agricultural extension education and development

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CHAPTER ONECHAPTER ONECHAPTER ONECHAPTER ONE

THE CONCEPT OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

IntroductionThere are certain questions, which naturally come to the minds of students regarding the concept

of Extension Education.They are:

(i) What is Extension Education?

(ii) When, how and where did it originate?(iii) What were the circumstances responsible for it development?

(iv) Why extension education

(v) What are the principles of extension education?(vi) of what relevant its to agricultural and rural development?

This chapter which is divided into two units provides sought to answer the above questions.

UNIT ONE: EXTENSION EDUCATION DEFINED

ObjectiveAt the end of this unit, students are expected to:

Learn about the various definitions of extension education Understand the difference between formal and extension education Appreciate the objective and principle of extension education

Definition of Extension EducationBy a way of definition, various scholars, professionals and practitioners have put forward many

definitions regarding the concept of Extension Education. As a matter of fact, there are as many

definitions of Extension Education as there are scholars, professionals and practitioners in the

field of knowledge generation, its utilization and rural development. Below are some collectionsof various definitions of Extension Education:

1. Extension Education is an applied science consisting of content derived fromresearch, accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn from thebehavioural science synthesised with useful technology into a body of philosophy,

principles, content and methods focused on the problems of out of school education

for adults and youth. J.P. Leagans (1961)

2. Extension Education is the process of teaching rural people how to live better bylearning ways that improve their farm, home and community institutions J.P.

Leagans (1961)3. Extension Education is an out of school system of education in which adult and

young people learn by doing. It is partnership between the Government and the

people, which provides service and education designed to meet the needs of the


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people. Its fundamental objective is the development of the people. Kelsey and

Harne (1963)

4. Extension Education is a programme and a process of helping village people to helpthemselves, increase their production and to raise their general standard of living.

D. Ensminger (1961)

5. We can define Extension Education as the increased dissemination of usefulknowledge for improving rural life. H.W. Butt (1961)

6. Extension Education is a two-way channel; it brings scientific information to thevillage people, and also takes the problems of the village people to the scientific

institution for solution. It is a continuous educational process, in which both learner

and teacher contribute and receive. B. Rambhai (1958)

7. Extension Education is defined as an educational process to provide knowledge to the

rural people about the improved practices in a convincing manner and help them totake decision within their specific local conditions. O. P. Dahama (1973)

8. Agricultural Extension is a professional method of non-formal education aimed atinducing behavioural changes in the farmers for increasing their income throughincreased production and productivity by establishing firm linkages with research for

solving farmers problems ensuring adequate and timely supply of inputs and using

proven methods of communication for speeding of the process of diffusion andadoption of innovations." Y. C. Sanoria (1986)

From the above definitions, it can be asserted that Extension Education for that matter,

Agricultural Extension Education is an out of school educational programme or activity whichbrings about a desirable change in behaviour (knowledge, attitude, practice and skills KAPS)

of rural people to help improve their social, economic and psychological status.

Extension education is an applied behavioural science, the knowledge of which is applied to

bring about desirable changes in the behavioural complex of human beings usually throughvarious strategies and programmes of change and by applying the latest scientific and

technological innovations.

Principles and Objectives of Extension

Extension education has now developed as a full-fledged discipline, having its own philosophy,objectives, principles, methods and techniques which must be understood by every extension

worker and others connected with the rural development. It might be mentioned here that

extension education, its principles, methods and techniques are applicable not only to agriculturebut also to veterinary and animal husbandry, dairying, home science, health, family planning,

etc. Based upon its application and use, various nomenclatures have been given to it, such as

agricultural extension, veterinary and animal husbandry extension, dairy extension, home scienceextension, public health extension, and family planning extension.


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Objectives of Extension Education: The objectives of extension education are the expressions

of the ends towards which our efforts are directed. In other words, an objective means a direction

of movement. Before starting any programme, its objectives must be clearly stated, so that oneknows where to go and what is to be achieved. The fundamental objective of extension education

is the development of the people.

Extension is concerned with three basic tasks:

1. The dissemination of useful and practical information relating to agriculture and home

economics;2. Practical application of such knowledge to help farmers/farm families and rural people analyse

their problems. These are carried out in an informal atmosphere, with adults as main clientele

and

3. Assisting farmers/farm families and rural people in using the technical knowledge gained tobetter solve their own problems. Thus helping people to in order to help themselves.

Agricultural extension in Ghana is primarily concerned with the following main objectives:

1. The dissemination of useful and practical information relating to agriculture to enablefarmers farm more efficiently to increase incomes.2. The practical application of useful knowledge to farm and home3. Encourage farmers to grow their own food, eat well and live well4. Help rural, people appreciate opportunities, beauties, and privileges of rural life and

the world around them

5. Promote better social, cultural recreational, intellectual and spiritual life among ruralpeople

6. Develop citizens proud of their occupation, independent in thinking constructive inoutlook, capable, efficient self-reliant and patriotic.

7. To improve all aspects of the life of the rural people within the framework of the

nations socio-economic policies.

Principles of extension education: The extension work is based upon some working principlesand the knowledge of these principles is necessary for an extension worker. Some of these

principles, as related to agricultural extension, are mentioned below.

1.Principle of interest and need. Extension work must be based on the needs and

interests of the people. These needs and interests differ from individual to

individual, from village to village, from block to block, and from district to

district and, therefore, there cannot be one programme for all people.

2. Principle of cultural difference. Extension work is based on the culturalbackground of the people with whom the work is done. Improvement can onlybegin from the level of the people where they are. This means that the extension

worker has to know the level of the knowledge, and the skills of the people,

methods and tools used by them, their customs, traditions, beliefs, values etc.3. Principle of participation. Extension helps people to help themselves. Good

extension work is directed towards assisting rural families to work out their own

problems rather than giving them ready-made solutions. Actual participation and


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experience of people in these programmes creates self-confidence in them and

also they learn more by doing.

4.Principle of adaptability. People differ from each other, one group differs from

another group and conditions also differ from place to place. An extension

programme should be flexible, so that necessary changes can be made wheneverneeded, to meet the varying conditions.

5. The grass roots principle of organisation. A group of rural people in localcommunity should show ownership of extension work. The programme should fit

in with the local conditions. The aim of organising the local group is to

demonstrate the value of the new practices or programmes so that more and more

people would participate.

6. The leadership principle. Extension work is based on the full utilisation of local

leadership. The selection and training of local leaders to enable them to help carry

out extension work is essential to the success of the programme. People havemore faith in local leaders and they should be used to put across a new idea so as

to gain acceptance with the least resistance.

7. The whole-family principle. Extension work will have a better chance ofsuccess if the extension workers have a whole-family approach instead of

piecemeal approach or separate and unintegrated approach. Extension work is,

therefore, for the whole family, i.e. for male, female and the youth.

8. Principle of co-operation. Extension is a co-operative venture. It is a joint

democratic enterprise in which rural people co-operate with their village, block

and district officials to pursue a common cause.

9. Principle of satisfaction. The end-product of the effort of extension teaching is

the satisfaction that comes to the farmer, his wife or youngsters as the result ofsolving a problem, meeting a need, acquiring a new skill or some other changes in

behaviour. Satisfaction is the key to success in extension work. "A satisfied

customer is the best advisements.

10. The evaluation principle. Extension is based upon the methods of science, and

it needs constant evaluation. The effectiveness of the work is measured in termsof the changes brought about in the knowledge, skill, and attitude and adoption

behaviour of the people but not merely in terms of achievement of physicaltargets.


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Differences between Formal Education and Extension Education

Extension work is considered as an aspect of adult education which differs from formal or

classroom education in that it prepares its clientele to tackle the problems of today and helps

them to live here and now. Formal education on the other hand, prepares its students for life after

school years. It may, however, be mentioned here that when extension education is put intoaction for educating the rural people, it does not remain formal education. In that sense, there are

several differences between the two. Some of these differences are:

Formal Education Extension Education

1. The teacher starts with theory and works up topractical.

1. The teacher (extension worker) starts withpractical and may take up theory later on.

2. Students study subjects 2. Farmers study problems.

3. Students must adapt themselves to the fixedcurriculum offered

3. It has no fixed curriculum or course of studyand the farmers help to formulate the curriculum

4. Authority rests with the teacher. 4. Authority rests with the farmers.5. Class attendance is compulsory. 5. Participation is voluntary.

6. Teacher instructs the students. 6. Teacher teaches and also learns from thefarmers.

7. Teaching is only through instructors. 7. Teaching is also through local leaders.

8. Teaching is mainly vertical 8. Teaching is mainly horizontal.9. The teacher has more or less homogeneousaudience.

9. The teacher has a large and heterogeneousaudience.

10. It is rigid. 10. It is flexible.11. It has all pre-planned and pre-decided

programmes

11. It has freedom to develop programmes locally

and they are based on the needs and expresseddesires of the people.

12. It is more theoretical. 12. It is more practical and intended forimmediate application in the solution of problems.

Why Extension?

Society they say is dynamic, in reality it is seen that what was applicable in the past may be

obsolete at present and likewise it can be said that techniques and methods prevalent at present

may not be applied in future. The nature of problem is changing day by day, therefore, in orderto scientifically tackle new problems, it is necessary that there should be such an institution,

which should act as a bridge between scientists and farmers to ensure a continue transmission of

technology or new techniques and method to the farmers and on the other hand address the

problems of farmers to the scientists.

Research Centre Extension Personnel Problems of PeopleSuch an institution, which mediates between farmers and scientists was established and is called

Extension system. The people working in this institution are called Extension personnel

Why Study Extension?It is more important to lay emphasis on How to teach instead of on What to teach so that the

people can be encouraged to adopt new research techniques easily. In other words, if a person isvery knowledgeable of various methods and techniques but does not know how to explain them


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or express them, then his knowledge has no meaning. Therefore, the power to express knowledge

and viewpoint also plays a crucial role. Extension Personnel should not only be aware of

objectives the programmes but should also be aware of prevalent conditions, problems,requirements and circumstances. After analyzing, the situation then extension personnel should

give information about scientific techniques, to their clients according to their needs and

requirements. Therefore, the study of extension education is necessary for extension personnel,so that they can encourage the adoption of new techniques.

UNIT TWO: HISTORICAL ANTECEDENT OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

Objectives:By studying this unit, students are expected to:

Understand the development of extension education in the world Learn about the factors or antecedents of extension education Appreciated the development of extension services in Ghana

History of Extension Education in the WorldThe word Extension was first time used to describe the concept of taking teaching andlearning outside the walls of university in the form ofUniversity Extension orExtension of

the University in Britain in 1840. Many scholars and academics in Europe and elsewhere used

the word Extension to describe the concept of extending university education to the working

masses, who by the virtue of their work could not be on university campus to obtain universityeducation. In his report entitled suggestions for the Extension of the university in 1850,

William Sewell of Britain used the word Extension in calling for the need to take teaching and

learning outside the boundaries of university campus so as to provide opportunity for theworking population to obtain university education and benefit from knowledge generated in the

various universities and other educational institutions of higher learning.

Also, James Stuart of Trinity College, Cambridge University in 1867-68, used the word

extension when he was addressing Women Association and Working Mens Clubs of North

England. Again in 1871, he appealed to the officials of the Cambridge University to establish

Extension centres under the supervision of university, so that these centres can be used as aplatform to deliver lecture to the people. His effort in this field earned him the aculeate Father

ofUniversity Extension. In a formal way, Cambridge University in 1873, London University in

1876 and Oxford University in 1878 developed Extension system, which worked among people.In 1880, James Stuart work came to be known as Extension movement. According to

Websters dictionary the term Extension means Branch of a university for student who cannot

attend the University properly. In other words, the word Extension is used in the contextwhich signifies an out of school system of education.

In the eighth decade of the 19th century, the word Extension was used in the form of Extensioneducation in U.S.A. This was to respond to the problem of rural people migration to urban areas

which characterized labour mobility in the latter half of the 19th century. This phenomenon

created two major problems in U.S.A.:

(i) The migration of rural people to cities created labour constraint in the rural area and


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hence, the agricultural sector suffered a setback, and

(ii) The increase of urban population created education, employment and housing related

problems.

Therefore, in curtailing this problem, the Philadelphia Committee was established in 1785. The

committee recommended the institutionalization of Out of school education in order to keeprural people in rural areas. Also in 1862 President Roosevelt established a county commission

under the chairmanship of Liverty Hydevelle. Its objectives were:

(i) How to stop migration of rural people to cities?(ii) How to engage rural people in agricultural and rural development programmes?

The above recommendations were arrived at based on the fact that industrial development is not

possible without agricultural development for that matter the rural areas must not be deprived ofthe needed human resource to help in the agricultural development. The implementation of the

above recommendation required institutionalization of out of school educational institution to

organize extension education. The passage of Smith Leaver Act (1914) provides the legal

framework for the establishment of out of school educational institution to organize and managethe dissemination of knowledge and practical skills to the rural population. The passage of the

Act also led to the integration of cooperative Extension service by which out of school educationwas organized. As a result, rural people were able to bring about developments and progress in

farming and housing. This type of education comes to be known as Agricultural Extension

Education.

Historical Perspective of Agricultural Extension in GhanaAgricultural extension activities in Ghana started in the nineteenth century by the early

missionaries and foreign owned companies who main focused was in the production of export

crops such as coffee, cocoa and rubber. Therefore all extension activities were organized to

provide information and inputs on only these export crops to farmers. Little or no extensionactivities were carried out on food crops and livestock production.

Agricultural Extension activities in the immediate post independent period were still tilted to the

promotion of cocoa, coffee and other export crops as the new independent administration

inherited the colonial institutional structures which were put in place to carry out research and

extension activities on export crops. After independence, Ghana tried various approaches andmodels of organizing extension activities and broadens the scope to include food crops and

livestock. But for a few agricultural extension programmes, such as the farmers co-operative

movement and the United Ghana Farmers Co-operative Council (UGFCC) which initiated andimplemented extension activities for its members with public support, most of the extension

projects implemented in Ghana were largely donor-assisted projects.

In the 1970s and 1980s, all the departments of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture undertook

separate extension services. Agricultural extension was therefore fragmented among the various

departments within the ministry. Thus, the crop and livestock departments carried separate and

independent extension services. In 1987 however, MOFA established the Department ofAgricultural Extension Services (DAES) to bring all splinter MOFA extension services under

one umbrella.


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The DAES used the World Bank Training and Visit (T & V) extension system which involves

regular training and field visits. This system also saw the withdrawal of MOFA from the

procurement and distribution of agricultural inputs, including credit. This extension initiativewas supported with World Bank funding through the National Agricultural Extension Project

(NAEP) which was implemented between 1992 and 1999. This project was set up and

implemented to help(i) improve efficiency in the management and delivery of extension services,(ii) improve the relevance of technologies available to farmers, and(iii) strengthen the technical departments of MOFA.

In August 1998, the government unified the extension services of MOFA and COCOBOD for the

purpose of providing farmers with more cost-effective agricultural extension services. With the

merger, MOFA took ministerial responsibility for cocoa extension. The challenge for MOFA isto:

(i) develop the capacity for cocoa extension and

(ii) collaborate with the relevant agencies and private sector organizations to support the

cocoa industry.

As part of the unified agricultural extension strategy, Agricultural Extension Agents(AEAs) are trained once a month by Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) drawn from the subject

matter or technical departments of MOFA. The AEAs visit groups of contact farmers on a

fortnightly basis. Each contact farmer group has a minimum of 10 farmers and each AEA

interacts with between 16 and 24 of such groups in a farming season.Interaction with farmers is done by way of farm demonstrations and discussions with farmer

groups.

Summary

Notwithstanding the various viewpoints regarding the definition of extension education there is a

growing agreement that extension education can be defined in a broad terms as an appliedbehavioural science, the knowledge of which is applied to bring about desirable changes in the

behavioural complex of human beings through out of school educational programmes.

The main task of extension education is the dissemination of practical information to rural people

and assist them applied the information in improving their living standards. Extension operates

on the principles of needs and interest, cultural difference, cooperation, leadership among others.

Although extension education uses instructional methods and strategies to help influence the

behaviour of rural people, it differs from formal education in so many ways. Whiles formaleducation starts with theory and ends at practicals and extension education start with practicals

and may take theory later. Also while formal education is guided by a pre determine curriculum,

extension education do not have fixed rigid curriculum its curriculum is farmers problems needsand interest.


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CHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTERCHAPTER TWOTWOTWOTWO

COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION

IntroductionCommunication is an activity much taken for granted. It appears ironic that we sometimes failed

to fully appreciate the power of communication in shaping our lives and work when, in reality,we are relentlessly engaged ourselves in various day-to-day forms, means, and problems of

communication. Extension education is essentially a process of communication, thus

communication of ideas and skills between and among people. Ability to communicate

determines to a very large extent the success or failure of an extension worker. Thereforeextension educators and practitioners alike must have adequate skills in communication and

being capable of initiating and managing communication process in dissemination agricultural

information to farmers as well as assist package farmers problems and concerns for researchattention.

ObjectivesAfter studying this chapter, you should be able to:

explain clearly the term communication understand communication process identify elements of communication process discuss, vividly the communication models Identify barriers to communication be abreast with ways of communicating effectively be able to apply communication process or model in analyzing communication problems

in Extension

appreciate the concept of behavioural change communication and its application inextension

UNIT ONE: COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The Meaning of CommunicationCommunication is the basis for all human interactions and provides the means for individual orgroup of people to relate reciprocally and hence enable groups to function. When we

communicate, it is because we have an idea or a feeling that we want to share with someone. In

order to share it, someone has to receive what we are communicating. Effective communicationexists between two people when the receiver interprets the senders message in the same way the

sender intended.

The process of communication is fundamental to extension training of influencing desire

behaviour acquisition and change. Thus learning processes, the dissemination of innovations orsocial reengineering and change cannot be explained without reference to communication.


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Communication DefinedThere is growing disagreement even among communication experts themselves as to which

among human behaviours count as acts of communication. Communication may either be verbal(use of spoken word or sound) or non-verbal (use of gestures, facial expressions, etc.).

According to Rogers et al. (1981), communication is a process that involves the exchange of

ideas between two or more individuals in an attempt to arrive at convergence in meaning. James(1990) opined that communication is a process involving the passing of messages from one

person to another through the use of symbols which all parties in the communication process

understand. Communication is widely seen as a two-way process in which the sender (source ofinformation/message) and receiver of information are seen as active participants who are

involved in an exchange process and therefore, swap roles.

Communication can be defined as:1. The means of sending messages

2. The transmission of information

3. That situation in which a source transmits a message to a receiver with conscious intent to

affect the latters behaviours.4. The verbal interchange of thoughts or ideas

5. The process that links discontinuous parts of the living world together6. A process that makes common to two or several what was the monopoly of one or some.

Communication Process:Communication process starts with a sender/source; who has a message for a receiver. Two ormore people are always involved in communication. The sender has the responsibility for the

message. The sender's message travels to the receiver through one or more channels chosen by

the sender. The channels may be verbal or non-verbal. They may involve only one of the senses,hearing for example, or they may involve all five of the senses: hearing, sight, touch, smell, and

taste. Non-verbal communication, popularly referred to as body language, relies primarily on

seeing rather than hearing.

Elements of commendation processThe process of communication between two people includes seven basic elements:

a) The intentions, ideas, feelings of the sender and the way he/she decides to behave, allof which lead to his/her sending a message that carries some content.

b) The senderencoding his/her message by translating his/her ideas, feelings, emotions, andintentions into a message appropriate for sending.

c) Sending the message to the receiver.d) The channel through which the message is translated.e) The receiver decoding the message by taking it and interpreting its meaning. His/her

interpretation depends on how well the receiver understands the content of the message

and the intentions of the sender.

f) The receiver responding internally to this interpretation of the message.g) The amount of noise that interferes with communication.

The source or sender is the individual or a group working together or an institution responsible

for initiating communication and ensuring that the objectives of the exercise are clearly defined

and achieved. In addition, the source (extension agent or practitioner) must strive to update his


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knowledge through training, subject matter wise, as well as in the methodologies of

communication itself.

The message is the stimuli or idea that the source transmits. Messages must be clear, useful to

the audience, relevant to the environment and timely with respect to their livelihood activities.

Message content should be relevant to the receiver; this implies that the message sent must betechnically feasible, economically beneficial and acceptable with respect to the norms and values

of the society.

Messages in extension communication bear particular characteristics which may enhance orhinder their acceptability by the target audience

These characteristics are:

1. Relative advantage- The degree to which an idea or technologicalinnovation is perceived as being better than the one it seeks to replace

2. Compatibility- The extent to which an idea or message is in line orattuned with socio-cultural values and beliefs of a receiver.

3. Complexity-The degree to which an idea or message is perceived asrelatively difficult to use and understand.4. Trial ability/ divisibility- The extent to which an innovation can be

experimented with on limited scale.

5. Observability- The degree to which the results of an innovation ormessage content are visible to others

6. Risk level- The extent to which an idea or message is perceived toexpose the receiver to vulnerability due to failure.

A channel or medium is the means by which a message travels from the source to the receiver.The human senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and feeling) make up the most common means of

exchanging ideas. The methods include visual and oral, spoken and written. The more senses

employed in the communication process, the greater the chance that it is understood.

The receiver is the target or audience of communication. The audience is those, whom the

source/sender wishes to receive, understand and use the idea. In extension communication it is

important that the receiver of each message be clearly defined and segregated into homogenousgroups for effective communication. If the audience is to make progress, the extension teacher

somehow helps them to change their knowledge, attitude or behaviour. If no change takes place

there has been no communication no progress. Good extension teaching requires a thoroughstudy of audience. This means their abilities, backgrounds, interests and previous

accomplishments. The more we know about the audience, the better job of teaching we can do.

The effect of the communication is felt when the receiver decodes the message (attachesmeaning to the symbols) and develops an idea in his mind which he may or may not use.

Feedbackis the response from the receiver to the source of the message. Feedback is a control

device and an important indicator of the success of communication as well as areas requiring

modification and further enquiry.


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UNIT TWO: MODELS OF COMMUNICATIONIn general, a model is a systematic representation of an object or event in idealized and abstract

form.The elements of communication explained above provide the building blocks from which all

models of communication are drawn.

1. Source/sender2. Message

3. Channel/medium

4. Receiver5. Effect, and

6. Feedback

Models of communication provide a theoretical conceptual framework depicting and explaining

the process of communication. Various models have tried to depict and explain communication

process. Some of them include the linear model, interactional model, transactional modelamongothers.

Linear model

Linear model is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding

a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs the linearmodel assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no

feedback from the receiver.

This is perhaps the most basic model of communication. Communication involves two people

the sender and the receiver of the message. The communication process is relatively

unproblematic: one person sends a message, and then another person receives it. In this way, the

flow of information is linear: this model failed to illustrate various processes that take placewithin the key actors of the communication process and it does not also indicate the possibility of

interference or barriers. There are several linear models of communication. Some of theminclude the Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver models which were designed to make electrical

signal transmission more efficient.

Shannon's Model of Communication Process

Shannon's (1948) model of the communication process perhaps is the most important beginning

of theoretical modeling in the field communication as a discipline. It provided, for the first time,

a general model of the communication process that could be treated as the common ground of

such diverse disciplines as journalism, rhetoric, linguistics, and speech and hearing sciences. Partof its success is largely due to its significant role in the reduction of communication process to a

set of basic constituents that do not only explain how communication happens, but why

communication sometimes fails.

Notwithstanding the recent development in the field of communication studies, Shannons model

of communication remains one of the first things most students learn about communication whenthey take an introductory communication class. Indeed, it is one of only a handful of theoretical


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statements about the communication process that can be found in introductory textbooks in both

mass communication and interpersonal communication. The model provides an excellent

breakdown of elements of communication process into eight discrete components:

1. An information source. Presumably a person who creates a message.

2. The message, which is both sent by the information source and received by thedestination.3. A transmitter. For Shannon's immediate purpose a telephone instrument that captures an

audio signal, converts it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmissionthrough the telephone network.

4. The signal, which flows through a channel. There may be multiple parallel signals, as isthe case in face-to-face interaction where sound and gesture involve different signalsystems that depend on different channels and modes of transmission. There may be

multiple serial signals, with sound and/or gesture turned into electronic signals, radio

waves, or words and pictures in a book.5. A carrier orchannel, a medium through which information/message are transmitted. The

most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper, andpostal systems. Note that there may be multiple channels associated with the multiple

layers of transmission, as described above.6. Noise, in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried.7. A receiver. In Shannon's conception, the receiving telephone instrument. In face to face

communication a set of ears (sound) and eyes (gesture). In television, several layers ofreceiver, including an antenna and a television set.

8. A destination. Presumably a person who consumes and processes the message.

Figure 2.1: Shannon's (1948) linear model of communication

Interactive Model

An interactional view of communication assumes that the sender who encodes a message alsoreceives feedback from the receiver who decodes the message. This view also includes channel

ormedium of communication, as well as the physical environment(noise, seating arrangement,

etc.). The interactive model can also liken to a two linear models stacked on top of each other.

Channel


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The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver having received the message,

then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender in the form of feedback.

The concept of feedback mechanism portrayed by this model, indicates that communication isnot a one way as viewed by the linear model, but a two way process.

The interactive communication model is a way to represent how two people communicate. Oneperson, the sender, wants to send a piece of information, the message. The sender uses a

communication channel, such as email or face-to-face conversation, to a second person, the

receiver. Sometimes noise, a term referring to any distractions, will compromise the message.Once the receiver has the message, he or she will send feedback, letting the sender know

whether the message was transmitted well and how the receiver feels about it. The

communication of both people, the sender and receiver, is influenced by their individualexperiences, culture, and knowledge. This is called their field of experience. The field of

experience also includes communicators cultural background, ethnicity geographic location,

extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of their lifetime.Draw backs there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.

Figure 2.2: Interactive model of communication

Transactional model

The main drawback of the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators canboth send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that

communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.

The transactional model suggests that both the receiver and sender of the message change rolesmost of the time. The receiver is also a sender of the message, while the sender is also a receiver

of the message.This model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each

person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously

sending and receiving messages. This model acknowledges neither creators nor consumers ofmessages, preferring to label the people associated with the model as communicators who bothcreate and consume messages.

There are three implications in the transactional model:

i. Transactional means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changingprocess. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing,

and your environment is also continually changing as well.

Immediate h sical environment

Immediate h sical environment

Feedback

Sender Encoding ReceiverChannel or medium Decoding


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ii. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements.There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no

message without a source.

iii. Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as theirbackground, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.

Figure 2.3 shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account noise orinterference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate

that communication happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common

campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It alsotakes into account changes that happen in the communicators fields of personal and common

experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver

simultaneously.

Figure 2.3: A transactional model of communicationSource: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadsworth.Other models of communication include the power-in-communication model and cultural model.

Power-in-communication model: Simply put, this model of communication stresses the

importance of power relations in any form of communication. Not only does power influencecommunication; it is part of any communication situation. This is, in fact, especially so in

business communication where a variety of dominant/subordinate roles are prevalent.

Cultural model: Clearly, this model puts culture at the centre of the communication process.

Communication happens because of culture, so there is no adequate understanding of the nature


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and process of communication without recognizing the central role of culture in it.

Communication involves language and other non-verbal modes of interaction; all these are

culturally-shaped. Communication also involves the transmission and negotiation of meaning;these are also cultural practices.

Why does communication happen?There are at least five general reasons why we communicate. These are: (1) to influence people,

(2) to establish or maintain interpersonal relationships, (3) to acquire different kinds of

knowledge, (4) to help people, and (5) to play .Out of these general purposes of communicationemerge both some motivations for communication, as well as results which we hope to achieve

by communication.

UNIT THREE: SKILLS NEEDED IN COMMUNICATION

IntroductionGood communication skills are skills that facilitate people to communicate effectively with one

another. Effectual communication engages the choice of the best communications channel, thetechnical know-how to use the channel, the presentation of information to the target audience,

and the skill to understand responses received from others. Self development, interpersonalskills, mutual understanding, mutual cooperation and trust is also important to set a complete

channel of most effective and winning communication skills

Objectives:At the end this unit, students are expected to:

Know what is mean by good communication skills Understand the various types of communication skills What constitute a good communication skills The role of listening in developing effective communication skills Identify barriers to communication Understand skills require to overcome the barriers of communication

Types of communication skillsThere are mainly three types of communication skills, expressive skills, listening skills and skills

for managing the overall process of communication.

Expressive skills are required to convey message to others through words, facial expressions and

body language. Listening skills are skills that are used to obtain messages or information from

others. These help to clearly understand what a person feels and thinks about you or understand

the other person closely. Skills for managing the overall process of communication help torecognize the required information and develop a strong hold on the existing rules of

communication and interaction

Sending Effective MessagesYou must be able to send messages effectively as well as receive the information that is sent to

you. There are eight basic skills in making sure your ideas and feelings are effectivelycommunicated:


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1. Clearly own your message by using personal pronouns such as I and my.

2. Make your messages are complete and specific.

3. Make your verbal and nonverbal messages congruent with one another.4. Avoid making your message redundant.

5. Ask for feedback concerning the way your messages are being received.

6. Make the message appropriate to the receiver and frame of reference.7. Describe your feelings, by name, action or figure of speech.

8. Describe other members behaviour without evaluating or interpreting.

Effective ListeningListening can have a very big effect on how people relate to one another. When you focus and

really listen to the words, feelings and meanings behind what someone says, it makes it easier to

gain an understanding of what that person has communicated. Listening also involves eitherverbally or nonverbally encouraging the speaker to continue. Listening is often separated into

three levels:

1. Hearing - this is the lowest level of listening when you comprehend the spoken word,

but do not react to it. It is sometimes known as a half-listen. An example is when youhear your teacher talking, but you dont know what he/she has said.

2. Listening - this is the second level of listening and it is characterized by the listenerbecoming more aware of the meaning of the sounds they hear. Little response occurs

from the receiver of the message.

3. Perceiving - this is the highest level of listening. This level involves being attentive to

the sender and processing the message thoroughly by relating it to experiences, ideas andfeelings. Perceiving is critical, appreciative, and creative listening.

Three things are needed before we can get others to accept the idea of exchange:1. We should help people to feel free to express their opinions in order to

establish channels of two-way communications.

2. We need to help people feel secure enough to be willing to experiment with

new ideas.

3. We must be willing to respect the right of the person willing to try change or

new ideas to fail, on occasion, without condemnation.

Active or Reflective listening is a communication process aimed at helping the speaker to

communicate meaning, feeling and intent. Often it is compared to looking in a mirror. The role

of the listener is to reflect back to the speaker all the verbal and nonverbal parts of his/hermessage--to be the mirror of words, feelings, and actions. The speaker, then, can confirm the

reflected response or restate his/her message so as to more accurately convey the intended

meaning.

Active listening can: Promote understanding and acceptance of others.

Facilitate problem solving. Promote a relationship interactive between the sender and receiver. Influence people to be more willing to listen to others.


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Use of FeedbackFeedback is reporting to an individual the kind of impressions he/she is making on you or

reporting your reactions to him/her.Feedback is useful when:

1. It is descriptive rather than evaluative.

2. It is specific rather than general.3. It takes into account the needs of both the receiver and the giver of feedback.4. It is directed toward behaviour which the receiver can do something about.5. It is solicited, rather than imposed.6. It is well-timed.7. It is checked to insure clear communication.

Barriers to Communication

Problems with any one of the components of the communication model can become a barrier tocommunication. These barriers suggest opportunities for improving communication. According

to Bove and Thill (2000), communication barriers are usually due to a number of factors: (1)differences in perception and language, (2) Poor listening, (3) Emotional interference, (4)

Cultural differences, (5) Physical distraction.

Differences in perception and language

Simply put, all of us have different mental images of the world or reality. Even if we experience

the same thing, we may still think of it in different ways. We remember details of an experiencebased on what we think are worth remembering. So a speaker and a listener may not be able to

understand what one is talking about because both have different things in mind. Language, too,

is arbitrary. The words that we use may mean differently to different people

Poor listening

Having ears of our own does not necessarily mean we are good listeners. Listening is a skill that

needs harnessing. Sometimes, it is a matter of attitude; we are not just interested in what people

say because we may be more concerned with the way everyone looks.Focus on the message andthesincerity to understand what another person is saying are crucial elements in good listening.

Emotional interference

Ones state of mind and psych has direct effect on how he/she communicate effectively and alsoones ability to decode or understands and relate to a message being communicated. Emotional

and sentimental state of mind such as happiness, madness, excitement, agitation, nervousness, or

fearfulness constitutes critical barriers to engaging in effective communication. Emotions affectthe shape of communication. It is hard to be able to analyse issues objectively when you are very

emotional. You may not be able to think more realistically and truthfully about the content of the

message being sent or received.


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Cultural differences

Nationality, age, education, social status, economic position, and religion are just some of the

sources of cultural differences. If you share very little life experience with your co-

communicator, successful communication may be difficult to achieve. The same difficulty may

be experienced in the workplace: even the sight of your boss might create a certain distance thatwill make communication an agonizing experience. Much worse is when you do not know how

to deal with the boss; this is because different cultures deal with power relations differently.

Physical distraction

Of course, everything around may be cause for some distraction: noise coming from vehicles,

faulty phone connection, unclear photocopy, loud music, poor lighting, and health problems,

among others.. They may result in loss of concentration and failure to understand what is beingcommunicated by the other party. Physical distractions are the physical things that get in the way

of communication. These physical distractions are common on farms. If the phone rings, the

tendency is to answer it even if the caller is interrupting a very important or even delicateconversation.

Two people talking facing each other without a desk or truck-door between them have a muchmore open and personal sense of communication. Uncomfortable meeting places may include a

place on the farm that is too hot or too cold. Another example is a meeting room withuncomfortable chairs that soon cause people to want to stand even if it means cutting short the

discussion. Noise is a physical distraction simply because it is hard to concentrate on aconversation if hearing is difficult.

Other factors that also present barrier to effective communication include:

1. Muddled messages - Effective communication starts with a clear message. Contrast these twomessages: "Please be here about 7:00 tomorrow morning." "Please be here at7:00 tomorrow morning." The one word difference makes the first message muddled and the

second message clear. Muddled messages are a barrier to communication because the sender

leaves the receiver unclear about the intent of the sender. Muddled messages have many causes.

The sender may be confused in his or her thinking. The message may be little more than a vagueidea. The problem may be semantics, e.g., note this muddled newspaper ad: "Dog for sale. Will

eat anything. Especially likes children. Call 888-3599 for more information."

Feedback from the receiver is the best way for a sender to be sure that the message is clear ratherthan muddled. Clarifying muddled messages is the responsibility of the sender. The sender

hoping the receiver will figure out the message does little to remove this barrier to

communication.

2. Stereotyping - Stereotyping causes us to typify a person, a group, an event or a thing on

oversimplified conceptions, beliefs, or opinions. Stereotyping is a barrier to communication

when it causes people to act as if they already know the message that is coming from the senderor worse, as if no message is necessary because "everybody already knows." Both senders and

listeners should continuously look for and address thinking, conclusions and actions based on

stereotypes.


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3. Wrong channel - Variation of channels helps the receiver understand the nature and

importance of a message. Using a training video on cleaning practices helps new employees

grasp the importance placed on herd health.Simple rules for selection of a channel cause more problems than they solve. In choice of a

channel, the sender needs to be sensitive to such things as the complexity of the message (good

morning versus a construction contract); the consequences of a misunderstanding (medication fora sick animal versus a guess about tomorrow's weather); knowledge, skills and abilities of the

receiver (a new employee versus a partner in the business); and immediacy of action to be taken

from the message (instructions for this morning's work versus a plan of work for 2015).

4. Language - Words are not reality. Words as the sender understands them are combined with

the perceptions of those words by the receiver. Language represents only part of the whole. We

fill in the rest with perceptions. Trying to understand a foreign language easily demonstrateswords not being reality. Being "foreign" is not limited to the language of another country. It can

be the language of another farm

5. Lack of feedback - Feedback is the mirror of communication. Feedback mirrors what thesender has sent. Feedback is the receiver sending back to the sender the message as perceived.

Without feedback, communication is one-way. Feedback happens in a variety of ways. Asking aperson to repeat what has been said, e.g., repeat instructions, is a very direct way of getting

feedback. Feedback may be as subtle as a stare, a puzzled look, a nod, or failure to ask any

questions after complicated instructions have been given. Both sender and receiver can play an

active role in using feedback to make communication truly two-way.Feedback should be helpful rather than hurtful. Prompt feedback is more effective that feedback

saved up until the "right" moment. Feedback should deal in specifics rather than generalities.

6. Poor listening skills - Listening is difficult. A typical speaker says about 125 words per

minute. The typical listener can receive 400-600 words per minute. Thus, about 75 percent oflistening time is free time. The free time often sidetracks the listener. The solution is to be an

active rather than passive listener.

One important listening skill is to be prepared to listen. Tune out thoughts about other people and

other problems. Search for meaning in what the person is saying. A mental outline or summary

of key thoughts can be very helpful. Avoid interrupting the speaker. "Shut up" is a usefullistening guideline. "Shut up some more" is a useful extension of this guideline. Withhold

evaluation and judgment until the other person has finished with the message. A listener's

premature frown, shaking of the head, or bored look can easily convince the other person there isno reason to elaborate or try again to communicate his or her excellent idea.

7.Interruptions - The interruptions may be due to something more pressing, rudeness, lack of

privacy for discussion, a drop-in visitor, an emergency, or even the curiosity of someone elsewanting to know what two other people are saying. Regardless of the cause, interruptions are a

barrier to communication. In the extreme, there is a reluctance of farmers even to attempt

discussion with an extension officer because of the near certainty that the conversation will be

interrupted.


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Facilitating Communication

In addition to removal of specific barriers to communication, the following general guidelinesmay also facilitate communication.

1. Have a positive attitude about communication. Defensiveness interferes with communication.2. Work at improving communication skills. It takes knowledge and work. The communication

model and discussion of barriers to communication provide the necessary knowledge. This

increased awareness of the potential for improving communication is the first step to bettercommunication.

3. Include communication as a skill to be evaluated along with all the other skills in each

person's job description. Help other people improve their communication skills by helping them

understand their communication problems.4. Make communication goal oriented. Relational goals come first and pave the way for other

goals. When the sender and receiver have a good relationship, they are much more likely to

accomplish their communication goals.

5. Approach communication as a creative process rather than simply part of the chore of workingwith people. Experiment with communication alternatives. What works with one person may not

work well with another person. Vary channels, listening techniques, and feedback techniques.6. Accept the reality of miscommunication. The best communicators fail to have perfect

communication. They accept miscommunication and work to minimize its negative

UNIT FOUR: INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOUR CHANGE COMMUNICATION

IntroductionBehaviour change communication (BCC) is the strategic use of communication to promote

positive practices and actions, based on proven theories and models of behaviour change. BCC

employs a systematic process beginning with formative research and behaviour analysis,

followed by communication planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation.Audiences are carefully segmented, messages and materials are pre-tested, and both mass media

and interpersonal channels are used to achieve defined behavioural objectives.

A clear understanding of behaviour change is critical in the appreciation of the concept ofbehaviour change communication. For that matter, this unit begins by introducing students to the

concept and theories of behaviour change.

ObjectivesAfter reading this unit, you are expected to:

Understand what is mean by Behaviour change communication

Appreciate the various theories or models of behaviour change Understand the role of communication in influencing behaviour change Understand the difference between information communication and behaviour change

communication Know the factors to consider in designing and BCC program


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Behaviour Change TheoryBehavioural change theories and models are attempts to explain the reasons behind alterations

in individuals' behavioural patterns. These theories cite environmental, personal, and behaviouralcharacteristics as the major factors in behavioural determination. In recent years, there has been

increased interest in the application of these theories in the areas of health, education,

agricultural extension and rural development with the hope that understanding behaviouralchange will improve the services offered in these areas.

Each behavioural change theory or model focuses on different factors in attempting to explainbehavioural change. Of the many that exist, the most prevalent are the learning theories, Social

Cognitive Theory, Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour, Transtheoretical Model

and the Health Action Process Approach

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is an individual's impression of their own ability to perform a demanding or

challenging task such as applying herbicide or undergoing surgery. This impression is basedupon factors like the individual's prior success in the task or in related tasks, the individual's

physiological state, and outside sources of persuasion. Self-efficacy is thought to be predictive of

the amount of effort an individual will expend in initiating and maintaining a behaviouralchange, so although self-efficacy is not a behavioural change theory per se, it is an important

element of many of the theories, including the Health Belief Model, the Theory of Planned

Behaviour and the Health Action Process Approach.

Learning theories/behaviour analytic theories of changeFrom behaviourists like Burrhus Frederic Skinner come the learning theories, which state thatcomplex behaviour is learned gradually through the modification of simpler behaviours (learning

theory is dealt in entails in the next chapter). Imitation and reinforcement play important roles inthese theories, which state that individuals learn by duplicating behaviours they observe in othersand that rewards are essential to ensuring the repetition of desirable behaviour. As each simple

behaviour is established through imitation and subsequent reinforcement, the complex behaviour

develops. When verbal behaviour is established the organism can learn through rule-governed

behaviour and thus not all action needs to be contingency shaped. Research had established thatimitation play a critical role in the learning of language.

Social learning/social cognitive theoryAccording to the social learning theory, which is also known as the social cognitive theory,

behavioural change is determined by environmental, personal, and behavioural elements. Asshown in the figure 2.4 below, each factor affects each of the others. For example, in congruence

with the principles of self-efficacy, an individual's thoughts affect their behaviour and anindividual's characteristics elicit certain responses from the social environment. Likewise, an

individual's environment affects the development of personal characteristics as well as the

person's behaviour, and an individual's behaviour may change their environment as well as the

way the individual thinks or feels. Social learning theory focuses on the reciprocal interactionsbetween these factors, which are hypothesised to determine behavioural change.


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The theory proposes that people are driven not by inner forces, but by external factors. This

model suggests that human functioning can be explained by a triadic interaction of behaviour,

personal and environmental factors. This is often known as reciprocal determinism.Environmental factors represent situational influences and environment in which behaviour is

preformed while personal factors include instincts, drives, traits, and other individual

motivational forces.

Figure 2.4: social cognitive model of behaviour change model

Theory of Reasoned ActionTheory of Reason Actionsuggests that behaviour is dependent on ones intention to perform thebehaviour. Intention is determined by an individuals attitude (beliefs and values about the

outcome of the behaviour) and subjective norms (beliefs about what other people think the

person should do or general social pressure). Behaviour is also determined by an individualsperceived behaviouralcontrol, defined as an individuals perceptions of their ability or feelings

of self-efficacy to perform behaviour. This relationship is typically dependent on the type of

relationship and the nature of the situation.

The Theory of Reasoned Action assumes that individuals consider behaviours consequences

before performing the particular behaviour. As a result, intention is an important factor indetermining behaviour and behavioural change. According to Icek Ajzen, intentions develop

from an individual's perception of a behaviour as positive or negative together with the

individual's impression of the way their society perceives the same behaviour. Thus, personal

attitude and social pressure shape intention, which is essential to performance of a behaviour andconsequently behavioural change.

Personal factor Environmental

Behaviour


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Figure 2.5: Reasoned Action Model of behaviour change

Theory of Planned Behaviour

In 1985, Ajzen expanded upon the theory of reasoned action, formulating the Theory of PlannedBehaviour, which also emphasises the role of intention in behaviour performance but is intended

to cover cases in which a person is not in control of all factors affecting the actual performance

of a behaviour. As a result, the new theory states that the incidence of actual behaviourperformance is proportional to the amount of control an individual possesses over the behaviour

and the strength of the individual's intention in performing the behaviour. In his article, Ajzen

further hypothesises that self-efficacy is important in determining the strength of the individual'sintention to perform a behaviour.

Transtheoretical (Stages of Change) ModelAccording to the Transtheoretical Model, which is also known as the Stages of Change Model,

behavioural change is a five-step process. The five stages, between which individuals mayoscillate before achieving complete change, are Precontemplation, contemplation,

preparation, action, and maintenance.

Perceived

behavioral

control

BehaviourIntention

Attitude

toward the

behaviour

Subjective

norm


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Figure 2.6: Transtheoretical Model

How can this theory inform your practice? It is essential to match behaviour change interventions to peoples stages. For example, if

an individual is in the Precontemplation stage it is important to raise their awareness

about a behaviour in order for them to contemplate making a behaviour change. Without a planned intervention, people will remain stuck in the early stages due to a lack

of motivation to move through the stages. Consciousness-Raising increasing awareness of the causes (providing educationalmaterials, confrontation, media campaigns, feedback, etc.)

Dramatic Relief producing an emotional experience which is followed by a reducedaffect if some action can be taken (personal testimonies, media campaigns, drama)

Self-reevaluation inviting individuals to make cognitive and emotional assessments oftheir self image (clarify values, provide healthy models, using imagery)

Environmental reevaluation assessments of how the presence or absence of abehaviour might impact ones social environment (documentaries, personal stories,family interventions)

Behaviour Change Communication (BCC)Recent findings in research and development have given a strong indication that, for any impact

of research and technology to be felt in the lives of rural people extension and development

communication practitioners should move from Information, Education Communication (IEC) to

Behaviour Change Communication (BCC).

The terms BCC and IEC are commonly used. What exactly do they mean and what is the

difference between BCC and IEC?

At the Precontemplation stage, an individual may or may not be aware of

a problem but has not thought of changing their behaviour. From

Precontemplation to contemplation, the individual develops a desire tochange a behaviour. Precontemplation is the stage in which people are

not intending to make a change in the near future (often defined as thenext 6 months). Contemplation is the stage where people intend tochange (within the next 6 months). People in this stage are aware of the

pros of changing but also can identify the cons. Preparation represents

the stage where people have a plan of action and intend to take action inthe immediate future (within a month). Action is the stage in which

people make the behaviour change and maintenance represents the stage

where people work to prevent relapse.

Finally, termination represents that stage where individuals have 100percent efficacy and will maintain their behaviour. This stage is the most

difficult to maintain, so many people remain a lifetime in maintenance.

Precontemplation

Maintenance

Preparation

Contemplation

Termination

Action


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Information, Education and Communication:IEC is a process of working with individuals, communities and societies to:

- develop communication strategies to promote positive behaviours which are appropriate totheir settings.

Behaviour Change CommunicationBCC is a process of working with individuals, communities and societies to:

- develop communication strategies to promote positive behaviours which are appropriate totheir settings; AND

- provide a supportive environment which will enable people to initiate and sustain positivebehaviours.

What is the difference between BCC and IEC?Experience has shown that providing people with information and telling them how they should

behave (teaching them) is not enough to bring about behaviour change. While providing

information to help people to make a personal decision is a necessary part of behaviour change,

BCC recognizes that behaviour is not only a matter of having information and making a personalchoice. Behaviour change also requires a supportive environment. Recalling the behaviour

change model, we learned that behaviour is influenced by community and society. Yet

community and society provide the supportive environment necessary for behaviour change. IECis thus part of BCC while BCC builds on IEC.

Designing BCC programBefore designing a BCC intervention, it is important to be clear about exactly whose behaviour is

to be influenced and which aspect of their behaviour should be the focus for change.Communities are made up of different groups with different resource endearment, risk and

vulnerability factors. Even within the same broad group, there may be subgroups with distinctsocio-economic characteristics. Different target groups will require different approaches.Therefore, when making decisions about which target groups and which factors to address, it is

necessary to consider:

which target groups are most vulnerable; which risk / vulnerability factors are most important; which target groups and risk / vulnerability factors the community wants to address; what could be motivators for behaviour change; what could be barriers to behaviour change; what type of messages will be meaningful to each target group;

which communication media would best reach the target group; which services/resources are accessible to the target group; Which target groups and risk / vulnerability factors are feasible in terms of expertise,

resources and time.

What be the feedback mechanism

How will progress be monitored and evaluated


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A successful BCC program requires careful research and thorough pre-testing of communication

materials. It is important not to underestimate the effort that is needed to carry out good quality

behavioural research, which yields findings that are accurate and useful.

Research and proper planning form the foundation of an effective communication campaign.

Knowing the needs of the population and the best means of reaching that audience are crucial in

achieving the goal of raising awareness and, ultimately, changing attitudes and behavioursThekey is to determine the needs and desires of the audience, then deliver messages and products

that offer real benefits. (AIDSCAP Electronic library.)

SUMMARYThe main points in this chapter are:

The process of communication is fundamental to extension, training and passing on information.In general, communication can be defined as: That situation in which a source transmits a

message to a receiver with conscious intent to affect the latters behaviour

The communication process consists of six important elements, they include: Source/sender,

Message, Channel/medium, Receiver, Effect and Feedback. Communication barriers are usuallydue to a number of factors: (1) differences in perception and language, (2) Poor listening, (3)

Emotional interference, (4) Cultural differences, (5) Physical distraction

BCC is a process of working with individuals, communities and societies to developcommunication strategies to promote positive behaviours which are appropriate to their settings

AND provide a supportive environment which will enable people to initiate and sustain positive

behaviours.

CONCLUSIONIn this unit you have learnt the meaning of communication and the important elements that

comprises the communication process. Other areas discussed here include communicationmodels and its comparison. From these discussions, you now know that communication is

something we encounter everyday in our lives.


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CHAPTERTHREECHAPTERTHREECHAPTERTHREECHAPTERTHREETEACHING AND LEARNING IN EXTENSION

Introduction

Teaching simply connotes imparting knowledge or skills. Teaching is both a science and art ofimparting knowledge, skills and practice aim at influence behaviour of learners. Extensionteaching is special aspects of adult education in which the concept and principle of adult teaching

and learning applied in assisting farmers adopt appropriate innovation to help improve standard

of living of rural people.

UNIT ONE: THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING

ObjectivesAt the end of this unit, you would be able to:

Understand the meaning of extension teaching Identify steps in extension teaching How to motivate learners as an extension worker

What is Extension Teaching?Various psychologists defined teaching in different ways: Teaching is commonly defined as anintimate contact between a more mature personality, and a less mature one, which is designed to

further the education of the latter. Teaching is an interactive process primarily involving

classroom talk, which takes place between teacher and pupil, and occurs during certain definableactivities. Teaching is a task of a teacher, which is performed for the development of a child.

The above definitions depict a more formalized way of looking at teaching in a narrowclassroom situation. The concept of teaching as applied within the context of rural development

transcend beyond a narrow classroom situation and a more formalize manner guided by a pre

determined syllabus and curriculum. Teaching in the context of extension and development canbe thought of as providing purposeful direction, and, the management of the learning process.

Note that extension teaching is not giving knowledge or skills to people or communities; but

assisting rural people to produce relatively permanent change through their engagement inlearning experiences. Society, they say is dynamic, so rural people are constantly undergoing

changes in the way they do things through learning and experience. So it the duty of extension

and development workers to help manage this process by providing opportunity for rural peopleto improve on their livelihood activities and standard of living through learning experience.

Steps in Extension TeachingThe following steps are involved in the extension teaching process as shown in the Figure 3.1

Attention, Interest, Desire, Conviction, Action and Satisfaction


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Fig. 3.1: Steps in Extension Teaching (Wilson and Gallup, 1955)

Attention: The first task as an extension and development professional is to attract the attention

of people to new and better ideas for development. People are to be made aware until theirattention is focused on the desirable development change. Therefore, attention is the starting

point to arousal of the interest. Research findings suggest that the attention of people is attracted

by various senses in the following proportions (Reddy, 1998):Seeing - 87.0%

Hearing - 7.0%

Smell - 3.5 %Touch - 1.5 %

Taste - 1 .0 %,

The famous extension saying is, 'seeing is believing '. Thus, seeing and hearing are the major

senses involved to attract attention and increase learning.

Interest: Once attention is captured, extension and development professionals can bring the

audience's attention to developmental needs and arouse their interest in further consideration of

ideas. Extension and development professionals should make them understand how development

contributes to the overall wellbeing of the total community.

Desire: It concerns about the continuation of the audience's interest in the developmental ideas

or better practices, until that interest becomes a desire, or, a motivating force.

Conviction: In this step, people know what action is necessary and just how to take that action.

The extension worker also makes sure that people visualize the action in terms of their ownsituation and acquire confidence in their own ability to participate in the people-centred

developmental initiatives.

Action: Unless this conviction isconverted into action, the efforts of extension for development

will go unrewarded. It is the job of extension and development agents to make it easy for the

people to act. For example, if the adoption of a new high yielding maize variety is the action

ATTENTION

SATISFACTION

ACTION

CONVICTION

DESIRE

INTEREST


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needed by farmers, that variety should be available within the reach of farming communities

along with other recommended package of practices. If the action does not quickly follow desire

and conviction, the new idea may fade away. Therefore, this phase should never be ignored.

Satisfaction: Satisfaction is the end product of extension teaching process. Follow up by

extension and development workers helps people to learn and evaluate the development

progress.

Motivation in Extension Teaching

The job of extension practitioners entails creating situation and opportunity for farmers to learn

improve practice of farming through instructional and communication process. Therefore,knowing what motivate their clients is very imperative if the practitioners are to be successful

their profession. Motivationis a concept that helps explain why people think and behave as they

do.

Motivating adult learners is a key concept for adult programs in agricultural extension education.

As defined by Wlodkowski (1999) Motivation is the natural human capacity to direct energy inthe pursuit of a goal. A low level of motivation can be detrimental to how much a learner gains

from a program. However, educational and rural development research is more focused on the

teaching methods that ensue after the learner is motivated. As a result, knowledge of how to

arouse and maintain student interest in learning lags far behind the knowledge of how tofacilitate learning once the student has the desire to learn. However, facilitators of an adult

education program can encourage and enhance a learners motivation and help the learner come

out from a program with the knowledge and skills they need.

Types of Motivation

Rienties et al, (2009) identified three categories of motivating learners. These are; intrinsicmotivation, extrinsic motivation and a-motivation. However, other available literature points

to the first two as being the only distinct type of motivation for adult learner.

Intrinsic motivation is an internal energy called forth by circumstances that connect with whatis culturally significant to the person. In other words, intrinsic motivation relates to those things

that are near and dear to the learners because of their values, beliefs, or circumstances.

Motivation is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development because it isthrough acting on ones inherent interests that one grows in knowledge and skills With intrinsic

motivation, the desire to learn is based on reward of personal fulfillment without external or

material incentives.

Intrinsic motivation therefore refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in

the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure.Learners are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

attribute their educational results to factors under their own control


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o believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are

not determined by luck),o are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good

grades.

Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are

rewards like money, farm inputs, coercion and threat of punishment. Competition in general is

extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsicrewards of the activity. Here, the learner engages in learning as a means to an end and not

engaged for its own sake. When a person is extrinsically motivated to learn, factors outside

personal interest of the learner are the driving factor behind motivation.

Hancocks (1994) observed that a learners motivation can be derived from one of three attitudes

the learner possess about a program. These attitudes can either be a persons expectancy,

instrumentality, or valence. Expectancy relates to a learners initial confidence and attitude

toward a program. It is a learners expectation of how well they will accomplish the program.Instrumentality regards rewards for certain behaviours. It is a persons subjective estimation of

the likelihood that a particular behaviour will be rewarded.

Theories of Motivation

Incentive theoryA reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behaviour)

with the intent to cause the behaviour to occur again. This is done by associating positive

meaning to the behaviour. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, theeffect is greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can

cause the action to become habit. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people.These two sources are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, respectively asexplained above.

Incentive theory treats motivation and behaviour of the individual as they are influenced bybeliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is

promoted by behavioural psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner and literalized by behaviourists,

especially by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviourism, to mean that a person's actionsalways have social ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to

act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in that manner.

Drive-reduction theoriesThere are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept

that we have certain biological drives, such as hunger.

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