agricultural extension in developing country

8/9/2019 Agricultural Extension in Developing Country

1/125

BLIOGRAPHY

'I

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSIONIN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

A BIBLIOGRAPHY

I-a

E XE NETHERLANDS/1968


2/125

Agricultural extension in th e developing countriesa bibliography


3/125

AG R IC U LT URAL EXTENSIONIN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

A BIBLIOGRAPHY

Compiled by:C. A. de Vries

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FORL A N D R E C L A M A T IO N A N D IM PR OV EM EN TW A G E N I N G E N / THE NETHERLANDS / 1968


4/125

Interna tional Institute for Land Reclam ation and ImprovementInstitut International pour l'Am6lioration et la Mise en Valeur des T er r e sInternationales Institut fU r Landgewinnung und Kultur technikInstituto Internacional de Recuperacion y Mejora t6cnica de Tie rr as

P. O. Box 45 1 Wageningen 1 Th e Netherlands


5/125

CONTENTS

Pa ge78

1 3222834394250586 16469747983838 589919597

104104110112115118121122

Pre fa c eGenera l works on agr icu ltu ral extension and community developmentDiffusion of innovations and adoption by farmersChange of behaviourTh e rol e of comm unicationChar ac te r i s t ic s of peasants and fa rm er sAgric ul tura l educat ion of f a r m e r sExtension personnel , ch arac teri s t ic s of agents , se lect io n and tra inin gMeans and methods of agricu l tural extensionDemonstrat ions and pilot fa rm sPilot projectsCommunity developmentThe Package ProgrammeRes ear ch and planning in agricu l tural extensionOrganization of extension servicesDescription of extension services:

Gene ral Europe and North Am ericaA s ia a nd the F a r Ea s tAfricaCentr al and South AmericaMethods of evaluation

Results of evaluationRelated sciences:

Ru ral sociology and soci al psychologyAgric ul tura l economyEducationAgricul tura l resear ch and extension

BibliographiesAbstracting journalsPer iodica ls


6/125

PREFACE

This bibliography is intended to se rv e in the f i r s t ins tance a l l those who a r echarged with the trai nin g and guiding of a gr icu ltu ral extension personnel in th edeveloping cou ntr ies in identifying so ur ce s of in forma tion that would help themin thei r job.fo r this purpose, but expe rienc es with agric ul tur al extension have been discusseds o frequently that it was not possible to include al l publications.the l i te ra tu re of re l a ted scien ces, dealing with subjec ts on agric ul tur al extension,is included.

An attempt has been made to include the most relevant publicationsA choice of

In gene ral , only l i t er at ur e in English, Fre nch and German, most ly publishedduring the last decade, has been mentioned.A ser iou s effort has been made to c lassify the publications under the appro pria teheadings, but the re ad er will understa nd that classifyin g often is a r b i t r a r y ,because m any publicat ions a r e covering two o r mor e top i c s.In making the annotations, us e has been made of the valuable knowledge gat he redin "Tro pical Abs tracts ' ' and in "World Agric ul tur al Economics and Ru ralSociology Abstracts" (WAERSA).Due acknowledgements in this res pec t a r e paid to the Ed itors of both abstract in gjourna ls , v iz . the Royal Tropic al Inst itute a t Amsterd am, and the Common-wealth Bureau of Agricultural Eco nomic s, Oxford, U . K.The author f ee ls indebted to D r . i r . A. W . van den Ban, Pr of es so r in ExtensionEducation at the Agr icul tu ral Universi ty in Wageningen (Netherlands) for hisadvice during the prep arat io n of this p aper .

7


7/125

GENERAL WORKS ON AGRICULTURAL EXTENSIONA N D COMM UNITY DEVELOPMENT

A d v i s o r y w ork in fa;m management. OECD, Documentation in agr icu ltu reand food no. 77, P a r i s , 1966. 195 pp.A R E N S B E R G , C . M . a n d A . H . N I E H O F F / In t roducingsocia lchange .A manual f o r Am erican s overs eas . Aldine Publishing Co, Chicago, 1964. 214 pp.

The wri ter s pres ent many aspect s of the subject and give numerous examplesof proje cts leading to fa i lu res o r to sa t isfaction.

A u s t r a l i a n Agr icu l tura l Extens ion Confe rence . Melbourne , 1962. 363 pp.B I D D L E ,lo ca l init iativ e. New York, 1965. 334 pp.

W . W . / The community development p roc ess ; the discovery ofA comprehensive textbook on community development.

C H A N G ,FAO, Bangkok, 1963. 186 pp .

C . W . / Extension education for ag r icult ura l and rur al development.The book gives the exper ience of the author p ar t icu lar ly in S. . As ia .Only extension pr inciples applicable in Asia and the F a r Eas t a re descr ibed,i l lus t ra ted wi th prac t ica l examples .

Id . / Increasing food production through education, r es ea rc hand extension. Fre edo m fro m Hunger Campaign, Basi c s tudy 9, FAO, Rome,1962. 78 pp.

Th is study, b ase d on known fac ts and agr eed conclusions of ex per ts, brieflyrevie ws agr ic ultu ra l education, res ea rc h and extension in the developingcount r ie s . A good coordinat ion of the se three c losely inter re la ted ser vic esis essentia l , and can best be obta ined when the thre e functions ar e underone administra t ion. In mo st countr ies , however, agr ic ultu ra l schools andcolleges ar e under a minist ry of education, while re se ar ch and extensiona r e under a min istry of agr i cultu re .not been successfu l. Th e development of agr icu ltu ral re se ar ch , educationand extension in developing countries is a m a t t e r of vi tal im por tance in themovement for incr easin g food production (Trop ical Ab stract s 1963 1969).

Secondary schools of Agriculture have

C o m m u n i t y development, a handbook. H. M. S . O . , Colon ial Office, London,1958. 84 pp.

8


8/125

A cle ar view of the methods which app eared to be useful to s t imu latedevelopment in th e l es s developed countries .

E N S M I N G E R , D . / A guide to community development. Rev.e d. ,New Delhi, 1957 .205 pp.

A textbook on community development adapted to th e circ um sta nce s in India.E x p e r i m e n t in extension. The Gaon Sabhi. Oxford Univ .Press , 1956. 240 pp.

A textbook grown out of actu al extension ex per ien ce in India, a s prac tise din the extension project , ca rr ie d on at the Allahabad Agr icul tu ral Inst i tute .This projec t is divided in thr ee parts : a pilot extension project in some400 vi l lages , a t ra in ing prog ram me for extension work ers and a programmefo r th e production of extension ma ter ial s.agent in the Allahabad Extension Project.

The Gaon Sabhi is the extension

F a r m management manual , for the use of a gricu l tural extension wo rke rs inAsia and the F a r East . FAO Reg. Off. Asia , Far E as t, Bangkok, 19 65. 131 pp.

This manual was drawn up as a model for mem ber cou nt r ies by a comm it teeset up at the fi rs t se ssi on of the FAO regional working party on F a r mManagement for Asia and the F a r Eas t in Japan, 1961, and was approvedin 1964.schooling and aim s to provide an sw ers to thre e main quest ions: 1. Why issuch a manual needed. 2 . What a r e fa rm management p rogr amm es underextension. 3 . How should extens ion workers he lp fa rm er s? The main par tof the book is devoted to question 3.

It is writ ten for agr icul tu ral advisory wor ker s with sufficient

F A Y , I . G . / Notes on extension in agric ul tur e . A s i a Publ. House, London,1962 . 204 pp.

A presentationextension work ers should be fami l ia r . Thre e chapte rs a re devoted to theorganization and th e county unit in extension in th e United States. A s theauthor feels , India can modify the su ccess ful featu res in the U. S . extensionsch em e to meet loc al conditions, and avoid weak and cumber som e featu res .Th e ear ly movem ents of a gr icu ltu ral extension in India and the launchingof t he Com munity Development Pl an in 1952 a r e outlined.the impo rtance of p erson al meet ing, the grou p discussion method, visualand audio-vis ual aids and youth clubs. The respo nsi bili t ies of the villageteacher , the loca l leader and the gramsevak a r e covered. Each of the 28chapte rs is followed by questions fo r study and discussion and by a lis t ofref ere nce s fo r f urt her reading (WAERSA 1963 -2520).

of the m aj or pha ses of extension education with which a ll

S t r e s s is laid on

9


9/125

F RA N C O , J . d i / Aspe cts of extension work. Inter -Am eric an Inst. ofAgr. Sciences. Tur ria lba , 1963. 91 pp.

Compilation of ten previously mimeographed pap ers , use d in extension atthe Gra duate School of the I nter -Am eric an Institute of Agri cultu ral Sciences.Subject matters treated a re extension, education, philosophy, evaluationin extension work, spe cia lis ts in extension, extension organization, lo ca llea der s in extension, principles and guidelines, prer equisi tes to pro gre ssin agri cultu re, coordination and the United State s Cooperative Serv ice(WAERSA 1964- 1035).

G O O D E N O U G H , W . H . / Cooperation in change. Rus sel l Sage Foundation,New York, 1963. 523 pp.

A textbook on agr icu ltu ral extension cooperation.A g u i d e t o community development. Min. of Commun. Dev. and Coop., Govt.of India, New Delhi, 1959. 205 pp.K E L S E Y , L . D . and C . C . H E A R N E / C oope ra tive exten sio nw ork .3 r d . ed. Comstock Publ. Co., New York, 1963.

A well known U. S. textbook on agricultural extension.extension is , how it works and what i ts p rogra mme s ar e.methods and program me preparation and development.United States experience.extension principles to other co untries.

Explains whatChapters on

Mainly drawn fromA chapter is included on the application of

Id. / Trabo ja de extensi6n agric ola.Tra nsl ate d into Spanish by Humberto Rosado.1961. 471 pp.

Editorial Revert6 S . A . , Mexico,A translation of "cooperative extension work".

K I N G ,book f or train ed community work ers and volunteer community lead ers .New York, 1965. 192 pp.

C . 1 Working with people in community action; a n international ca se -

L A I D L A W ,A guide fo r fieldmen and extension wo rke rs. FAO, Rome, 1962. 78 pp.

A . F . 1 Trai ning and extension in the cooperative movement.L A L , R . 1 Community development principles, pra cti ces and probl ems .Bookland Pr iva te Ltd ., Calcutta, 1963. 439 pp.

10


10/125

O L O K A , T . , H . L . D U S E N B E R R Y and D . W . P E T T / Ahandbookfo r extension wo rke rs. University College Ibadan, 1961.P E N D E R S ,national Ag ric ult ur al Cen tre , W ageningen, 1963. 249 pp.

J . M . A . (Ed. ) / Rura l extension a t the c rossr oads . In te r -Th e book is published on the occ asion of the tenth internationa l extensio nsu mm er school a t Wageningen.Most of the articles deal with certain critical aspects of extension work.Subjects included ar e: the rol e of ru r a l extension in developing coun tries ,com para tive extension studies in Asia, extension and community develop-ment , social aspect of rural extension, evaluating of r u r a l extension,agr icul tura l coopera t ives in m or e and less developed countries , e tc .(WAERSA 1964 - 1943).

It contains ar t ic l es by many autho rs.

R H E I NW A L D IBay eri sch er Landwirtschaftsverlag, Bonn, 1956. 145 pp.A textbook, divided into two parts : 1. extension principles and methods.2 . extension pract ice .

H . and G . P R E US C H E N / Landwirtschaftliche Beratung.

R O G E R S , F . E . and A . G . O L M S T E A D / Supervision in the CooperativeExtension Se rvice.Madison, W is . , 1957. 162 pp.

National Agric ultu ral Extension C enter fo r Advanced Study,A t extbook on supervis ion in ag r i c u h r a l extension.

SA V I L E ,and home extension wo rke rs. Oxford University Press, London, 1965. 148 pp.

A . H . / Extens ion in ru ra l communi t ies . A manual for agricul turalA prac t ical guide to thos e who have the task of t ra in ing advisory andextension worker s and local lead ers in agri cul tu re and community develop-ment . I t a im s to help fie ld wor kers t o improv e the ir methods of secu ringthe coopera t ion of f a r m er s in the i r e f for t s to t ransform land use and fa rmmanagement pract ices.

S H A N N O N , T h . J . and C . A . S C H O E N F E L D / U n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s i o n .Th e Li br ar y of Education, New York, 1965. 115 pp.A review of the vast r ange of act ivi t ies c ar ri ed on under the nam e of

extension services.evaluate them cr i t ical ly.the near fu ture .main kinds of univ ersit y extension that have developed in the United States,the so-cal led g ener al extension, and the agricu l tura l extension car ri ed onunder the auspices of the Cooperative Extension Service.

The authors d escri be the scope of thes e act ivi t ies andThey indicate possib le lin es of development in

The authors give sep ara te t reatmen t t o each of the two

11


11/125

They point out that, in vir tually ev ery university, the two serv ices ar eunder complete ly sep arate jur isdic t ion s.of this sep arat ion ar e set forth, and th e poss ibilit ies of a unified serv ic ea r e d i sc us sed .

Th e advantages and disadvantages

1 2


12/125

DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS AND ADOPTIONBY FARMERS

AG A R W A L A ,know our plans exis t. Yojana, 10 (1966) 24 : 2-5.

A . N . / Village people and the plans. Only 1 of 3 villagersA sur vey conducted by the Agro -Econ omic Re sea rch Ce ntre of AllahabadUniversity (India) in a v illage only 37 km away f ro m Allahabad reve aledthat l e s s than one -th ird of the v ill ag er s knew of th e ex iste nc e of 5 -yearplans.media of m as s communication should be used in or de r to cre ate plan-awa ren ess in village people. On the basi s of the pre sen t sur vey it is ex-pected that the spoken word will have the greatest impact.studen ts and oth er educated people should for m the spe arhe ad of a movementto s pre ad infor mation on the development plan in villages.

Among students and cultivators only 40% had th is knowledge. A l l

Teachers ,

B O H L E N , J . M . / Th e adoption and diffusion of idea s in agri cu ltu re. In:James H. Copp (E d.) . O ur changing ru ra l society: perspec tives and tren ds .Iowa State University P r e s s , Am es, Iowa, 1964. 354 pp.

A sum ma ry of the em piric al findings fro m far m prac tice adoption res ear ch .B O S E , S . P . / The diffusion of a fa rm p rac tice in Indian villages.Sociol., 29 (1964): 53-66.

R u r .

In this study the s am e far m practice was studied in seven different vil lagesin West Bengal.other villages. They vary in such facto rs as religion, caste struc ture ,education, land tenu re, ur ban contact, etc. It is reasonable to assum ethat a new pr actice wil l me et with different kinds of re cep tion in differe ntvillages. In fact, this has happened, as is evident fr om the data. Whilethe logistic cur ve has been fitted to the data of a ll vil lages, you can readfro m the curv es different slopes.obtained.both India and the U. S. A.

Each village is a soc ial system and is different fro m the

Nevertheless the sa me resul t has beenIt is noted that s im il ar cu rv es of diffusion have been found in

C H A W D H A R I , T . P . S . , S . L . C H OW D U RY and B . M . S H A R M A /F a r m e r s ' percep tion of co nstr aints influencing choice of c ro ps and adoption ofcerta in recomm ended pra ctices . A gric. Situ. India, 20 (1965): 555-566.

To examine the nature and inter play of the va riou s fac to rs governing choiceof c ro ps and techniques being adopted by cultiv ato rs, data were co llectedfr om fo ur to seven holdings in each of 14 rando mly se lec ted villages in theDelhi terri tory . The need for family food, and fodd er and feed for c attle

13


13/125

a re shown to be the principal determin ants of th e cropping patt ern in th ea r e a .fert ili zers . High int ere st rat es, high cost of member ship of cooperativesand low cred it -worthiness under existing sys tem s we re the most mentioneddifficul ties in obtainin g cr ed it (WAERSA 1966 -1970).

Production cr edit was most needed to buy improved see ds and

C H O U D H A R Y , K . M . / Fa ct or s affecting acceptance of improved ag ri -cult ural pract ices. Study in an I . A. D. P. District in Rajasthan. VallabhVidyanagar, Gujarat. Agro-Econ. Res. Centre, Res. Stud. No. 9 , 1965. 101 pp.

Data wer e obtained from fa rm er s by interview and questionnaire whilesecondary sources are als o used extensively.pra cti ces in wheat cultivation a r e examined and stag es of adoption ar eidentified. The findings indicate that among the various practic es, therespo nses a r e very posi tive to fer t i l izers , insect ic ides and pest ic ides.The rea so ns identified fo r non-adoption of impro ved se ed bring out thesupe riori ty of the loca l seed over the improved seed. The lack of i r r i -gation o r unsuitability of water is considered to be the major factor fornon-adoption of fe rt il iz er s (WAERSA 1966 -1971),

Tradit ional and improved

C H O U D H A R Y , K . M . and M. M A H A R A J A / Acceptance of improvedpra cti ces and the ir diffusion among wheat -gro wers in the Pal i -dist rict ofRajasthan. Ind. J . Ag r. Econ., Bombay, 21 (1966) 1 : 161-165.

A desc ript ion of adoption of innov ations.D E S A I , D . K . and B . M . S H A R M A / Technological change and rate ofdiffusion. Ind. J . Ag r. Econ., Bombay, 21 (1966) 1 : 141-154.A cas e s tudy on the use of fertilizer was carried out in 1962 in a village in

the De lh i te r r i to r y .il ize rs was only 16 Ibs. of nitrogen per a c re of irr iga ted wheat, com paredto the recommended 40 Ibs.the si ze of the farm , liter acy, and irrig ation facility. It is concluded thatunless the technological change is of a particular magnitude, it does nothave a significant impact on the farm economy.period between the knowledge of a technological change, suc h as t he us e offer t i l izer , and its adoption (WAERSA 1966 -4124).

The avera ge ra te of application of nitrogeneous f er t -The observed gap appeared to be re la ted to

The r e is a long gestation

F L I E G E L , F . C . an d E , K IV L I N / Differences among improved farmpract ices a s re la ted to ra te s of adoption. Bull. 691, Agr. Exp. Sta . , Pennsyl-vania State University college of agriculture, 1962. 18 pp .

14


14/125

F L I E G E L , F . C , ; P . R O Y ; L . K . S E N and J . E . K I V L I N /Innovation in India.gr am me s in 108 Indian v i llages . Research Report no . 9 .of innovat ions in ru ra l soc iet ies .Hyderabad, India, 1967. 213 pp.

The suc c e ss o r fa i lu re of agr icul tu ral development p ro -Pro jec t on the diffusion

National Institute of Commun ity Development,A re se ar ch re por t concerne d with the human f actor s involved in the diffusionand adoption of improved a gr icu ltu ral pra cti ces i n Indian villa ges.part of a l a rg er s tudy carr ied out in th re e countr ies : Braz i l , Niger ia andIndia. Th e project con sisted of thr ee phases. In the fi rs t phase, the vi l lagewas taken as the uni t of study; fac tors that faci l i ta te o r inhibit the suc ces sof agricu l tura l pro gram mes f or the whole vi l lage were studied. The presentrep ort provides resu l ts fro m the fi r s t phase. In the second phase, the focusof the study will be on the individual farmer.will be devoted to a follow-up study of an experiment in mass communication.

It is a

Th e thir d phase of the pro ject

H A V E N S ,adopt ion of inno vation s. Washington, 1962. 23 pp.

A . E . / Test ing a soc ial psychological mod el fo r predicting the

J O N E S , G . E . / Th e adoption and diffusion of ag ric ult ur al prac tic es.WAERSA 9, (1967) 3: 1- 34 .

A review ar t ic l e mentioning 468 refer ence s.Id . / Th e diffusion of agr icu ltu ral innovations. J . Agr. Econ. ,

Reading, 1 5 (1963) 3 : 387-403.Th e arti cle d eals with innovational activity at the level of individual ad op ter s.Three groups of factors a r e involved: 1. charac te r i s t ics of the innovations;2 . communicat ions media; 3. personal and sociological characteris t ics ofpotent ia l users . Empha s i s is on the human fac tor, too often neglected bya gr i c u l tu ral a dv i so ry s e rv i c e s .organizations and individual patterns of behaviour a re essent ia l complementsto technological pr og re ss (WAERSA 1963 -2581).

Adoption and diffusion of appropriate social

J U N G HA R E ,Ind. J . Soc. Wk.,And heri, 23 (1962) 2 : 291-296.

Y . N . / Fac tor s influencing the adoption of f ar m prac t ices .A study to determ ine the effect of s ele cte d fac tor s influencing the adoptionof recommen dable fa r m pract ice s in the r ur al community of Nagpur.random sample of 129 fa rm er s was interviewed on the following va riables:1. adoption of prac tices , 2. extension contacts, 3. for ma l soc ial par tic ipa -tion, 4. socio-economic status, 5. education, 6. age, 7. soc ial statu s, and8. economic status (WAERSA 1964-1997).

A

15


15/125

K A T Z , E . and P . F . L A Z A R S F E L D / P ers on al in fl ue nc e. F r e e P r e ss ,Glencoe, 111, 1955. 400 pp.

Th e book pres en ts a compreh ensive and cl ea r view of the fact or s influencinghuman behaviour.ining importance.

Opinions of frie nds and neighbours ap pea r to be of de te rm -

K O L B E ,se t t l ers -grondbewaringsdistrik soos beinvloed deur se ke rs sosio-ekonomiesefakto re . Thes is , Univ. Pret or ia , 1965. 161 pp.

F . F . H . / Die aanvaarding van verbeterde akkerboupraktijke in dieThe most important f act ors ass ocia t ed with the adoption of improved agr icu l-tura l p rac t ices were found to be fac tor s concerned wi th the fa rm er ' s f inanc ialposition, education, contact with extension, le ad er sh ip functions, attitu des,deg ree of pro gre ssi ven ess , knowledge of pra ctic es, aim s and efficiency ofproduction. The resu lts of this s tudy in a Bantu farmin g community agre ein gen eral with ov erse as f indings within the Western cultu ra l pat tern.

L I ND S T R O N I ,prac t ices in a Japan ese ru ra l community . Rur . Soc. , 23 (1958) 2 .

D . E . / Diffusion of agr icu ltu ral and home -economicsL I O N B E R G E R IUnivers i ty P ress , Ames . 1 9 6 1.

H . F . / Adoption of new ideas and practices. Iowa StateL I O N B E R G E R , H . F . and H . C . C H A N G / C om p ar at iv e c h a r ac t e r is t i c sof spe cia l functionaries in the acceptance of ag ricu ltu ral innovations in twoMis sour i communit ies , Ozark and Pr air ie . Agric . Exp. Sta . , Columbia, Bull .No. 885, 1965. 59 pp.

Da ta were rece ived f rom 457 fa rm er s on recent ly in t roduced fa rm prac t icesand changes made in kinds o r brand s of f a r m supplies purchased. Analyzedwere the ques tions where the fa rm er f i r s t lea rned about the new pract ice ,where he got additional information about it , and the informatio n sou rcemost influential in his decision to adopt o r us e it (WAERSA 1966-4130).

M O U L I K , T . K . a n d U . P A R E E K / Group factor s in par t ic ipat ion.Ind. J . Soc. Wk. 24 (1963) 2 : 79-84.

Par t ic ipat ion in agr icu ltura l pro gram mes among caste -groups in North India .O P P E N F E L D , H . v o n / Res ults of a study of adoption of be tt er fa r mpra ctic es in the Phil ippines. Ind. J . Agr. Econ. 17 (1963) 4 : 23-32.

Genera l ly the f a r me rs a r e wi ll ing to p a r t ic ipa te in agr icu l tura l developmentby changing fa rm prac t ices, provided suitable technical information ispre sen ted to the m in an acceptab le ma nn er (WAERSA 1963-968).

16


16/125

P A N S E , V . G . and D . S I N G H I P romotion a nd a s se s sme n t of t ec hno lo-gical changes in Indian agric ul tur e . Ind. J . Agr. Econ. , 21 (1966) 1 : 121-131.

Studies undertaken t o as se ss technological change in Indian agricu l ture a r ecri t ical ly examined.i t s impact a r e confined to the "Package pro gramm e" .fa rm er s with la rg er holdings m or e read i ly adopt technological change, whichthen gradual ly se eps down to f ar m er s with sm al ler holdings; secondly,fa rm er s who accept one type of improved pract ice a lso readi l y accept othersim ila r types of pract ice . If extension efforts a r e concentrated on the mostimportant improved pract ice , namely fe r t i l i ze rs , which a very la rg e prop-ortion of fa rm er s can adopt profi tably under their prese nt methods of cul t ivation, then they will a ls o be induced to adopt other improved pra ct ic es l ikeplant protection, impro ved implem ents, etc . (WAERSA 1966 -4126).

Most of the investigations on technological change andIt is concluded that

P A T I L ,ra g i . N . P . / Effects of adoption of impr oved p rac tice s on the yield ofInd. J . Agr. Econ. 20 (1965) 2 : 65-68.98 fa r m er s wer e inc luded in a fa r m management s tudy in Mysore s ta te ,w he re ra g i f o r m s an important food c rop, were in terviewed to a ss es s howf ar improved prac t ic es had been adopted, and th ei r impact on yields. Theres ul t s showed that 20 percent of the fa rm er s had adopted no improvedpract ices, and nearl y 70 percent only one or two.pra ctic es, especially in combination, could possibly double cu rr en t yields(WAERSA 1965 2 1 10).

The introduction of such

P E R K ,countries . Neth. J . Ag ric. Sci . , 12 (1964) 4 : 249-259.

A . 1 Some aspec ts of ag ric ult ura l extension work in developmentTh e author d is cu ss es var iou s typ es of pr oje cts which hold pride of place inmos t agricu l tural extension prog ram me s of developing coun tries .include: 1. the introduction of be tte r va rie tie s of food cro ps, 2. t he int rod -uction of bet ter agric ul tur al techniques, 3. the use of fert i l i zer s , 4. th e useof gr ee n manur e, 5. soi l conservatio n, and 6 . the control of pe sts anddiseas es . The reaso ns why the measu res mentioned under 1. an d 2 . w e regeneral ly succ essfu l , whe reas thos e under 3, 4, 5, and 6 had only a modestsucce ss, a r e explained. I t is cons idere d that the acceptance of agric ul tur almethods depends not only on technical and econom ical fa ct or s but that thesocia l background is of vita l imp ortan ce (Trop ical Abstracts 1965 -940).

They

R A H I M ,a vi l lage in Ea st Pakistan.Publ. 7, Com illa, Paki stan , 1961. 76 pp.

S . A . 1 Diffusion and adoption of agricultural practices: a study inPakis tan Academy fo r Village Development, Techn .

The study is based u p o ~nterviews with 63 land owners in an agr icul tu ral1 7


17/125

village.of in formal communication among the vi llag ers provide an inte rest ing com -pa ris on to oth er stud ies on th e diffusion of ide as and adoption of pra cti ce s.The four pract ices studied include: lin e sowing of ri ce, us e of insecticid es,us e of ch em ic d fer t i l ize r , and growing wheat . Impers onal sou rces ofinformation were much mo re important in the "awareness" and in the"information" s tage, while form al personal sou rces (agency, personnel)we re most important in th e "tr ial" sta ge (WAERSA 1961-1516).

The adoption of fou r newly introduced pr act ice s and the pat tern s

R A H UD K A R ,agr icu ltura l pract ic es. Ind. J . Soc. W k., 24 (1964) 4 : 265-269.

W . B . / Tes tin g a culturally bound m odel for acceptance ofA sam ple of 339 far m er s was se lect ed a t random and interviewed.show that fa rm er s with lar ge f ar m s increasingly made us e of informationmedia and addpted mo re fa rm pract ice s.of f ice r s was convincing to f a r me rs .sul ted the vi llage headmen, who a re fast losing ad minis tra t ive control , we r elikely to hav e re ac te d negatively (WAERSA 1964 -2873).

Resul t sContact with agricultural extension

On the other hand, fa rm er s who con-

R O G E R S , E . M . / Diffusion of innovations. Free P r e s s , Ne w York, 1962366 pp.

An extensive re view of a la rg e number of stu dies on th e diffusion andadoption of agr icu ltu ral innovations.

R O G E R S , E . M . an d A . W . v a n d e n B A N / R e s e a r c h o n t h e diffusionof ag ricu ltu ral innovations in the United States and the Netherlands. Soc. R ur.3 (1963) 1 : 38-51.

Through impro ved "diffusion" between the U. S . and the Netherlands offindings and methods, th e quality of r e s e a r c h on th e diffusion of innovationsin both countr ies can be ra ise d.be given t o building a th eo re tic al model of the adoption of innovations and toanalysing the re la t ionship between fa rm er s ' goals and their cul tura l values.In the United States (and elsewhere) investigations of th e rel atio nsh ip betweenthe diffusion of new fa rm ideas and cult ural no rm s will be fruitfull (WAERSA

In th e Netherlands, mo re attention could

1963-1816).S A V A L E , R . S . / Technological change in agri cul ture : Study of s ou rce s ofit s diffusion, efficiency of th es e sou rce s and the economic fact or s affecting th eadoption of impr oved pr ac tic es . Ind. J. Agr. Econ. , 2 1 (1966) 1 : 199-208.

Information so urc es and the re aso ns f or non -adoption ar e d iscus sed.the economic factors affecting adoption are : uncer ta inty, capita l requ ire -ments, income level o r economic status of farmers, expectation of net

Among

18


18/125

ma rg ina l r e tu rns , suitability of the pr ac tic e to a par ticu lar locality, distanceof locality fr om ma rke ting and educational cent re s, and siz e of holding andtenancy.not adopt new technology beca use the y could not be co ntacted by any agency,and becau se demonstrat ions ar ran ged were out of thei r rea ch.number of recommended prac t ices did not pro mis e a t t ract ive re tur ns ov erlocal pra ct ic es. The problem of supplies is of gr eat im porta nce and propertechnical guidance is also requ ired at the vi l lage level (WAERSA 1966 -4127).

The invest igat ion rev eals that a larg e number of fa rm er s couldA l a r g e

S E NG U P T A ,Kurukshetra, 14 (1966) 10 : 8-10.

A .K . / Innovations in agric ult ure ; problem s of acceptance.Th e author pre sen ts 3 ca se s of reje ctio n of ag ricu ltur al innovations in theIndian States of Or issa , Madhya Pra des h and Andhra Prad esh a s a consequenceof insufficient recognition of economic and soc io -psycho -cultural fa cto rs .Th e introduction of the impro ved m aiz e hybrid Ganga-10 failed mainly b e-cau se the new varie ty was difficult to digest, and because it matu red lateand hence hamp ered the cul t ivat ion of the subsequent cas h crop, mu star d.The introduction of the Ja pa ne se method of ri ce cultivation failed becausetransplantation in lin es and application of fe rt il iz er s we re not accompaniedby intercultivation o r weeding in acco rda nce with the traditional method(Tropica l Abst rac ts 1966 -2683).

S H E T T Y ,agricul ture . Ind. J . Agr. Eco n. , 21 (1966) 1 : 189-198.

N . S. / In t e r - fa rm ra t e s of technological diffusion in Indian

S I N G H ,Econ. Weekly, Bombay, 16 (1964) 22 : 925-927.

H . / Uncertainty and adoption of new practi ces in agr icu ltu re.Th e author s tudied this p roble m in a f ie ld survey , conducted in two vi l lagesin Uttar Pr ade sh State (India).of di ffe rent ca m al fac tors , which give r i s e to uncer ta in ty in agr icul ture andconsequently prevent adoption of imp roved p rac tice s, a re different fordifferent f a r m e r s cultivating holdings of different si ze s (WAERSA 1964 -2362).

The s tudy reve a ls tha t the re la t ive importance

S T UR T , D . W . / F a r m operat ions and expenditure p at terns in four vi l lagesin West Pakist an. Background Pap. S er . , Econ. Agric . Dev. Ins t . , Mich. St.Univ., No. 1, 1965. 70 pp.

A random sa mp le of 200 cultivators was interviewed in 1962, covering twovil lages in the Punjab and two on the fron t ier , in each ca se one was i rr iga tedand one not. Basic data wer e collected on acreag e, labour, crop s grown,equipment and marketing, and information obtained on the change s made inany of the se in the previous yea r, and changes that fa rm er s would l ike to

19


19/125


20/125

W I L K E N I N G , E . A . and D . E . J O H N S O N / Goals in f a r m dec is ion-making as re la t ed to prac t ice adoption. Agr . Exp. Sta . Wis. Re sea rch Bull . 225,1961 . 36 pp.

The present s tudy is an at tempt to dete rmi ne the extent to which the go als of"profit", "quality of the product", ' ' ca se and convenience", the de si re to"keep up with the best farmers" and "maintaining good relationships withothe rs" e nter into making different types of fa r m decision. Th e studys a m p l e is 139 dairy farmers of Rock Couty, Wisconsin, and the five goalsmentioned above ar e considered in re la t ion to 14 types of f ar m decisionsre levant t o d a i ry fa rming. The ana lysis deals with: 1. "the variation ingoals" consid ered by type of decision, 2 . "the effect of s ta tu s and ro le ofthe fa rm er s upon goal orientat ion". . . and 3. "the influence of the prio rityof goals on adoption of specific fa rm pra ct ices ": "Profi t" eme rged a s themost frequently recognized goal in the 14 decisions, followed by ' 'c as e andconvenience" and "quality o r stan dar d" (WAERSA 1961 2721).

2 1


21/125

CHANGE OF BEHAVIOUR

BA N , A . W . v a n d e n / Cul tura l change : the bas is for inc reas ing agr icu l -tu ra l productivity. Int. R. Commun. Dev., 12 (1963): 67-88.B E N N I S , W . G . , K . D . B E N N E and R . C H I N / The planning ofchange. Readings in the applied behavioural sci ence s. Holt, Rinehart andWinston, New Yor k, 1961. 781 pp.

An extensive treatme nt of approaches for changing behaviour.soc ial psychological the ory the gr oup dynamics approach gives many valuableideas .

Within th e

B E NV E NU T I , B . / Farm ing in cultura l change. Humanit ies Pre ss ,New York, 1961. 469 pp.B E R E L S O N , B . and G . A . S T E I N E R / Human behaviour, an inventoryof findings. Ha rco ur Br ac e and World, New York, 1964.B O S E R U P , E . / The conditions of agri cult ural growth. Th e economics ofag ra ri an change under population pr es su re . Allen and Unwin, London, 1965.124 pp.

Based mainly on the experi ence of Asian countrie s, th e book see ks to analyzethe problem of agr icult ura l pro gres s in primit ive socie t ies , using a newapproach, in which population growth is regarded as the autonomous factormaking for a s teady intensifica tion in ag r iculture , which in tu rn br ing s manyeconomic and socia l changes in i ts wake. This approach contradic ts theneo- Malthusian view that at any given time th er e is in any community awar ran ted ra te of population incr eas e with which the actual growth of pop-ulation tends to conform, fo r it is based on the assumption that the mainli ne of caus ation is in the opposite direction: population growth is r e ga r de das the independent var iabl e which in its tu rn is the maj or factor determiningagr icul tura l development. Thus, the following ch ap ter s deal with the effectsof population changes on agri cu ltu re and not with th e cau se s of th es e changes:1 . th e dynamics of land utilization; 2. th e interd epen dence of land use andtechnical change; 3. labo ur productivity under long fallow and sh ort fallowsys t e m s ; 4. ca rr yi ng capacity of land and productivity under int ensiv eagr icu l ture ; 5. population growth and working hours; 6 . the coexistence ofcultivation sys tem s; 7. diminishing re turn s to labour and technical in er t ia ;8. the vicious circle of s p ar se population and prim itiv e techniques; 9. sy st em s

2 2


22/125

of land use as a de term inan t of land ten ure ; 10 . investment and tenure intribal communities; 11. ru ra l investment under landlord tenure; 12. r u r a linvestment under modern tenu re; 13. the use of indu stria l input in primitiveagriculture; and 14. som e pers pect ives and implication s. It is contendedthat the information p rese nted h er e lend s no suppo rt to the conception of anag rar ian surp lus population emerging as the re sul t of population growth(WAERSA 1965-1295).

B R A U S C H ,Int. Social Science J . , 16(1964) 3 : 341-356.

G . / Change and continuity in the Gezira region of the Sudan.The population of the G ez ira r eg ion of the Sudan ha s been able to adoptrelatively smoothly to the impact of the great irrigation schem e.traditional featu res of life have helped the trans ition along.have em erge d again in a different form, especia lly the values and habitsof the old land lord s, lar ge ly taken ov er - not always to their economicadvantage - by tenant cotton fa rm er s now constituting the new elite

CertainOther features

(WAERSA 1964 -2845).C O L I N ,authentique en milieu rural.

R . / De la tradition a 1'Bvolution consciente vers le developpementDeveloppement et Civ ilisa tions , 28 ( 1 9 6 6 ) : 50 -56.

A prerequisite for ru ra l development is that the far m er s understand, wishand a r e able to implement innovations. This requires honest and compre -hensive information.fa rm er s but the problems should be introduced for discussion in the totalgroup of far m er s concerned. Th is method, which is at present followed inthe Niger Republic, has led to the creation of natura lly cooperation stru ctu res(maganic) . This cooperative movement which is developing f ro m below,reveals that it is possible to r ai se traditional communities to auto-activity.

Extension should not be dir ecte d to a few selec ted

D E Z , J . Un des prob l5m es du developpement ru ra l: l'evolution des com -porte men ts. Bull. Mada gascar, 230 (1965) : 589-641.

An outline is given of the behaviour of Ma dag asca r peasa nts confronte d byce rt ai n aspe cts of development, suc h as mechanization of agric ultur e, i m -provem ent of ru r a l techniqu es, and the adoption of land-im prov eme ntmeasures .

D U B E , S . Ch. / Cultural facto rs in ru ra l community development. TheJournal of Asian Studies, 16 (1956) : 19-30.

Id. / India's changing villages. Human facto rs in communitydevelopment. Co rne ll Univers ity P r e s s , Ithac a. Routledge and Kegan Paul,

23


23/125

London, 1958. 230 pp.A study of the res ul ts of the community development pro gra mm e in twoselecte d vi l lages.

E T Z I O N E ,Ba si c Books, New York, London, 1964.

A . E . 1 Social changes, sou rces , pat tern s and consequences.F O S T E R ,Ha rp er and Row, New York, 1962. 292 pp.

G . M . / Tra dit ion al cul tur es and the impact of technological change.The author dis cus ses the soci a l and psychological aspect s of c ul tura ls tabil ity and resis tan ce to change a s they affect both the give r and thereceiver of foreign aid.to i l lu stra te the problems, the author expla ins the nature of cu ltura l change,and the ro le and pro ble ms of Ame rican s pec iali sts working in newly develop-ing countr ies .corresponding change in the attitudes, thoughts, values, beliefs and behaviourof the people affected by the ma ter ia l change.and often overlooked (WAERSA 1963-1002).

Using many traditi on -bound peasant com mun ities

Associated with every technical and material change, is aSuch changes a re mor e subt le

F O S T E R , G . M . , M . L . B A R N E T T and A . L . H O L M B E R G /Behaviour sc ience re se arc h and i ts potentia l role in agr icultu ra l developmentIn: Policies fo r promoting agr icu ltu ral development. Cambridge, Cent. Inst.Stu d,, Mass. Inst. Techno l. , M as s., 1965: 285-293.

It is cle ar that the following motivat ions a re of specia l import ance inchanging behaviou r: percep tion of economic gain, a significant pa rt of whichrem ains with the progre ssiv e individual ( i .e . i t is not drained off in ful-fillment of traditional obligations); the d es ire to achieve pres tig e and stat us;and the d esi re to please th e change agent who, by the m e re fact of being ina community for som e t ime, becomes involved in pat terns of re cipr oca lf r iends hip that ent i t le him to cooperat ion f rom his new fr iend s.motivat ions appear unive rsal and not mere ly culture -bound. The behav-ioural sc ientis t , especia lly the anthropologist, is well placed to act a s aneffect ive comm unicator between fa rm er and bureaucr acy in underdevelopedeconomies where there is no effective feedback mecha nis m between peasantsand bureaucrats .e leme nts in development pro gra mm es is thus very important .dis cus ses the role of behavioural sc ience rese arc h ( i .e. into socia1,culturaland psychological fac to rs in agr icu ltu ral development) in a. f inding ways toinc reas e agr icultu ra l production and b. contributing the basic theore t icaland pr act ic al knowledge on individual and group behaviour that is part of thescientific in fra str uc tu re of ev ery modern society (WAERSA 1966 -858).

The se

His ro le as a link between th e highest and the lowestThe paper

24


24/125

G E R MA N I , G . / Secularizaci6n y Desar ol lo Economico. Resis te ncias BMudanca, Rio de Ja ne iro , 1960: 261 -279.

The different asp ects of the pro gre ss of "secularizat ion" wi th re ga rd toeconomic development a re discussed : 1. The type of soci al action changesfr om pre scr ibed act ion to chosen act ion; 2 . f ro m inst itu t ional izing oft radi t ion s one ar r i ve s to ins ti tu tional izing of changing and 3 . out of a mostlyundifferentiated co mp lex of insti tutions grow s a differentiation and special -ization of institutions.

H O L M B E R G , A . R . / Ca se s tud ies of subsis tenc e and t ransi t ion : Vicos ,Pe ru . A gric . Dev. Cou n., Honolulu, 1965. 39 pp.

An analysis was made of a c a se of tra nsit ion by a population of Indianf a r m e r s f r o m a posit ion below subsis tence t o one of fai r l y larg esc alecommercial product ion.of education, training, advice and ass ist an ce alre ady show that suc h at rans i t ion is poss ib le in very few ye ar s by en l igh ten ing the peasan t fa rm er sthem selves , by providing the land less "peones" wi th incre ase d incent ives toproduce in the i r own inte res t , through land-te nure r ef orm s which convertthe m into peasants, but without venturing into expensive irrig ati on proje cts,and prob lemat ica l rese tt l ement schem es , nor fo rc ing many fa rm er s off theland before they ar e ready f or industr ia l employment and urban life

The resu l t s of the c lose ly coord ina ted p rogra mm es

(WAERSA 1966 -2984):H O L M B E R G ,a ca se study in guided chan ge. In: HARPER and BROS, Social change in LatinAm er ica today, New York, 1960.

A . R . / Changing community att i tudes and values in Peru:

H U S A I N , S . Z . / Socia l fo rc es and economic change . A. I . C .C . Econ. Rev .New Delhi, 15 (1964) 14/15 : 157-161 .

The a r t i c le dea ls wi th soc ia l bar r i e r s t o economic development in develop-ing countr ies , part icular ly India. The se a r e the soc ia l mi l ieu , soc ia lins t itu t ions , cul tura l pat tern, value syst em , custom s modes and t radi t ion se t c .economic growth.

A f ro n ta l a t tack o n t h e s o c i a l b a r r i e r s w i l l acce l e ra t e t h e r a t e of

L I N T O N , R . / Th e study of ma n. Appleton Ce ntu ry Co., New York, 1 9 3 6A cl as si c for insight into motives and att i tudes of men.

L I P P I T T , R . , J . W A T S O N a nd B . W E S T L Y / T h e d y n a m i c s o fplanned change. Harc ourt Bra ce and Co ., New York, 1958.

Deals wi th the grou p dynamics a pproa ch as a valuable means for changing25


25/125

behaviour .M U E L L E R Il e r in Togo auf Ber ate r und Beratung. Z . AuslPndische Landwirtschaft, 6(1967) 3 : 278-292.

J . O . / Beobachtungen zu r Reaktion kl ein er Landwirtschaft -

The way in which s mal l Togolese f a r me rs reac t to agr icu l tura l ex tens ionwo rk ers and extension methods was stud ied on 40 peasant holdings situ atedin dif ferent areas, viz . : 1. the ca ssav a-m aize a re a of the Ouatchi t r ibe;2. the co ffee-cas sava-r ic e ar ea of the Ewe tr ibe on the highlands of Dayes;3. t he cotton-y am-r ice a re a of the Kabre and Loss0 peoples in ce nt ral Togo;and 4. th e cotton-groundnut -sorghum a r e a in th e dry, nor the rn part of thecountry.ment the intensive advisory method is par t icu lar ly effective and economical .Extensive advisory methods without demonstrations and practice in the fieldhave very little effect and should th ere fo re be given up.

It is concluded that in the initial sta ge s of a gric ult ura l develop-

Engl ish summa ry .N I E H O F F, A . H . / A casebook of so cial change. Cr iti cal evaluations ofa t tem pts to introduce change in the f iv e maj or developing ar ea s of the world.Aldine, Ch icago, 2nd ed. , 1967. 312 pp.

This book presen ts nineteen histo r ies of actual effor ts a t innovation in LatinAmerica , Afr ica , the Middle East , and Asia , i l lustra t ing the specif ic prob-le m s faced by change agents.tho se that most cle arl y exemplify the technique of the innovator, the motiva-tions of potential recip ien ts and the reac tion s of th es e recipi ent s due to localcultu ra l pat terns and values."Introducing so cial change' ' by the sa m e author.

F r o m many cas e h is tor ies , the au thor se lec ted

This volume may be see n as a companion to

S A C H C H I D A N A N D A / Lea ders hip and cul ture change in Kullu. Man inIndia 44 (1 964) 2 : 116-131.SA NW A L , R.D . / Agric ultura l extension in a Kumaonese vi l lage. J. Dev.Stud., London, l ( 1 96 5) 4 : 384-398.

An account is given of how innovations initia ted by st at e -spo nso red comm unitydevelopment schemes may be blocked or f a i l f o r r e a sons o the r than thepeasan t 's i r ra t ion al and apathic avers ion to anything new, o r the usua l soc io-cul tura l f ac tor s .fail ure of the novelty to provide th e peasant with an adequate economicincentive to rep lace the t r ad i t iona l pa t te rn .and the na tura l and socia l conditions of the village of H ars ila in th e Kumaonar ea , India, a r e outlined, and th e effects of the community evaluated. Thedevelopment prog ram me failed because thes e innovations did not ap pea r

This c ase s tudy revea led tha t r e s is tan ce was due to theThe historical development

26


26/125

economically feasible to peasants.yield of food gra ins significantly, they made th re e ha rve st s impo ssi ble .The peasa nts saw the solution of the ir pr oblem s not in the adoption of thesuggested innovations but in "open" fo res ts, m or e land for past urage andagr icu l ture or, alternatively, in th e provision of opportunities to ear n cash,preferably in the village itself (WAERSA 1966 -910).

Though the new methods increa sed t he

S C H L I P P E , P . d e / Le relevement ru ra l en fonction de notre connais -sance de la coutume agr ico le .Record of the 28th meeting, 7-10 Sept emb er 1953, at The Hague, Bruxe lles,

International Institute of Differing Civilizations.1953: 76-81.

The author s tr e s s es the necessi ty of taking native agricu ltural practice intoaccount when planning development pro jec ts, basing his view on expe rien ceswith the Zande sch em e in the Southern Sudan.

S P I C E R IRu ss el l Sage Foundation, New York, 1952. 301 pp.

E . ( Ed. ) / Human problems in technological change; a case bookF ro m the v iewpoint of agricultural extension, the most known situations givea good opportunity to le ar n the effect of ce rta in methods of in str uct ion andinformation on peoples' way of l ife.

2 7


27/125

T H E ROLE OF COMMUNICATION

A R E S V I K , O . / The Mymensingh and the Comilla approach in agr ic ultura lextension. Sae rtry kk Inst. Dr ift sla ere Landbr. $kon. Vallebekk, n r. 86, 19662 6 PP.

In Eas t Pakistan 2 new approaches to ag r icultu ra l extension a r e beinginvestigated:1. the pi lot ru ra l development pro gra mm e of the Pakist an Academy forRu ral Development, Comilla;2 . the pilot project sponsored by the U . S. Agency for InternationalDevel opment in Mymensingh.The two approaches have so me principles in common but the methods ofimplementation a re diferent .management of the land relying on collective decisions, while the secondapproach re l ies on private ini t ia t ive of fa rm er s.

The f i rs t approach leads to collect ive

B A C H M A N , J . W . / How to use audio-visual mat eri als , 4th p r. New York,1 9 6 2 . 60 pp .B A N , A . W . v a n d e n / Bo er en landbouwvoorlichting: de commun icatievan nieuwe landbouwmethoden. Van Gorcum Com p., Assen, Th e Netherlands.1963. 279 pp. Th esi s Agric. Univ. Wageningen (Engl. s um ma ry) .

Analysis of the communication pr oc es ses by which Dutch fa rm er s get info rm -a tion about new fa rm prac t ices . Pa r t I of thi s publication is a review of thel i te ra tu re f ro m which hypotheses regard ing these communication proc ess eswere der ived.

C O W I N G ,Federal extension service , U. S . D. A. , no. 466, Washington, 1961 . 20 pp.

A . / Writing words that work; a guide for extension workers.

D A S G U P T A ,F o r c e s , 43 (1965) 3 : 330 -337.

S . / Communication and innovation in Indian vil lag es. Social246 F a r m e r s in W. Bengal (India) we re interviewed about the ir so urc es ofinformation fo r nine improved agr icul tura l pract ic es. It appeared that thesou rces of information vary with the fa rm er 's socio-economic s ta tus andtype of practice fo r which inform ation is sought.divided in innovators, ear ly adopters and la te adopters, according t oimmediacy of re spo nse t o an innovation, the innovators a re found to ut i l izeinst i tutionalized sou rces , while la te adopters re ly mo re upon non-inst i tut -

W hen the f a r m e r s a r e

28


28/125

ional ized sources.1965-2109).

The position of e ar ly adop ters is int erm ed iate (WAERSA

E B R I G H T , D . F . ( E d . ) / Audio-visual handbook fo r India. Madr as, 1955.335 pp.G E O R G E ,agr icul ture . A note. Econ. Affairs, Calcutta, 11 (1966) 4 : 183-187.

M . V . / Intensity of inf orm ation in diffusion of technology inA field study to te st t he hypothesis that t he inten sity of knowledge aboutf a r m technology depends on th e number and quality of the infor mation mediaser vin g an ar ea , and to examine th e significance of inform ation on theadoption of imp roved f a r m prac tice s, was c ar ri ed out in 1962 -I63 in twogroups of vi l lages, one inside the Agr icul tu ral Package Pro gra mm e Areaand the other outside.and Quilan d istr ic ts in K era la State , including al together 320 f ar m households.F a rm e rs wer e asked about the adoption of 1 2 di ffe rent fa rm prac t ices .Some 53 percent adopted the us e of che mi cal fe rti l iz er and the next highestrespo nse was for l ivestock improvement . Technological changes, suc h a ssoi l -conservat ion prac t ices and improved implements had the lowest ra te ofre sponse .prac t ices a r e s ignif icant .agency was concluded to be of low effectiveness c om par ed to informe d so ur ce s.In planning adv iso ry work the different methods of communication should bechosen so as to m aximize the intensi ty of information among cul t ivato rs '(WAERSA 1966-4053).

Eight vi l lages wer e selected, four each fro m Alleppey

Inter -distr ic t varia t ions in the ra te of respo nse to differentThe advis ory se rv ice of the ag ricul tural extension

H A L L ,extension agents.no. 12, Ithaca, 1961. 28 pp.

E . T . / Working with the p re ss ; a handbook for home economicsExtensio n publ., New York State College of Home Econo mics,

J O H N S O N , G . L . and C . B . HA V E R / Agricul tura l informat ion as anas pe ct of decis ion makin g. Techn . Bull. 273, Dept. of Agr ic. E cono mics ,Ag r. Exp. St a. , Michigan State University, Ea st Lansing, 1960 . 56 pp.K L A P P E R , J . F . / The effects of ma ss communicat ion. F r e e P r e s s ofGlencoe, Ill . , 1960.L E R B I N G E R , O . and A . J . S U L L I V A N / Information, influence andcommunication; a re ad er in public rela tion s. New York, 1965. 513 pp.

29


29/125

L E R C H,maga zines, ra di o and television. Washington, 1959. 28 pp.

J r , D . G . / Dissemination of f a r m information through newspapers,L E R N E R , D . and W . S C H R A M M ( E ds .) . / Comm unication and changein the developing coun tries. East -West Center Press, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu,1967. 333 pp.Thi s volume pre sen ts the work of m or e than a dozen expe rts fro m the United

States and Asia who attended the E ast-West Cen ter se m ina r on "Communicationand Change" in August 1964. It re pr es en ts the pra cti ca l advantages of inte rn a-tional cooperation in the solution of international problem s. After an introd-uction on ge ner al prob lem s of using communication in the se rv ic e of de velop-ment, pa rt 2 dea ls with so m e problem s of communication and change, andpa rt 3 gives ca se studies of com munication and change in India, CommunistChina and th e Philippine s. The book ends with a cha pte r on communicationand th e pros pec ts of innovative development.

MA L E T Z K E ,m as s -media). H. Bredow Institut , Hamburg, 1963.

G . / Psychologie d er Massenkomm unikation (Psychology of

M A S O N ,Ru r. Soc. Ea st Lansing, Mich., 29 (1964) 1 : 40-52.

R . G . / The us e of information sou rce s in the proc ess of adoption.This s tudy relate s the use f ar m er s make of information sources to thei rs tage of the adoption process and to these fa rm er ' s relat ive inf luence.of all information sou rce s was found to be re lat ed to sta ges of the adoptionprocess . Rate of use differed among sou rce s. U s e of authoritative so ur ce sincre ased rapidly a s fa rm er s passed through the success iv e s tages of theadoption pro ces s. The ra te of ma ss media used by stag es of the adoptionprocess was less than that for authori tat ive and comm ercia l sourc es(WAERSA 1964-2009).

Use

M E R C A D O , C . M . et a l . / The rel ati ve effectiv eness of four types ofextension publications. Philippine Agricultu rist, 49 (1966) 10 : 8 3 3 -843.

A study on th e rela tiv e ef fectiven ess of 4 types of extension publications,conducted in the Philippines showed the preference of the respondents forthe presentation of the intended message in the form of a coloured conicstrip. However, the sim ple r black -white conic s tr ip m or e effectively inducedthe audience to adopt ce rta in prac tices advocated in the leaf let . The respon d-ents consis ted of extension workers , fa rm er s , home-m akers and mem bersof 4 -H clubs.education and degree of understanding.publications were not related with age, sex, civil status, education level,

There was a highly significant relationship between level ofPref eren ce fo r specif ic types of

30


30/125

pri or knowledge about the subject , o r dialect.i l lustra ted leafle t ranked 3rd and 4th in impact , resp ect iv ely.

A sem i- i l lus t ra ted and a non-

M Y R E N ,of communications in ag ric ult ura l development.Imp ren ta Venecia , Mexico, 1965. 163 pp.

D . T . ( E d. ) / F i r s t i n t e r am e r i c a n r e s e a r c h s y m p o s iu m on t h e r o l eMexico City, Octob er 5 -13, 1964.

Th e symposium dealt only indirectly with techniqu es a s it was organ ized notto disse min ate existing knowledge on how to communicate m or e effect ively,but r a th er t o t ry to identi fy the l ines of res ear ch which offe r most pro misefo r obtaining guidelines f o r t echnic ians in ac t ion pro gram mes . The papersdealt with each of the ma jor is su es of agr icul t ural development in whichknowledge disseminat ion plays a c ent ral par t .production information, inform ation on pr ice and ma rk et outlook, onagr icul tura l prog ram mes and polic ies , e tc .

T h e r e a r e p a p er s r e l a t ed t o

O L I V E R , R . T . , H . P . Z E L K O and P . D . H O L Z M A N / Communi-cat ive speech, 3rd ed. New York, 1966. 418 pp.R A H UD K A R ,community. Ind. J . Soc. Wk., 23 (1962) 1 : 99-103.

W . B . / Communicat ion of fa rm information in an IndianProgre s s ive fa rm e r s a re re a c he d f i r s t by the e x te ns ion a ge nci es a nd ma ssmedia .la t e adopt ers of a new pract ice .cent ra te on convincing pr ogr ess iv e work ers t o adopt new p rac t ices .

Information is l a t e r t r a n sm i t te d t o th e s m a l l f a r m e r s , who a r eExtens ion off ice rs should there fo re con-

R O B N S 0 N , E . J . / Comm unication and public rel ati on s. Columbus, Ohio,1966 . 618 pp.S C H RA M M , W . ( E d . ) / The pro ces s and effects of m as s communicat ion.University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1954. 586 pp.

An anthology with inter est in g chap ters f ro m a gric ul tur al extension view -point e.g. : SCHRAMM, How communication works (3 -27); KLAPPER, Thecom para t ive effects of the vari ous media ( 9 1 106); KLAPPER, Mass mediaand pe rsu asi on (289 -320); SCHRAMM, The im por tanc e of th e grou p in thecommunication chain (359 -362).

Id. / Th e sci enc es of human communication. Bas icBooks, New York , 1963. 151 pp.

Writ ten by twelve leading sc ien t is ts in thi s f ie ld.research in communicat ion.

Good su m ma ri es of the

S H E P P A R D , D . / The importance of "other" f ar m er s. Soc. Ru r. 3(1963)2 : 127-141.

31


31/125

S I N G H , Y . P . and V . P A R E E K / Source of communica tion a t d if feren tsta ge s of adoption of f a r m pra ctic es. Indian J. so ci al Wk. 26 (1966) 4: 385-391.

T o identify the s ta ge s of innovation and th e mea ns of communic ation at ea chof the various s tages , data were col lected from al l the 94 agricul tura lfamil ie s in a me dium- sized mult i cas te v i llage near Delhi (India), who wereasked to repo rt the so urce s they actual ly used at va rious s tages of adoptionof thr ee far m pract ic es .sour ces of awaren ess .agent.

Change agents and other fa rm er s ar e importantOnce a need was felt, people talked with the change

Impact of ma ss media was le ss at all stages (WAERSA 1 9 6 6 - 1 9 7 2 ) .S M I T H ,cul tura l and psychological facto rs .Am erica , Mexico and the Cari bbean reg ion. UNESCO, P ar is , 1966: 121 -130.

M . G . / Th e communication of new techniques and idea s: so meIn: Social resea rch and ru r a l l i fe in Cen t ra l

In Centr al Am erica and the Caribbean, the relat ion between communicatorand audience meri ts special a t tent ion, s ince the communicator is typicallydrawn fro m an urban mil ieu and rep rese nts a social and cul tural sect ionqui te sharply d ist inguished fr om the peasan ts . This relat ion is itself anobstac le to innovation and a ccept ance of change (WAERSA 1966 -1967) .

W A L L M A N N , S . / The communication of m eas ure me nt in Basutoland.Human Organization 24 (1965) 3 : 236 -243.

The author discusses difficulties in rural development work experienced byagr icul tura l extension offi cer s, nutrit ion consultants and personnel of tra ct orschem es in Basutoland, ar is ing fro m the fact that v i l lagers have greatdifficulty in visualizing land a re a s irre spe cti ve of field shape s and in gr as p-ing mor e or le ss a bst ra ct concepts such a s units of length, t im e, weight,and fract ions .hours o r per a cr e c rea ted misunders tand ings and a rea s were measured f ro mae ri al photographs instea d of in the fields; rec ipe s containing item s suc h as"1/2 cup of milk cos ting 314 cent" w er e unintelligible; different am ounts paidfor ident ical sack s of gra in according to their contents were regard ed withsuspicion, etc.in language within the conceptual fra mew ork of th e African fa r m e r(Trop ica l Abs t rac t s 1966 -1195).

Tr ac tor p loughing was not accepted because p rice s in t rac tor -

More attention should be paid to the e xpre ssio n of quantit ies

W A N G , I . K . / Communication and adoption of ce rta in agri cult ura l pra ctic esrecommended in thr ee Korean vi l lages .Univ., Seoul, 1965. 22 pp.

Dept. Agr. E c. College of Ag r. , Nat.Two major conclusions were: 1. physical availabili ty of m as s media,especially radios, see me d in itself to be of le ss significant effect on theadoption behaviour of fa r m operat ors; 2. per sona l o r in te rpersona l

32


32/125

communication through agency-personnel and success ful farm er s seemed tobe very much influential in the process of innovation adoption.

S P E C T O R , P . , A . T O R R E S , S . L I C H T E N S T E I N , e t a l . /Communication and motivation in community development; an experiment.Rep ort of phase I, subm itted to the Agency fo r Intern ationa l Development Cont ractAID / la-2 7. Institute for International Servic es, Washington, 1963. 114 pp.

3 3


33/125

CHARACTERISTICS OF PEASANTS AN D FARME,RS

A B U - L A BA N ,commu nity le ad er s. Socio. Inquiry, 33 (1963) 2 : 131-140.

B . 1 Social origins and occupat ional ca rr ee r pat ter ns ofSelect ive recrui tment of lea de rs in a Pacific community,

B A N , A . W . v a n d e n 1 Re sea rch in the field of advisory work. Neth.J . Agr. Sci. 9 (1961) 2 : 122-133.

A sum ma ry of sociological res ea rc h in the Netherlands on behalf of theagricul tur al extension ser vice .1. Th e difference in the way of thinking of the modern f a r m ma na ge rs, whoa r e will ing t o uti l ize the extension ser vi ce whenever possible, and thetradit ional peasants .fa rm er s receive informat ion about new pract ices , especial ly communicationwith other fa rm er s . The need for mo re psychological res ea rch in this f ieldis s t r e s s ed .

Two major p rob lem ar ea s a re d i scussed :

2 . The communication proc ess es through which the

B E D I , I . S . and R . P . S A X E N A 1 Improved agricul tural pract ic es -Behaviouris tic p at tern of fa rm er s in Punjab and Uttar Prad esh. A . I. C . C .Econ. Re v. , New Delhi, 16 (1965) 21 : 27-33.

The fact ors impeding the adoption of imp roved pra ctic es w ere identified as:1. ir re gu la r supply of wate r and i ts ma ldistribution; 2. h igh water ra tes ;3. lac k of village le ad er sh ip and joint action; 4. inadequate and untimelysupply of ag ric ult ur al input; 5. no mea ns of demo nstrating impro vedtechniques; 6. the inadequate and untimely provision of credit; 7 . unfavour-able pric es ; 8 . the inert ia , poverty and i l l i teracy of the far me rs , and9. the belief in tradit i ona l practic es (WAERSA 1965-2108).

B E S S E L L ,London, 14 (1964) 3 : 227-253.

J . E . 1 Measurement of lead ersh ip among fa rm er s . Stat is t ician,The author con stru cts a "leadership" index.shown that so me lea de rs wi th cert ain chara cter is t ics have a gr ea ter inf luencein thei r communit ies than other lead ers , th e r a t e of diffusion of technol ogica lchange might be ac ce ler ate d by using the ir influence (WAERSA 1965-527).

He argue s that if it could be

B L A N C K E N B U R G ,Weg in eine moderne Landwirtschaft . Z . f . au sl. L andwirtschaft, Sonderheft 3,1965. 111 pp.

P . v o n / Afrikanische Bauernw irtschaften auf dem

Based on a UNESCO re se ar ch object 1 9 6 1 1 1 9 6 2 . Des crib es the felt needs of34


34/125

the African peasant.agr icu ltu ral pra cti ce without the help of the loca l le ad er s and withoutknowing the economic behaviour p atter n of the r u r al people.will be accepted mo st e asily when they are not expensive and easy t o learn,when the cost -benefit ra tio is favourable, and when cus tom s are not violated.

The extension officer sh al l not be able to impr oveInnovations

B O H L E N , J . M . , et al . / Adopters of new fa rm ideas, char acter is t ics andcommunications behaviour. North Ce ntr al Regional Extension Publ. no. 13,Michigan State Univ., 1961. 12 pp.

A brief su m m ar y on th e diffusion of innovation, f r o m th e viewpoint of theadopte r .

B O S E ,tu ra l prac t ices in som e selec ted vi l lages in West-Bengal . Ru r. Soc. , 26 (1961):

S . P . / Cha racte ris t i cs of f ar m er s who adopt recommended agricul-138-145.

Id . / Peas ant values and innovations. Am. J . of So c. , 68 (1962):552 -560 .C A S T I L L O ,ba rr ie rs to adequate food supply. Phi lippine J . Nutr. , Manila , 17 (1964) 2 :

G . T . / Some insights in the human facto r in overcoming134-147.

The author, a tea che r of r ur al sociology at the Un iversity of the Philippines,expands on the thesis that the r ic e problem lies no t s o much in any shor tageof knowledge o r r e s o u r c e s as in the fa rm er 's lack of understanding andres i s tance to change.advocates of change have fa iled to prove t o the fa rm er that the new wayswill be s up er io r to the old on his own land (WAERSA 1965-3064).

The outstanding r easo n is cons idered to be that

D U B E , S . Ch. / Considerations of soci al and political st ru ct ur es andagri cul tu ral t radi t ions in influencing agricul t ural developments.1963. 8 pp.

Rehovoth,When the benefi ts of impro ved methods a r e not c le ar to the fa rm er s, theywill be anxious to seek se curi ty in t radi t ional farmin g.

F A R M E R ,Press, London, 1957. 387 pp.

B . H . / Pioneer peasant colonization in Ceylon. Oxford Univ.A study in Asian agrarian problems.have a different view of the things which a r e worthy of effort, and th es ethings do not necessarily include technical change for its own sake, o r as asign of modernity, o r as a means to m or e e ff icient product ion.

People in underdeveloped s ociet ies

The mode rn

35


35/125

Weste rn at t i tude is see n to be highly abn orma l .F I N K E L ,in the West-Indies. Caribbean Stud., 4 (1964) 1 : 49-53.

H . J . / Attitudes toward work a s a fac tor in agric ultu ral planningPeop le look down upon f ar mi ng with contempt.expected on the long run by education.

Improvement can only be

F L I E G E L , F . C . and E . J . B R O W N / L o w i n c o m e f a r m p e o p l e .J . Co-op. Ext., 4 (1966) 1 : 44-50.

The very many loc al studies of poverty among fa rm er s, al though they st r e ssthe diver s i ty of ca uses , often show five main char acte r is t ic s : 1. a highproportion of aged people; 2. a high propo rtion of physica l handicaps;3. an orientation to off-farm work in that even among full -t im e fa rm e rsthe chances of economic improvem ent a r e looked on as being off -farm;4. co mm er cia l orientation, without physical or financial orientation; or5. subsis tenc e orientat ion, where t radi t ional at t i tudes , l ike refusal to getinto debt, may prevent the us e of cr edit .education, rac e, and land tenu re a r e also frequently involved. A many-sided extension progra mm e is neces sary, as that sui table for group 4 wouldnot approp riate to 5 .agencies and education must help the whole family.would als o be helped by taking pa rt in comm unity and development pro gr am me s

Other factor s such a s lack of

The maximum impact is achieved by coordinating allThe low-income famil ie s

(WAERSA 1966 -2250).

G A L E T T I , R . , K . D . S . B A L D W I N and I . O . D I N A / Nigeriancocoa fa rm er s . Oxford Universi ty Press, 1959. 295 pp.Th e fami ly's labour could be m or e fully mobilized but only at the c ost ofsacri f icin g lei sur e and enjoyment , which the fa rm er s and the ir famil ies ra temo re highly than possible inc rea se in thei r income.

M A D I G A N , F . C . / T h e f a r me r s a i d no . A study of background factorsassocia ted with disposi tions to coope rate with or be res is tant t o communitydevelopment pr oje cts . Philippines, 1962. 359 pp.

A study of 23 var iabl es believed to be asso ciat ed with resp ecti vety tocommunity development innovations.resp ecti vety we re a high-school grade, income, occupation, l i tera cy,me mb er of a loca l comm ittee, cl ique popularity, per sona l health and energy,soci al class posi t ion and s iz e of f arm .

Variab les posi tively cor rela ted wi th

M A R E K , J . / The s ignif icance of the good fa rm er . Soc. Ru r. , Assen, 6( 1 9 6 6 ) 2 : 144-155.

36


36/125

8543 fa rm er s in 79 ru ra l communi ties in eas te rn and cent ra l Poland werea ske d to select those farmers ha t were in the i r opinion "good fa rm ers " intheir own communit ies .of Poland non -economic and non -profes sional cr i te r i a play a g r e a t e r p a r tin evaluating lea der s .innovators chosen in the less developed regions a r e usually not good prod -ucers (WAERSA 1966-4129).

The conclusion was that in the less advanced regionsAlthough innovations rank high in all regions, the

M A R S H , C . P . and A . L . C O L E M A N / F a r m e r s p ra ct ic e- ad op ti on ra te sin re la t ion to adoption ra te s of leader s . Rur . Soc. , 19 (1954) : 180-183.R A H UD K A R ,and diffusion of improved fa rm prac t ices . Ind . J . Agr. Econ. , 17 (1962)2 : 82-85.

W . B . / Fa rm er charac te r i s t ics assoc ia ted with the adopt ion

F r o m investigations it was found that education is an important fac tor inthe adoption of re c omme nded f a rm pra c t ic e s .re la t ionship between the adoption of recom mended f ar m prac t ices and age,soc ia l s ta tus o r economic sta tus .

There was no significant

Id . / Impact of fert i l iz er extension pro gram me on theminds of f ar m er s and the ir r eact ions t o different extension methods.J . of Agronomy, 3 (1958) : 128.

Indian

Id . f Local leader s and the adoption of fa r m pract ice s.The Nagpur Agr icultu re College Magazine, 2 4 (1960) 1 : 1-13.

The author s t r es se s the important p lace of the loca l leader in improvingagricul ture .

R E D F I E L D , R . / Peasant society and cul ture .Press, 1956. 163 pp.

University of ChicagoA desc riptio n of the motives, atti tu des and way of life of th e tradi tiona lf a r m e r .

R O G E R S ,towards a subculture of peasantry (with discussions). Agric . Dev. Com m.,Honolulu, 1965. 115 pp.

E . M . / Motivations, values and attitudes of subs is tence fa rm ers :

S 1N G H I G . / The differentia l cha rac ter is t i cs of ear ly and la te adop ters ofnew fa rm pract ices, Punjab State, India . Diss . A bst r . , Ann. Arbor, Mich.,26 10, 6224. Dis s. Cornel 1 Univ.. 1965. 188 pp.

A samp le surv ey of 260 fa rm er s fro m 26 vi l lages showed that Punjabi

3 7


37/125

fa rm er s who adopt the use of co mm ercial fert il ize r e arly a s compared withthose who a r e lat e o r non -ado pters; they have mo re ye ar s of schooling, ownla rg er farm s, have higher incomes, have mor e contacts with extensionagents and a re mo re self -confident in their ability to perfo rm leader shipfunctions in the village.and late o r non-adopters fro m extended families .t ravel led m ore than la te adopters .op erat ors l ive does not have a significant relatio nship to thei r adoptionbehaviour (WAERSA 1966 -4118).

Early adopters tend to come from nuclear famil iesEarly adopters haveThe s iz e of village in which the fa rm

T A G U M P A Y - C A S T I L L O ,Philippine Agriculturist , 49 (1965) 6 -7 : 423 -437.

G . / Toward understanding the Fi l ipino fa rm er.Observations ar e presented about the Fi lipino far me r: the fa rm er and hisfamily, the far me r and pol it ics , the farm er and h i s response to modern-ization , and the fa rm er 's challenge to the experiment station and theextension service.for the following reasons:conditions; 2 . high cost; 3. the practice failed to prove its super iority;4. anticipation of undesirab le consequen ces; 5. non-av ailability of re so ur cessuch as fer til ize rs and spra ys, and lack of skills needed to ca rr y out thepract ices; 6 . difficulties in carryi ng out the pract ices in te rm s of tim e andlabour needed. Agricultural res ea rc h should be oriented mo re to solvingthe pressing problems of the fa rm er .

Fa rm er s re jected or fa i led to adopt improved pract ices1. incompatibility of the p ract ice with existing

Y A N G , H . P . / The far m er and the extension service . Extension in Asia, 4(1959) : 1-2.Ess ent ial conditions of extension development, and soc ial and cultu ral factor saffecting it.the r ur al youth activity, and the need for fam iliarity with local conditions.

Description of the agric ultu ral and home improvem ent phases,

38


38/125

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION OF FARMERS

A M I H E R E , J . A . / Progr amm e of courses : ru ra l training centres. Advance,Accra, 1961. 31 : 16-28.An attempt to tabulate the syllab us of the various cou rse s held at the Rural

Tra ining Ce ntr es throughout Ghana (WAERSA 1962 -111).C H A T E L A I N , R . / Main prob lem s of ag ric ult ura l train ing at village level .Rehovoth, 1963. 10 pp.

The level of agric ultura l training should closely adjust to the sta ge ofdevelopment of the rural people.

D U M O N T , R . / Le developpement agric ole specialeme nt tropical, exige uneenseignement totalement repens6. Tie rs Monde (Par is ) , 5 (1964) 17 : 13-38.

The best method fo r the agricultural extension service is to t ra in numerousyoung farmers t o beco me vil lag e le ad er s with a new way of thinking.

M A T H U R , J . C . / Farmer 's t ra in ing is centr al to fa rm production. Yojana,11 (1967) 12 : 15-18.

In India, fa rm e r 's trainin g should be part of any production pro gra mm e sinc ethe fa rm er s ar e becoming a ware of the benefits of s om e new pra ctic es.Coordinated programm es for training f ar m er s should converge on the rapidincrease of agric ultura l production.level do not yet e xist, the author sugge sts to promote s uch bodies.be possible to work out integrated training programmes in the districts thata r e to be covered by the "high yielding varie ties programm e".training of the farmers could f i l l the existing communication gap that isstill noticed in the agricultural extension programmes.

Because farmers' groups at the villageIt shouldAdequate

MO O L A N I ,Indian Agriculturist, 7 (196s ) : 1-6 .

M . K . / Changing patterns in agricultural education in India.Agricultural education in India is considered by the author completely in-sufficient fo r a people s o much dependent on agriculture.extension work in orde r to obtain a m or e general application of existingknowledge is of much more importance than further accumulation of knowl-edge by a few.with essentially practical training is strongly recommended.

Increase of

The esta blishment of 10 0 vocational agricultural schools

39


39/125

N A I K , K . C . / Ag ricu ltura l education in India. Indian Council of Ag ric .Research, New Delhi, 1961.P E ND E R S ,The Hague, 1963. 9 pp .

J . M . A . / Educating ru ra l people for regional development.

P E R K ,countr ies . Neth. J. Agric. Sci. 14 (1966) 4 : 239-250.

A . / Notes on agr ic ultur a l t ra ini ng in ru ra l ar ea s of developingVarious sy ste ms of agr ic ultu ra l t ra in ing a r e discussed, including:1. schools for agr icu l tura l t r a in ing and fa rming prac t ices ; 2 . v i llagef a r m e r ' s c o u rs e s; 3 . t r a in ing cour ses for v i l lage agr icu l tura l ins t ruc tors ;4. the e lementa ry agr icu l tura l school; 5 . continued ass is tan ce for gradua tesof the agr icu l tura l schools and vi l lage fa r me rs ' cou rses ; and 6 . t r a in ingins t i tu tes a s cen t res for loca l leade rs . The poss ib i li ty of la rge -sca leorganization is a pre requis i te for the success of a l l rur a l agr icu l tura lt r a in ing c ou r s e s .Both s tru ct ur e and content of ag r icul tura l t ra in ing should be on the bas is of:1. the ge ner al level of development of the r u ra l population; 2 . the regionalo r local agr icul tura l s i tuat ion; 3. the need for and the pros pects of effect ingimprovements in the local type of f ar m o r t he loc a l a g r i c u l tu r a l sy s t e m .

Q U D D U S , M . A . / Extens ion l i te ra tu re . J. Ea st Pakistan Acad. Vil lageDev. (Co mill a) 6(1961) : 7-11.

The Ea st Pakistan Academy besi des conducting tra ini ng co ur se s fo r vi llagepeople prepares bookle ts of ru ra l in te res t to se rv e as guide books forfar me rs , wo rke rs and non-technical vi l lage people. An account of theextension l i tera ture is given by t he auth or (WAERSA 1961 -1442).

R H E I N W A L D ,Beratung bei der Ford erun g de r Landwir tschaf t . Kali Br iefe , 12/13, 1959.

H . / Die Aufgabengebiete von Ausbildung, Fortbildung undAg ricult ura l improvements by way of m ate r ia l a id and by leg al me as ur escannot become effective unless preceded by inte l lec tual ass is t anc e byeducation and advisory work.f a r m a d v is o r is the regula t ion of so cia l interre la t io n of p easan ts .

Th e most im portant and difficult tas k of the

R I E C K ,shor t cou rses, schools and workshops for fa rm people in the United Sta tes andPu er to Rico 1963-1964. Madison, 1964. 113 pp.

R . E . / An inventory and ana lys is of fa r m management extension

R O W A T ,Republic of Nigeria on the development of education and train ing in th e field of

R . / Report to the Fed era l and Regional Governments of the Fe de ral

40


40/125

agr icu ltu re and rel ate d sub jec ts. FAO, Rome, 1964. 109 pp.The r epo rt begins with a review of the exist ing agric ul tur al educat ionsys tem in Nigeria a t the Universi ty, i n t e rme d iat e and fa r me r t r a in ingle ve l s .for agr icul ture , th e author a t tempts to assem ble in one s ingle overa l lcomp rehensive plan the education and training needs of Nig eria in th e fieldsof food and agricu l ture , both a t the fe dera l and the regional le vel .attention is aske d fo r the problem of th e lack of pra cti cal knowledge offarm ing and farm ing operat ions among agricul tu ral s tudents and staffpersonnel .

After ass ess ing the prese nt and futu re needs of t ra i ned manpower

Special

S A S A K I , F . / Agr icul tu ral education in Japan. Asian Affairs 5 (196 1) 2 :1-138.T r a n n g the school leaver in agr icul ture : fami ly agr icul tura l t ra in ing cent res .Comm unity Dev. J . , 1 (1966) 1 : 38-43.

Of the 156,000 fa r m boys and gir ls reaching 14 ye ar s of ag e in 1960, 68,000took agricul t ural cou rse s, 52,000 took other cou rse s and 36,000 receiv edno fur the r t ra in ing.had a l re a dy s t a r t e d t o s e t up e ac h ye a r Fa mi ly A gr i c u l tu ra l Train ing Ce n tre s ;they accept the mo ra l and financial respons ibility of running the m. By 1965th er e were a lmost 500 of su ch cen tre s in 7 1 Fre nc h de pa r t e me n t s. Theexample was fol lowed by Algeria (1958), sev er al other Fren ch-sp eakin gcount r ies in A f r i c a , Italy (1962) and Spain (1965).such cent res in Cambodia , Argentina and Br azi l a r e underway.given of the working of the se Fam ily Cen tre s.

In 1930 a group of farmers with chi ldren of 14-17 y e a r s

Pro jec ts fo r es tabl ish ingDeta i l s a re

W E S T E R M A R C K ,extens ion se rvice .

N . / The associability and effect of fa rm managementInd. J . Agr. Econ. , 1 9 (1964) 314 : 18-24.

It is shown fr om exp er iences in F inland that the f a r m er l ike o ther b us inessmen, is not motivated by economic consider ations alone but that his r ea so nsfo r act ion ar e often emotional ly coloured and not ba sed on log ic .suggested that ra t ion al thinking is re la t ive ly common among fa r m er s withadvanced vocational education, while emotional fa ct or s play a m o r e impor tantro le among thos e with only pr im ar y education (WAERSA 1966 -848).

It is

W I L L N E R ,Dev. 3 (1959): 59-72.

D . / Th e tra ini ng of local lea de rs in Israe l . Int . R. CommunityZ E A L Y ,R . Com mun ity Dev. 3 (1959) : 117-123.

P h . / Tra in ing loca l l e a de r s for community development. Int.41


41/125

EXTENSION PERSONNEL, CHARACTERISTICS OFAGENTS, SELECTION AND TRAI NIN GA g r i c u 1 u r a l extension training cen ter in Hongkong. Dept. of Agric. andF or e st ry , Hongkong, 1962. 139 pp.Pa r t 1 deals with subje ct-m atter fields, part 2 describes extension

education fo r agric ultur al and ru ra l development, part 3 contains a vil lagesurv ey and prog ram me planning.is discussed. It is concluded that the effectiv eness of a gri cul tur al extensionla rg el y depends upon th e kind of people it can employ, th e amount of backingi t has fr om re sea rch s tations , and the faci l i t ies with which it works .

In part 4 evaluation of the trai nin g ce nt re

BA R B E R , C h . H . / La format ion des cadr es in terme dia i res dans l e spays en voie de developpement. Int. R. Community Dev., 12 (1963) : 21-52B A T T E N , T . R . and M . B A T T E N / T h e h u m a n f a c t o r i nc o m mu n it ywork. Oxford Univ. Press, London, 1965. 184 pp.

Th irty -seven ca se s of community work in developed and developing countriesa r e grouped into chapters according to thei r problem s.given re lat es t o how an agent tr ie d to help a grou p of people, hi s purpose,what he did to achieve it, and th e resu lt. In each c ase the w orke r thoughthe had failed.ions f or wor kers faced with si mi la r pr oble ms (WAERSA 1966 -846).

The information

The chapters end with sum mar ies of conclusion and suggest -

B A T T E N ,of me tho d. Oxford Univ. Press, London, 1962. 200 pp.

T . R . / Trai ning for community development. A cri t ic al s tudyThe author gives many s t imulating ideas for a t raining progra mm e in agr i -cultu ral extension methods.

B O R T O N , R . E . ( E d . ) / Selected readings t o accompany "Getting ag ric ul-tu re moving. Ess en tial s fo r development and modernization", by A . T. Mosher,New York, 1966. 2 vols .

An anthology of 136 sho rt a rt ic le s on subjects re ga rdi ng agri cul tur al develop-ment writ ten by authors from se vera l countr ie s .

B R A D F I E L D , D . J . / Guide to extension trainin g. FAO, Rome, 1966.176 pp .

The purpose of thi s publication is to provide a guide for the tr ainin g ofagric ultur al extension personnel. Though the text frequently re fers t oaspect s of agricul ture, ru ra l organization and adminis t rat ive serv ices of

42


42/125

Malawi, i ts principles and prac t ices a re applicable to o ther developingcountries . Extension teaching methods a r e c lassified into individualmethods, group methods, and m as s methods.s ion worker ac tua lly teaches and informs f a r m people a r e descr ibed.se lec ted reading l i s t cover s a wide range of publications on various aspectsof ag ricu ltur al extension.

Th e ways in which the exten -A

B U R G E R , J . 1 T he effect of ag ric ult ur al train ing at the Grootfonteincol lege of ag ricu l ture on the behaviour of f ar m er s in the ea st er n Karoo region.Dis s. Pr eto ria , 1964. 262 pp.

P h .

B Y R N E S ,cul tura l t echnical ass i s tan ce .

F . C . / Assignment to ambiguity: Work performanc e in cross -Human Organization, 23 (1964) 3 : 196 -209.

The work pe rfor man ce of 34 Am eri can s who had been employed abr oad ast echnica l ass i s

agricultural extension in developing country

Documents