validée de manièreindépendante.168,169

Une des priorités demeure la recherche d’instrumentssupplémentaires à même d’améliorer l’exactitude diagnostiquechez les patients présentant une dyspnée dénuée de spécificitéet une suspicion de SICA. Une grande partie des effortsdéployés dans ce sens a porté sur l’identification de nouveauxbiomarqueurs sériques permettant d’évaluer l’activité desneuromédiateurs, l’inflammation systémique, la compositionde la matrice extracellulaire, le stress oxydatif et métaboliqueau niveau infracellulaire ou les lésions aiguës cardiaques etrénales. Toutefois, à la différence des peptides natriurétiques,

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peu de ces marqueurs biologiques ont fait l’objet d’étudesrigoureuses dans le cadre de manifestations aiguës, de sorteque leur rôle clinique prospectif est mal établi, si tant est qu’ilsen aient un. D’autres études ont été menées pour estimerla valeur diagnostique tant indépendante qu’additionnelled’approches telles que la détection électronique d’un troisièmebruit du cœur (B3) par cardiographie acoustique,170–172 ladétermination non invasive du profil hémodynamique parcardiographie d’impédance,173,174 l’échographie thoracique aulit du malade, en vue d’estimer l’accumulation liquidiennedans les tissus interstitiels pulmonaires,175–177 ou encore lacapnométrie quantitative,178 mais leur apport comparative-ment aux moyens déjà existants s’est révélé négligeable. Demême, la réponse cardiovasculaire à la manœuvre de Valsalvaa été proposée comme autre méthode d’évaluation despressions de remplissage ventriculaire et de la volémie,179,180

mais son intérêt pour la prise en charge des SICA n’a pas étéformellement démontré.

Bien que souvent négligée, la recherche de nouveaux outilsdiagnostiques est gênée par l’absence de consensus sur lescritères de diagnostic d’un SICA. Dans la plupart des étudesmenées jusqu’ici, les investigateurs se sont appuyés sur desnormes fixées rétrospectivement à partir de divers critères ousur des analyses réalisées en aveugle par des cardiologues, lesdésaccords entre ces derniers (portant sur quelque 10 % decas) étant résolus par un comité d’experts. Bien que pratique,cette approche n’est pas optimale et peut conduire à fausserl’appréciation du niveau de performance réel de la méthode.L’approche diagnostique de choix, à savoir le cathétérismede l’artère pulmonaire, n’est simplement pas réalisableen SAU et, compte tenu de son rapport bénéfice/risquedéfavorable,118,123 ne peut raisonnablement être envisagéecomme modalité de prise en charge routinière des patientsatteints d’un SICA ni même à des fins de recherche. Lestechniques non invasives qui, telle la cardiographied’impédance, peuvent être utilisées en lieu et place ducathétérisme de l’artère pulmonaire n’ont pas fait preuved’un degré de corrélation suffisant pour l’étude des pressionsde remplissage ventriculaire gauche174 et leurs résultatsmanquent de fiabilité chez les patients présentant une dyspnéesévère ou une hypersudation. L’IRM cardiaque est unetechnique émergente à même de fournir des informationsdiagnostiques objectives sur l’anatomie, la contractilité etla perfusion cardiaques tout en permettant l’évaluation depossibles lésions myocardiques aiguës et de la viabilité destissus résiduels.181 De par ces qualités, l’IRM cardiaquedevrait être appelée à un bel avenir en tant que méthoded’exploration objective des patients atteints d’un SICA. Pourl’heure, elle ne trouve toutefois qu’une utilisation limitéeen raison de ses frais d’acquisition élevés, de ses exigencestechniques, de sa faible diffusion et de la difficulté demaintenir des patients fortement dyspnéiques en décubituspendant un temps prolongé.

L’échocardiographie peut apporter quantité de renseigne-ments sur la structure et la fonction du muscle cardiaque, cequi la fait considérer comme un élément essentiel du bilanà effectuer face à une suspicion de SICA.182,183 Cet examenpermet également de classer les patients en fonction dessous-catégories classiquement fondées sur la fraction

d’éjection ventriculaire gauche (c’est-à-dire selon que celle-ciest conservée ou diminuée) et peut apporter d’importantesinformations sur le statut volémique par l’évaluation desdimensions et des modifications de taille de la veine caveinférieure.184–187 Bien qu’elles ne figurent pas parmi les normesfondées sur des critères, les données échocardiographiquestémoignant de l’existence d’une dysfonction systolique oudiastolique peuvent être hautement suggestives d’un SICA,lorsque le contexte clinique est concordant. Les informationsfournies par l’échocardiographie constituent d’ailleurs unélément fondamental du diagnostic standard servant de baseaux essais diagnostiques sur le SICA. De plus, l’IC avecconservation de la fonction systolique (ICCFS) est laforme prédominante, impliquée dans environ 50 % deshospitalisations pour SICA. La mortalité intrahospitalièresemble être légèrement plus faible (3 % dans OPTIMIZE-HFet 2,8 % dans ADHERE) que chez les patients présentant unedysfonction systolique ventriculaire gauche. Les duréesd’hospitalisation et les taux de réhospitalisation sontsimilaires.11,188 Il y aurait lieu d’inclure des patients atteintsd’un SICA sur fond d’ICCFS et d’étudier plus précisémentleurs caractéristiques afin d’étoffer le socle de preuves surlequel repose la pratique clinique.

Malgré l’intérêt avéré que présente l’échocardiographiepour le diagnostic des SICA, il est rare que cet examen puisseêtre pratiqué en SAU en dehors d’un jour de semaine et dansla journée. Les raisons à cela sont variables, mais, de fait,la plupart des hôpitaux ne disposent pas des moyens et despersonnels nécessaires. Cela étant, au cours des dix dernièresannées, la capacité des équipes travaillant en SAU à pratiquerdes échographies en urgence a rapidement progressé. Posséderles notions de base est désormais considéré comme unecompétence indispensable à tout interne spécialisé enmédecine d’urgence. De ce fait, le personnel soignant des SAUporte un intérêt de plus en plus grand aux possibilités qu’offreune exploration échocardiographique sommaire face à unpatient présentant une suspicion de SICA. De précédentesétudes ont montré que, après une brève période de formationciblée, un médecin urgentiste est pleinement capable d’estimerla fraction d’éjection189 et d’effectuer une analyse Dopplerprécise du flux mitral,189,190 ce qui lui permet d’avoirrapidement une notion de la fonction cardiaque globale.L’acquisition d’une telle compétence permettrait : (a)d’assurer à chaque patient la prise en charge la mieux adaptée,(b) de connaître les caractéristiques structurales et fonction-nelles cardiaques préalablement à la mise en œuvre duprotocole thérapeutique et (c) d’avoir une meilleure con-naissance des formes cliniques du SICA.18 Lorsque l’examenest couplé à une échographie thoracique191 et à la mesuredu volume auriculaire gauche,192–194 il est possible d’avoirune estimation non invasive et en temps réel de la surchargeliquidienne pulmonaire dans la mesure où elle est corréléeavec la dysfonction cardiaque sous-jacente et avec la pressionde remplissage ventriculaire gauche aiguë. En interprétantles données en fonction de la pression artérielle mesurée ausein du SAU, qui est à la fois l’un des principaux élémentsétiologiques du SICA186,195–197 et un facteur ayant une inci-dence pronostique majeure,12,103 et en les confrontant, le caséchéant, aux informations fournies par les instruments de

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monitorage implantés, il peut être concevable de bâtir unestratégie de prise en charge fondée sur la prise en compte dutableau clinique.60,61

Elaborer de nouvelles approches thérapeutiquesSi l’on considère tout à la fois les progrès accomplis dans lacompréhension de la physiopathologie des SICA, les leçonstirées des essais cliniques dont les résultats ont été le plussouvent décevants (Tableau 2) et le taux élevé d’événementssurvenant après la sortie d’hôpital, on ne peut que reconnaîtrela nécessité de faire évoluer les méthodes et stratégies de priseen charge.198 Ces nouvelles approches devront reposer sur descritères de jugement pertinents, fondés sur le mécanismed’action et les objectifs de l’intervention thérapeutique. Ellesdevront, en outre, prendre en compte le caractère chrono-dépendant de la prise en charge des SICA, facteur dontl’impact n’a pas été pleinement étudié, contrairement à cequi a été fait pour les syndromes coronaires aigus (SCA). Lesdonnées d’études rétrospectives suggèrent que le délaid’instauration du traitement pourrait être important dans lesSICA, mais ce paramètre demande à être exploré de façonprospective afin de déterminer son influence sur les résultatscliniques.199–200 Il importe d’observer que, dans les essaiscliniques précédemment menés sur les SICA, la phase de priseen charge en SAU a été le plus souvent court-circuitée,l’inclusion des patients ayant été réalisée 24 à 48 heures aprèsleur admission. Il n’est donc pas exclu que, suivant lespropriétés pharmacodynamiques des médicaments adminis-trés, il puisse exister une fenêtre thérapeutique au-delà delaquelle leur efficacité apparente diminue. Cela pourrait êtreparticulièrement vrai de l’action sur la dyspnée, qui constitueun critère de jugement majeur dans les SICA.83,202 Dans lesactuels essais thérapeutiques menés pour apprécier l’effet destraitements sur la dyspnée, le délai d’inclusion des patients aété notablement raccourci de manière à étudier ces dernierspendant la période où les symptômes sont les plus sévères,c’est-à-dire lors de leur passage en SAU.202,203

Objectifs de la prise en charge en SAUBien que des données préliminaires tendent à indiquer qu’uneprompte prise en charge en SAU influe favorablement sur lestaux de morbidité et de mortalité intrahospitalières,200,201 il n’apas été clairement établi s’il en est de même quant à l’impactsur le pronostic à moyen terme, notamment sur le taux deréhospitalisation ou de décès à 30 à 60 jours. Après avoirjugulé les troubles constituant un risque vital immédiat,l’attitude actuelle des médecins de SAU consiste à rapidementse focaliser sur l’amélioration des symptômes, ce quidétermine les décisions thérapeutiques ultérieures. Dès lors,les objectifs à moyen terme deviennent une prioritésecondaire. Il est cependant possible que les modalités de priseen charge au sein du SAU aient une influence sur ces derniersaspects, en particulier si elles se soldent (1) par une inhibitionsuffisamment marquée d’un processus physiopathologiquequi contribuait activement à l’épisode de décompensationaiguë ou (2) par d’importants effets indésirables d’aval tels quedes lésions rénales ou myocardiques. Bien que peu de donnéessoient actuellement disponibles sur ces aspects, il apparaîtindispensable de comprendre de quelle manière le traitement

aigu retentit sur les fonctions cardiaque et rénale sous-jacenteset sur les paramètres hémodynamiques si l’on veut être enmesure de concevoir une stratégie de prise en charge des SICAplus progressive et fondée sur les résultats attendus.

Caractérisation des patientsPour pouvoir mieux orienter les futures recherches, il y a lieud’acquérir une connaissance plus complète des caractéris-tiques des patients au moment de leur admission ainsi que deleur réponse aux présentes modalités de prise en charge. Lesprofils cliniques établis à ce jour reposent pour une large partsur les données issues de registres de patients hospitalisés,204–206

mais ces derniers ne contiennent pas les importantes informa-tions sur la fonction cardiaque aiguë qu’il est possible derecueillir en pratiquant une échocardiographie ciblée au litdu malade, pas plus qu’ils ne renseignent sur les réponsesimmédiates et à court terme induites par le traitementstandard instauré en SAU. De ce fait, on connaît mall’histoire naturelle des patients admis pour un SICA. Nousavons besoin de disposer de données cliniques, biologiqueset neurohormonales complètes depuis l’arrivée du patient enSAU jusqu’à la période faisant suite à sa sortie d’hôpital.Si l’on était en mesure de constituer une base de donnéesobservationnelles prospectives prenant en compte cesparamètres et d’identifier de nouveaux biomarqueurs deslésions causées au niveau cardiaque et rénal, cela permettraitde combler cette lacune et d’améliorer notablement notreconnaissance actuelle des SICA. Les informations ainsiacquises pourraient alors être mises à profit pour définir desprofils cliniques et orienter la prise en charge à court terme(Tableau 3).4,21 C’est ainsi que, chez un patient présentant unprofil hypertensif, il pourrait être envisagé d’administrer lesdérivés nitrés à doses comparativement plus élevées que lesdiurétiques ou que, chez un sujet réfractaire aux diurétiques, ilpourrait être décidé de recourir à la dialyse.207,208 A l’inverse,les agents inotropes seraient réservés aux cas plus rares d’ICévoluée et à faible débit. Plusieurs profils différents ont étédéfinis en vue d’un futur classement en sous-catégories.5,21 LaSociété européenne de cardiologie66 propose de classer lespatients en six catégories qui se chevauchent : (1) aggravationou décompensation d’une IC chronique, (2) œdème pulmo-naire cardiogénique, (3) SICA hypertensif, (4) choc cardio-génique, (5) IC droite isolée et (6) SICA associé à un SCA.66

Bien que les objectifs de traitement en fonction de chacunede ces formes cliniques ne soient pas encore parfaitementdéfinis, un faisceau croissant de données tend à indiquerqu’il y a lieu d’éviter l’apparition d’une hypotension et d’unetachycardie et ce, tout particulièrement chez les patientscoronariens.209,210 Cela étant, avant que cette stratégie detraitement fondée sur le profil clinique puisse être appliquéeà large échelle, des études devront être menées pour déter-miner si elle contribue à améliorer les résultats à court ou longterme comparativement aux actuelles modalités de priseen charge.

Surtout, les profils cliniques peuvent ne pas tenir compte dusubstrat ou du fondement étiologique de l’IC chronique dupatient. Ainsi, un profil clinique couramment observé estreprésenté par l’IC sur fond d’hypertension artérielle, maisla prise en considération de la présence ou de l’absence de

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Tableau 2. Synopsis des essais cliniques menés sur les SICA au cours des dix dernières années

dysfonction systolique ou de maladie coronaire contribuerait-elle à affiner la prise en charge ? Certains ont récemmentproposé de classer les patients en fonction des stades d’IC

définis par l’ACC et l’AHA (Tableau 4).5,211 Ces stadesprennent effectivement en compte le substrat sous-jacent etconduisent à envisager diverses options et considérations

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Tableau 3. Tableaux cliniques présentés par les patients admis en service d’urgences pour un SICA

thérapeutiques, mais on ignore si cela présente un intérêt à laphase précoce de la prise en charge. De plus, il n’est pascertain que des données échocardiographiques détaillées sur

la structure et la fonction cardiaques puissent être recueillieschez tous les patients, ce qui limite cette utilisation des stadesd’IC en vue d’orienter le traitement.

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Concevoir une nouvelle stratification des risques :ce qui fait défaut, ce sont les marqueurs de faiblerisque et non ceux de risque élevéComme par le passé, des études continuent à être menéespour identifier les marqueurs de haut risque corrélés avecla survenue d’événements défavorables. La motivation récur-rente est claire : l’hypotension, l’hyponatrémie, la dysfonctionrénale, l’élévation des taux de troponines et celle des peptidesnatriurétiques sont autant de facteurs ayant une valeur pro-nostique péjorative.12,31,34,103,104,107,126,142,212,213 Malheureusement,ces marqueurs de haut risque n’ont que rarement un impactsur les décisions immédiates, surtout lorsqu’ils sont prédictifsd’événements susceptibles de se produire 6 à 12 mois plustard. Même s’il est vrai que ces marqueurs permettent dedépister les patients exposés à un risque d’événements futurs,quelle influence cela a-t-il sur les décisions ayant trait àl’orientation des patients ? Lorsque le risque n’est pasimmédiat (c’est-à-dire ne sous-tendant pas la survenue decomplications ou du décès pendant l’hospitalisation), de telsmarqueurs ne présentent que peu d’intérêt pour le choix destraitements aigus ou de la structure dans laquelle le patientsera hospitalisé. En d’autres termes, sachant que, à l’heureactuelle, les médecins de SAU ont déjà pour attituded’hospitaliser quatre patients atteints de SICA sur cinq,la prise en compte des marqueurs de haut risque est-ellevraiment de nature à modifier les pratiques ? La connaissancede ces données peut inciter à instaurer un traitement desauvetage par bêtabloquant ou IEC avant même la sortied’hôpital, mais cela aurait uniquement pour effet de modifierles risques à moyen et long termes.

Par essence, l’absence de marqueurs de haut risquen’implique pas, par défaut, que le patient n’encoure qu’unfaible risque. Or, pour l’heure, on ne sait pas très bien quelleest l’attitude à tenir chez ces très nombreux patients neprésentant pas de caractéristiques à haut risque (c’est-à-direchez lesquels les taux de troponines, la natrémie et la fonctionrénale sont normaux). Peuvent-ils sans risque être renvoyésdirectement chez eux après leur passage en SAU ou convient-ilde les transférer en unité d’hospitalisation de très courtedurée ? Que faire lorsque la personne a une couverture socialeinsuffisante ou ne peut bénéficier d’un suivi ambulatoireapproprié ? Ces dix dernières années, les marqueursbiologiques se sont imposés comme des instruments efficacesde stratification des patients atteints d’un SICA et peuventêtre utilisables, à des degrés variables, pour estimer le risqueimmédiat ou à court terme. Selon Morrow et de Lemos, pourque le dosage d’un biomarqueur ait une utilité clinique, il doitsatisfaire aux trois critères suivants : (1) conserver son

Tableau 4. Stades de l’insuffisance cardiaque selon l’ACC/AHA

pouvoir discriminant lors de la répétition des mesures etêtre disponible à un prix raisonnable, (2) apporter desinformations qu’une évaluation clinique soigneuse n’avait paspermis d’obtenir et (3) aider à la prise de décision grâce àla connaissance du taux mesuré.214 Des millions de dollarssont dépensés et de nombreux articles publiés pour tenter dedélimiter les critères 1 et 2 ; pour autant, dès lors que 80 % despatients sont finalement hospitalisés, force est de constaterque, parmi les biomarqueurs pronostiques des SICA, raressont ceux, s’il en est, qui satisfont au troisième critère entermes de stratification des risques. Il est donc nécessaire detrouver des marqueurs sensibles, pertinents et dont le rapportde vraisemblance négatif est puissant afin de pouvoiridentifier les patients qui sont réellement exposés à un faiblerisque de complications et peuvent donc être renvoyés sansdanger à leur domicile.

Les instruments prédictifs pourraient être la réponseAlors que médecins et personnel infirmier sont à même deprévoir avec une bonne exactitude si un patient est appeléà décéder après sa sortie d’hôpital, ils ne font preuve qued’une faible capacité d’appréhension des autres paramètrespronostiques tels que le risque de réhospitalisationultérieure.215 Eu égard à l’hétérogénéité de la populationdes patients atteints de SICA, il y a peu de chances qu’unmarqueur biologique puisse supplanter tous les autres aupoint d’être retenu comme seul critère d’appréciation del’opportunité de la sortie d’hôpital. L’utilisation d’instru-ments prédictifs constitue l’approche la plus envisageablepour déterminer valablement si un patient hospitalisé pour unSICA est à faible risque. La « prise de décision médicale » estla science consistant à analyser statistiquement des donnéescliniques détaillées en vue de concevoir des modèles mathé-matiques ou des instruments prédictifs sur lesquels s’appuyerpour élaborer la prise en charge clinique la mieux adaptéechez des patients atteints de pathologies complexes.216–219

Parce qu’ils prennent en compte des facteurs généralementnégligés, tels que le statut socio-économique et la possibilitéd’accès aux soins, ces instruments prédictifs peuvent réduire lamarge d’erreur et augmenter la probabilité pour que lesmédecins parviennent à identifier avec succès les patients quisont réellement à faible risque. Dans la mesure où de telsinstruments sont censés faciliter les décisions cliniques etnon se substituer à elles, ils peuvent compléter l’approchegestaltiste sur laquelle les médecins s’appuient fréquemmentdans leur prise en charge des patients en confortant (ouinfirmant) leur sentiment quant à la stabilité du statutambulatoire. Hsieh et al ont récemment publié un articleillustrant l’utilité potentielle d’un instrument prédictif chez lespatients atteints de SICA. Ces auteurs ont effectué uneanalyse rétrospective à partir d’une base de données adminis-trative afin de développer et valider un modèle prédictif dontla mise en application leur a permis d’identifier 19,2 % depatients ayant présenté un SICA et dont le risque d’événementdéfavorable à 30 jours était faible.109 Les facteurs prédictifsde risque pris en compte par le modèle validé étaient lessignes vitaux, la fonction rénale, le taux de leucocytes etla glycémie. Peu d’événements ont été enregistrés dans lacohorte à faible risque, les taux de mortalité intrahospitalière,

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de complications intrahospitalières et de décès à 30 joursayant été de, respectivement, 0,7 %, 1,7 % et 2,9 %.

En dépit de ces résultats, nous sommes en manque d’unmodèle de stratification des niveaux de risque en SAU forgé àpartir d’une étude prospective multicentrique chez les patientsprésentant des signes et symptômes d’IC. Certaines donnéessuggèrent que les médecins urgentistes se montreraient enclinsà laisser sortir un patient dès lors que son risque globalcombiné de complications intrahospitalières et de décès à 30jours serait inférieur à 2 %.220 Des études prospectives portantsur les données recueillies en SAU sont nécessaires pourconfirmer les résultats préliminaires et permettre undépart précoce et en toute sécurité des patients pris en chargedans ces structures. Cette stratégie, qui fait actuellementl’objet de deux études financées par le National Heart, Lung,and Blood Institute et dont les investigateurs sont desmédecins urgentistes,223 a fait la preuve de son efficacités’agissant de diminuer sans risque le taux d’hospitalisationdes patients à faible risque présentant d’autres types depathologies, tels qu’un syndrome coronaire aigu222–224 ouune pneumopathie acquise en milieu communautaire.225–227

Cela a pour corollaire la nécessité de modifier les critères destratification des risques, en laissant de côté l’estimation durisque de survenue d’événements à long terme (c’est-à-dire,par exemple, à 90 jours ou à un an), qui est hautementdépendant des modalités de prise en charge subaiguë etchronique ainsi que du comportement du patient, au profit deceux qui surviennent plus tôt (c’est-à-dire dans les 14 jours) etsont davantage susceptibles d’être en rapport avec l’épisoded’IC aiguë présenté par le sujet.106,142,145,228–232 De la mêmefaçon que, dans les syndromes coronaires aigus, il est procédéà des dosages répétés des taux de troponines ou à uneévaluation de la viabilité myocardique,224 la prise en comptede critères objectifs et factuels pour élaborer des modèlesprédictifs évolutifs apporterait, sur le risque à court terme,d’importantes informations qui pourraient, enfin, être mises àprofit en phase aiguë pour identifier les patients atteints d’unSICA dont il est possible d’envisager sans risque la sortieprécoce du SAU, de l’unité d’hospitalisation de très courtedurée et de l’hôpital.

Recrutement des patients atteints de SICA en SAUA l’évidence, de nombreuses questions demeurent sansréponse concernant la prise en charge des patients atteintsd’un SICA au sein des SAU. Nous avons besoin de recom-mandations fondées sur les preuves pour guider les décisionsen matière de diagnostic, de traitement et d’orientation de cespatients. Pour pouvoir mener les essais cliniques nécessairesà la constitution d’un socle de preuves satisfaisant, leschercheurs devront inclure les patients à un stade précocede la prise en charge de leur SICA, alors qu’ils sont toujoursen SAU. Certains considèrent ces structures comme desenvironnements trop chaotiques pour permettre de gérerl’évaluation des patients, le recueil de leur consentement etleur inclusion dans les conditions requises. Cela est souventconsidéré comme le principal obstacle à la réalisation d’essaiscliniques en SAU.3 Or, il apparaît que cette conceptionest largement erronée. Une planification soigneuse estindispensable afin que, une fois la sélection et l’inclusion

opérées en SAU, les patients soient confiés à une équipede recherche hospitalière qui assumera la charge de l’étude,éventuellement en collaboration avec le personnel du SAU.EMERG-HF (Emergency Management and Research Groupin Acute Heart Failure [groupe de prise en charge d’urgenceet d’étude de l’insuffisance cardiaque aiguë]) est une bonneillustration de ce travail d’équipe.3 Cette structure requiertgénéralement deux médecins ayant pour rôle de diriger uneéquipe interdisciplinaire composée de médecins urgentistes,de cardiologues, de personnel infirmier de recherche, decoordonnateurs d’étude et d’assistants de recherche clinique.L’équipe du SAU est non seulement chargée de la sélection, del’inclusion et de la randomisation des patients, mais aussi de laprise en charge initiale et du recueil des premières données.Bien que cela implique qu’un lit soit disponible, dès que lepatient est hospitalisé, sa prise en charge et la responsabilitéde l’étude sont transférées à l’équipe de cardiologie.

Selon l’infrastructure des départements de recherches, lesméthodes de sélection et d’inclusion des patients au sein desSAU peuvent légèrement différer. Une stratégie de recrute-ment d’un bon rapport coût/efficacité consiste à confier lasélection initiale aux assistants de recherche. Une fois que lepatient a franchi cette première procédure de tri, l’équipede recherche (c’est-à-dire un membre du personnel infirmieret/ou un médecin) entre en jeu pour parachever le processusde sélection, recueillir le consentement du patient et procéderà son inclusion. Une autre méthode consiste à déléguer lasélection et l’inclusion des patients à une infirmière derecherche. Cette approche est généralement utilisée lorsqueplusieurs protocoles d’étude sont menés simultanément ; celapermet à cette infirmière de mener les procédures de sélectionde plusieurs études à la fois et, ainsi, de multiplier aumaximum les occasions d’inclusion.

Un autre problème qu’il convient de considérer réside dansla capacité des patients à fournir leur consentement éclairé,car cela peut empêcher leur inclusion selon la sévérité del’affection aiguë dont ils sont atteints. Cet écueil peut toutefoisêtre surmonté en procédant à une planification correcteavant le lancement de l’étude. Ces dix dernières années, lesprocédures visant à satisfaire aux impératifs réglementairesont fait l’objet d’un examen rigoureux et sont désormais bienétablies.3,83,170,221 Dans des cas extrêmes, lorsque la capacité dedécision du patient est altérée à un point tel qu’il n’est pas enmesure de fournir son consentement éclairé, les médecinspeuvent être conduits à se dispenser de cette formalité.La dispense de consentement éclairé implique de consacrerd’importantes ressources pour recueillir un supportcommunautaire sur l’étude, mais permet d’inclure des patientsqui, sans cela, ne pourraient pas l’être.

Pour être fructueuse, l’inclusion de patients en SAU réclamela participation coordonnée des médecins, du personnelinfirmier et des assistants de recherche clinique œuvrant aussibien en médecine d’urgence qu’en cardiologie. La répartitiondes tâches et l’établissement d’une grille d’intervention enurgence des membres de l’équipe de recherche sont deuxmesures essentielles à la réussite. Leur mise au point exigesouvent plusieurs semaines de réunions avant que l’étudepuisse être lancée. Toutefois, une fois que l’infrastructure est enplace, elle peut facilement être adaptée d’un essai à un autre.

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Tableau 5. Comparaison des caractéristiques, des cibles physiopathologiqueset des niveaux de preuve de la prise en charge des patients selon qu’ilsprésentent un SCA ou un SICA

RésuméLe poids économique que l’IC et les SICA font peser sur lesystème de santé ne cesse d’augmenter. L’immense majoritédes patients hospitalisés pour un SICA est d’abord priseen charge en SAU. De ce fait, les médecins urgentistes sontdevenus les régulateurs de l’accès aux soins de ces patients.A l’évidence, de nombreuses questions demeurent encoresans réponse quant aux modalités optimales d’évaluation,de traitement et d’orientation des patients reçus dans lesSAU pour un SICA. Malgré les importants progrès salvateursaccomplis dans la prise en charge des patients atteintsd’IC chronique, si l’on excepte le dosage des peptidesnatriurétiques, aucune percée significative n’a été réalisée dansla gestion des SICA au cours des dernières décennies. En dépitde l’extrême hétérogénéité des tableaux cliniques, les optionsthérapeutiques proposées aux patients atteints d’un SICAn’ont quasiment pas évolué durant cette période ; le traite-ment d’un tel syndrome demeure essentiellement fondé surl’élimination hydrique par administration de diurétiquesintraveineux. Bien que cette mesure entraîne une améliorationprécoce et durable des symptômes chez la majorité despatients pris en charge en SAU, aucune évaluation rigoureusen’a été menée en phase aiguë pour juger de son retentissementsur les fonctions rénale et myocardique, sur les paramètreshémodynamiques et sur les résultats à court terme.

Plusieurs raisons peuvent éventuellement expliquer ledéfaut d’amélioration de la prise en charge des SICA etles résultats décevants des essais cliniques.3 Toutefois, unproblème commun à tous ces essais réside dans le faiblenombre de patients inclus lors de leur passage en SAU. Bienque, dans la grande majorité des cas, le traitement d’urgencesoit suivi d’une amélioration des symptômes en moins desix heures, la randomisation des patients dans les essaisthérapeutiques n’est généralement réalisée que bien plustard.83 Le traitement initial demeure largement négligé dansles protocoles d’études malgré son impact sur les symptômeset sa responsabilité potentielle dans la survenue d’événementsindésirables tels qu’une insuffisance rénale ou une hypo-tension.7,89–91 Les programmes de prise en charge ont étécentrés sur les patients à haut risque hospitalisés, mais n’ontnullement pris en compte ceux traités en SAU et qui peuventensuite être directement renvoyés à leur domicile, où lesdifficultés socio-économiques sont également connues pour

avoir une incidence majeure et être à l’origine d’un taux élevéde récidive à 30 jours.230,233

Les patients pris en charge en SAU ne sont pas inclus dansles essais menés sur les SICA en grande partie en raison d’unsentiment erroné selon lequel les médecins urgentistes neseraient pas en mesure d’effectuer de telles inclusions au toutdébut du traitement. En réalité, cela est tout à fait inexact. Cespraticiens ont fait la preuve de leur capacité à recruter despatients complexes dans divers essais thérapeutiques menéssur les SCA, les traumatismes majeurs, les accidents vascu-laires cérébraux ischémiques aigus, mais aussi, plus récemment,sur les SICA.72,203,234–236 Cette dynamique cruciale doit sepérenniser à travers des partenariats avec les cardiologues, demanière à garantir une continuité dans la gestion des essaiscliniques et une amélioration de la prise en charge des patientsatteints de SICA lors de leur hospitalisation après passage enSAU puis lorsqu’ils quittent l’hôpital. De telles collaborationsdoivent débuter au niveau local avant de s’étendre à la concep-tion et à la conduite des essais nationaux et internationaux.

Notre approche actuelle des SICA est identique à celle quenous avions à l’égard des SCA lorsque nous n’avions pasencore percé la physiopathologie de la circulation coronaire(Tableau 5). La connaissance que nous avons acquise de cettedernière, jointe aux essais interventionnels qui ont été menésen SAU sur les traitements thrombolytiques et l’angioplastie,s’est soldée par une nette amélioration du pronostic cliniquechez les patients hospitalisés.237–239 Notre attitude en matièrede diagnostic, de traitement et d’orientation des patients aconsidérablement changé au cours des vingt dernières années,de sorte que beaucoup de patients atteints de SCA à faiblerisque sont désormais explorés en SAU et rentrent ensuitechez eux directement ou après un bref séjour dans une unitéd’hospitalisation de très courte durée. Au vu de la complexitédes tableaux cliniques de SICA, la cible physiopathologiquene peut être que multifactorielle ; il nous faut néanmoinsadopter une approche systématique pour pouvoirappréhender l’interaction entre les décisions thérapeutiques etleur impact sur l’issue clinique. Alors que le nombre depatients atteints d’IC et de SICA ne cesse d’augmenter, il estimpératif que les essais thérapeutiques en cours et les straté-gies de prise en charge comblent les importantes lacunes quisubsistent encore dans notre connaissance du traitement desSICA si nous voulons pouvoir offrir aux patients des soinsfondés sur les preuves et améliorer les résultats cliniques.

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M : rapports scientifiques de l’AHA � traitements aigus �

diagnostic � médecine d’urgence � insuffisance cardiaque � résultatscliniques � pronostic � traitement

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