http://www.climatetemp.info/mauritania/ http://www.climatetemp.info/egypt/cairo.html

http://interfacelift.com/wallpaper_beta/details/1733/desert.html

http://veimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/6566/Egypt.A2004201.0830.1km.jpg

• The Nile dominated life in Ancient Egypt, controlling everything from commerce to agriculture and transportation. • With such little annual rainfall for the region, it was impossible for farmers to produce crops without the aid of the Nile. • The annual flooding of the Nile dictated the production of Egyptian fields. A low flooding season would result in crops dying of thirst. But if a high flooding season occurred the crops would drown. • Due to the dependence the civilizations placed upon it, the Nile played a large role within Ancient Egyptian culture:

• the three seasons of their calendar were based upon the cycles of the Nile

• Because the Nile is such a valuable resource, it has been the subject of many disputes amongst countries within the region. Most noticeably, an issue arose between Egypt and Sudan over who had the right to the Nile and its resources. The Nile Water Agreement (1929) was created as a result and in effect, unfairly gave Egypt overwhelming control over the Nile.

• This agreement was later revised to include the building of the High Aswan Dam (completed in 1970). • The Nile currently provides 95% of the water that Egyptians use on a daily basis.

• Within the Egyptian Delta, scientists have predicted that sea levels could rise by 50 centimeters (½ meter) by 2050 due to anthropogenic global warming. A sea level rise of this height would undoubtedly have adverse effects on Egypt and other countries that border the ocean. Within Egypt in particular, this increase in sea level would severely damage Egypt’s economy, infrastructure, tourism, and most importantly the ecosystem. • Approximately 40 % of the Egyptian population is situated along the coastal zone • As shown by the graphics to the left, this would submerge a large portion of the coastline. Cities such as Alexandria and Rosetta and other outlying areas of the Egyptian delta would be devastated by such a rise. The effects within such areas would result in the displacement of approximately 2 million people. This effect of displacing humans would take place all along the northern African coastline and would create a major economic, social, and political problems for Egypt and its bordering countries. • Most notably, the 2007 IPCC report named the Nile River Delta as one of the top three areas on Earth most vulnerable to a rise in sea levels.

Coastal Boundaries

Agriculture & Water Supply • A sea level rise would not only displace humans from their homes and threaten infrastructure. It would also introduce salt water from the Mediterranean Sea to the fresh water of the Nile River. This would create a major problem for Egypt as the Nile is the only source of fresh water in the country. All means of agriculture are dependent upon clean, fresh water and within Egypt approximately 30% of the labor force is employed within this sector. Any addition of salt to the Nile would change the ability of crops to grow and thrive within the region. • The Water supply would also be adversely effected as the Nile is the only source of fresh water in the region. A potential increase in

Temperature and Rainfall

temperature due to anthropogenic global warming would cause and increase in demand for water by not only Egypt, but also other countries that rely on the Nile such as Sudan and Ethiopia. The Nile River is originates from upstream basins that span the countries of Uganda, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo, and Sudan. This would mean that any change in usage of Nile resources would undoubtedly create political controversy amongst all countries that rely on the Nile.

Potential Energy Solutions

Climate Graph Comparison

http://lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/n_africa_mid_east_pol_95.jpg

• As noted above, an increase in temperature would create an increase in demand for water resources. This increase in demand would come at a time when the Nile could potentially lose a large amount of water due the increase in temperature and evaporation. In addition to this new stress on the Nile, rainfall in the region is also predicted to decrease.

• Scientist have recognized these potential crisis's and various research papers have listed actions that can be taken to combat climate change. • Coastal Boundaries: the creation of artificial sand dunes, underground drainage pipelines, and breakwaters along the coast, have been suggested to combat a rise in sea level • Agriculture and Water Supply: implement water conservation tactics such as drip

Climate Change Action

irrigation. It is also being suggested that new dams and catchments be created for water collection during flash floods. In addition to physical measures, it has been suggested that a public awareness campaign be launched to inform the public of a potential water shortage crisis and what personal actions can be taken to combat it.

• The High Aswam Dam is 111 Meters High • Consists of Twelve turbines used to generate electricity • Generates over 10 billion kilowatts of power every year • Gives Egyptian government the ability to regulate flooding and water level of Nile River • Enables larger ships to travel on the Nile due to ability to regulate flow and depth of the Nile • One disadvantage of the dam is that it blocks mud and sediment from traveling north. This is one reason the Egyptian delta is shrinking and becoming less fertile. (it is not getting any new sediment to build its banks)

The High Aswam Dam

Nile: http://www.touregypt.net/highdam.htm http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/aug/21/climate-change-nile-flooding-farming http://www.egyptianagriculture.com/structure.html Aswam Dam: http://kented.org.uk/ngfl/subjects/geography/rivers/River%20Articles/theaswanhighdam.htm

Coastal Zones: http://www.scidev.net/en/news/climate-change-in-egypt-to-force-millions-to-migr.html , http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/4/33330510.pdf Agriculture and Water Supply: http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=89418351, http://www.climate.org/topics/international-action/egypt.html, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/4/33330510.pdf Temperature and Rainfall: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/4/33330510.pdf Solar Energy Suggestion: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/jul/22/solarpower.windpower, http://solarpowerpanels.ws/solar-power/saharan-solar-power-to-provide-energy-for-europe,

http://www.livescience.com/php/multimedia/imagedisplay/img_display.php?pic=060720_sahara_map_02.jpg&cap=A+timeline+map+of+rainfall+and+human+occupancy+in+the+Sahara+Desert.+Credit%3A+%A9+Science

Desert Climate History: http://www.livescience.com/history/060720_sahara_rains.html, http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/pa/pa1327_full.html, http://www.old.uni-bayreuth.de/departments/geomorph/docs/Kroepelinetal_2008.pdf

• The Sahara Desert is an arid climate and is the largest desert in the world. • It covers the vast majority of Northern Africa, stretching approximately 3,000 miles from east to west. •  Essentially, the Sahara divides Africa in half, separating the countries that lie within it and north of it from those to the south. • It is an extreme climate, with recorded temperatures rising over 50˚C and often dropping below freezing at night. • The countries of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia, and Western Sahara are ether fully or partially covered by the Saharan Desert.

• However, the Sahara was not always the harsh, inhospitable landscape that it is today. As recently as 7,300 years ago, the Sahara was able to support elephants, crocodiles, many different species of fish and even humans. • This drastic change in climate was brought about by the appearance of monsoon rains over the region beginning about 10,500 years ago. (Map of annual rainfall and human settlements shown to the right) • These rains transformed the area from desert to grassland. • Scientists have found evidence of humans and animals living in the region in over 150 sites throughout the Sahara. •  In addition to this, satellites have discovered an ancient river bed within the Sahara (shown to the left)

The Nile River

The Sahara Today

The Sahara in the Past

• Due to anthropogenic climate change scientist and engineers have devised various ways to supply clean, renewable energy to consumers. • One possible solution that has been discussed is to construct a large solar panel field in the Saharan desert. • Early estimates predict that a solar array of around 500,000 km, a size that is a fraction of the actual size of the Sahara, could be used to provide power to all of Europe as well as North African countries. • Due to the severe consequences of climate change to coastal regions such as the Egyptian delta, one would think that Egypt would strongly support such a venture. Also, due to a potential increase in energy demand, Egypt would also benefit with addition energy production. • This project would have to be negotiated amongst all countries involved (North African and European) as it would be built on African soil that could traverse multiple African countries. • New advancements in electrical transportation open up possibilities such as a large solar array in the Sahara (across the Mediterranean Sea to Europe)

• The General Circulation of the Atmosphere: The Saharan desert is located along the latitude of 30 degrees due north of the equator, which is also called the Horse Latitudes. At this latitude, the North East trade winds are to the south, and the Westerlies are to the north. Because of these winds, it is along the 30 degree north latitude that there is convergence aloft and divergence below. Due to the divergence in winds a region around the globe where deserts can be found is created

Global Circulation

Saharan Desert Sandstorms

•Sandstorms are created when loose particles are blown off the top layer of the ground and saltate (move). As the particles rise and fall, the impact the ground, causing other particles to loosen. This process of impacts will continue until particles are suspended in the air, rather than falling back to the ground. Once the wind speed increases to a point where it can suspend particles, a sandstorm can be born. • The saltation of sand makes the sand particles become negatively charged. As a result of saltating, sands have an opposing charge to the ground and as a result, other particles begin to loosen. •Sandstorms have increased 10 times the amount since 1950. The past couple of years there has been an average of around 80 sandstorms per year. This, when compared to a year in the early 1960’s when there were only two documented sandstorms, is a significant increase. •Sandstorms do benefit the environment. A sandstorm contains vital ecological nutrients. As it is blown from the Sahara, it has the potential of traveling 5000 miles, from east to west, over the Atlantic. During the trip across the Atlantic, the traveling sandstorm acts as an atmospheric sunscreen and ocean fertilizer which stimulates growth in phytoplankton. The phytoplankton that benefit from the sandstorms also act as a stimulus of growth in other organisms of the ocean ecosystems. A sandstorm could continue towards South and Central America, depositing nutrients and aiding the quality of soil. Also, the sandstorm particles bounce heat back towards space to help mediate the earth’s temperature.

http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/09/23/2694096.htm, http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-2754(2001)2:26:22.0.CO;2-F&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage&cookieSet=1, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981STIN...8220388R, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/feb/13/science.environment, http://www.unccd.int/publicinfo/duststorms/part1-eng.pdf

http://www.phys.ncku.edu.tw/~astrolab/mirrors/apod/image/0003/feb26sandstorm_seawifs_big.jpg