agricultural by-products as feed for ruminants in …

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Please cite this article asYanti and Yayota, Reviews in Agricultural Science, 5:65-76, 2017http://dx.doi.org/10.7831/ras.5.65

Received September 21, 2016, Revised February 3, 2017, Accepted March 10, 2017.Published on line: November 14, 2017. Correspondence to Y.Y.: [email protected]©2017 Reviews in Agricultural Science

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AGRICULTURAL BY-PRODUCTS AS FEED FOR RUMINANTS IN TROPICAL AREA: NUTRITIVE VALUE AND MITIGATING METHANE EMISSIONYuli Yanti1，2 and Masato Yayota3

1 Department of Animal Science, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Jalan Ir. Sutami No. 36A, Kentingan, Surakarta, Indonesia 571262 The United Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Gifu University, Japan3 Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Yanagido 1-1,Gifu 501-1193, Japan.

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IntroductionGlobal crop production is dominated by sugar cane, maize,

paddy (rice) and wheat (FAO, 2013). Those agriculture products paralleled with a huge by-product whereas giving a negative impact on the environment if not managed properly. In the tropical area, ruminant depends on cut grasses and agricultural by-products since the availability of pastures decreases in the dry season (Winugroho, 1999; Sarnklong et al., 2010). Crop residues and agro-industrial by-products include a high number of materials of which straw of cereals, stover from maize and sorghum, corn cobs and bagasse. These feeds are often rich in carbohydrates in the form of cellulose and hemicellulose (Owen and Jayasuriya, 1989; Van Kuijk et al., 2015). The use of cereal straw for ruminant feed has been known classically for its poor nutritive value; low energy and N content, low intake (Madrid et al. 1997) and low in digestibility; therefore animal production is low (Van Soest,

2006). For many years, researchers have attempted to improve the nutritional quality of agricultural waste as feed for ruminants. Various studies which have reported treatments such as biology, physics, chemical and enzymes will be discussed in this review.

Increased nutrient in the feed is expected to enhance animal production. However increasing the nutrient quality of agriculture by-product should not only focus on the increase of animal production but should also be consider the concerns of the environmental problem. As known for many years, fermentation of dietary carbohydrates in the rumen by methanogenic archaea produces methane gas. Methane production tends to increase as the fiber content of feed increases (Kurihara et al., 2007). Type of carbohydrate of agricultural by-product, especially fodder/straw, contains high level of fiber. This means that feed from agricultural by-product tends to produce more methane than other feed sources (forage and legume). A ruminant is an

ABSTRACTWaste from agriculture sector is abundant in tropical countries. Many farmers in these countries have been using this waste as

the main feed sources for feeding livestock. However, using these wastes as feeds for ruminant production resulted in lower animal production due to its lower protein and higher indigestible fiber contents. Various methods, including physical, chemical, biological and enzyme treatments, have been investigated to improve these feeds. Among these, biological treatment may be the most practical method for small-holder farmers, due to its lower cost. One benefit of biological treatment is the use of fermented juice of lactic acid bacteria. This treatment can improve the fermentation quality of silage. When applying fermented juice of epiphytic lactic acid bacteria (FJLB) as silage additive, the lactic acid production and in vitro organic matter digestibility could be enhanced, and fibrous component could be reduced in crop residue silages. Utilization of agricultural by-product as ruminant feed also appears as an environmental problem. Digestion of high content of fiber in the rumen increase methane emission. Methane is now recognized as a contributor of about 40% to climate change. Adding chemicals or supplements in feeds or harnessing fermentation by microorganism result in reducing methane production. To reduce methane emission, combination of agricultural by-product and other nonstructural carbohydrates in the form of total mixed ration (TMR) is feasible.Keywords: agricultural by-product, fermented juice of epiphytic lactic acid bacteria, methane emission, ruminant, total mixed ration

Please cite this article asYanti and Yayota, Reviews in Agricultural Science, 5:65-76, 2017

http://dx.doi.org/10.7831/ras.5.65

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important source of methane emission in many countries since they are in huge population and high methane emission rate due to their digestive system. For many decades, reducing methane production from rumen fermentation was considered only in the context of feed inefficiency (Abrar et al., 2016). Methane is the second largest greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide in contribution to global warming and influential in climate change. Climate change is indicated in the transformation of planet’s ecosystems which threatens the well-being of current and future generations (Marino et al., 2015). Energy losses as methane gas vary from approximately 2 to nearly 12% of gross energy intake (Johnson et al., 1993). Recently ruminant-generated methane has become recognized as a contributor to climate change (Abrar et al., 2016). Emission of methane from enteric fermentation amounts to 40% of agricultural emissions (FAO, 2014). It is influenced by factors such as level of feed intake, type of carbohydrate in the diet, feed processing, addition of lipids or ionophores to the diet and alterations in the ruminal microflora (Johnson and Johnson, 1995).

Many strategies that had been developed in mitigating enteric methane production from ruminant to achieve both on reducing global greenhouse gas emissions and as a means of improving feed conversion efficiency (Martin et al., 2010). Thus the aim of this paper is to provide an overview of existing information on how to increase agricultural by-product nutrition and mitigate its methane emission as well.

I. Source of agricultural by-product Recent statistics on the major crops produced globally is

shown in Table 1. Sugar cane ranks with the highest production, followed by maize, paddy rice, and wheat. However the highest increase in production between 2003 and 2013 was recorded in maize, followed by sugarcane, wheat, and paddy rice. Increase in crop production relates to increases in crop by-product. Those residues when not managed properly would give an adverse impact on the environment. Usage of agricultural by-product as feed for ruminant is common in tropical countries, especially by small-scale farmers. Winugroho (1999) reported that the highest agricultural by-product produces in India and China. Sruamsiri (2007) reported that in Chiang Mai, Thailand, agricultural waste and agricultural by-products such as rice straw, corn stover, soybean straw, soybean pod, soybean hull, sugarcane tops, and bagasse were utilized as dairy feed in the dry season when no green forage is available. Agricultural by-product has poor digestibility, and low nutritive value as ruminants feeds. It contains low crude protein (2.6-4.3% DM) and high crude fiber (70.8-97.2% DM of NDF). Nutrients content of selected agricultural by-products is shown in Table 2.

Rice straw is the most common agricultural by-product used for ruminant feed in the countries that are high in rice production. Rice straw production in 10 leading countries is shown in Table 3. South Asian and South-east Asian countries ranks predominantly in

Table 1: The major crop production in the world, 2003-2013

CropProduction (Million tonnes) Relative Increases

(%)2003 2013Sugar cane 1,379 1,898 38Maize 645 1,017 58Rice, paddy 587 738 26Wheat 560 711 27

Modified from FAO (2015).

Table 2: Nutrients content of selected agricultural by-products

CompositionAgricultural by-product

Rice strawa Wheat strawb Corn stoverc Barley strawd Bagassee

DM (%) 90.1 87.2 93.4 87.4 93.4OM (% DM) 85.6 90.5 95.2 90.4 98.0CP (% DM) 4.3 3.4 4.1 2.6 1.3NDF (% DM) 70.8 80.1 71.9 77.3 97.2ADF (% DM) 43.5 49.7 41.4 46.7 61.4ADL (% DM) - - 6.3 9.0 13.2EE (% DM) 1.5 0.7 1.3 1.0 0.8Ca (% DM) - 0.1 0.4 - -P (% DM) - 0.1 0.1 - 0.1

DM: dry matter, OM: organic matter, CP: crude protein, NDF: neutral detergent fiber, ADF: acid detergent fiber, ADL: acid detergent lignin, EE: ether extracts. Source: aHayashi et al. (2007), bDe and Singh (2002), cLi et al. (2014), dMadrid et al. (1996), eRamli et al. (2005).

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rice production. Farmers in these countries use rice straw for animal feeding. However, the nutrient content from this feed is insufficient for ruminants to grow and to meet the maintenance needs when given as a single feed source (Sarnklong et al., 2010). Therefore for achieving sufficiency in nutrient requirement when rice straw is a basic diet is to improve its nutritive value or supplement with other high-quality feed sources (Malik et al., 2015).

II. Improving the utilization of agricultural wasteThe other possible alternative for better utilization of straw is

to improve its digestibility through treatment to break its ligno-cellulose bond or loosen free major portion of cellulose (Malik et al., 2015). A variety of physical, chemical, biological, or enzyme treatments to improve straw have been studied as described below. Generally, physical treatment applies pressure and heat in combinations with steam or pressure to straw. Chemical treatment includes application of ammonia sodium hydroxide (NaOH), ammonia and urea. Biological treatment employs acids and microorganism such as ligninolytic fungi with extracellular ligninolytic enzymes; whereas enzyme treatment includes use of specific enzymes to degrade cellulose and/or hemicellulose (Van Soest, 2006; Sarnklong et al., 2010).Physical/mechanical treatment

Physical treatments on crop residues had been investigated in some studies, with diverse results. Zhang et al. (2010) observed that chopped rice straw silage had better fermentative quality than whole plant rice straw silage. Increased particle size and physical effective fiber (peNDF) increased the time of rumination, chewing activity, and ruminal pH, but showed no impact on feed intake (Zhao et al., 2009). Muhammad et al. (2014) reported that rice straw treated with steam at a steam pressure of 15.5 kgf/cm2 for 120 s increased daily body weight gain of goats 33.02% in close house

and 44.37% in open house compared with goats fed with untreated rice straw. It is also reported that those treatment increased apparent digestibility, feed efficiency and improved plasma volatile fatty acid profile (Muhammad et al., 2014). However, reduced size of rice straw had no effect on apparent digestibility, rumen fermentation and N utilization (Gunun et al., 2013). A similar study also reported that increased particle size of rice straw or dietary peNDF hardly affected the duodenal N flow, the values of blood chemical parameters, and the microbial amino acid composition in the rumen of goats (Wang et al., 2011). Physical treatments mostly are not practicable on small-scale farms since they require machine or industrial processing. However, small grinder or chopper may be practical for small-scale farmers (Sarnklong et al., 2010).a. Chemical treatment

Improving the value of agricultural by-product chemically have been widely investigated; alkali use is most reported and easier for application on farms compared to acid or oxidative agents (Sarnklong et al., 2010). Urea is also the most used agent by small-medium holder farmers, as it is not quite expensive and for ease in application (Malik et al., 2015). Fiber content of wheat straw treated using chemical as reported by Sahoo et al. (2000, 2002) is presented in Table 4. The crude protein and cellulose contents were increased as an addition of urea and storage for 21 days before feeding, while hemicellulose and lignin contents were decreased. An in vitro fermentation experiment of Khejornsarts and Wanapat (2010) indicated that rice straw with 3% urea or 2% urea-lime resulted in the high gas production and high accumulation of volatile fatty acid (VFA), i.e. acetate and propionate. The dry matter and cell wall digestibility and utilization of energy and nitrogen of wheat straw were improved by treatment with urea and/or a mixture of urea and calcium hydroxide followed by storage as compared to urea supplementation just prior to feeding (Sahoo et al., 2002).

Table 3: Rice production and obtained residues of the 10 leading rice-producing countries in 2013.

Country Rice productiona

(million t)Rice huskb

(million t)Rice strawb

(million t)China 205.2 47.2 92.3India 159.2 36.6 71.6Indonesia 71.3 16.4 32.1Bangladesh 51.5 11.9 23.2Vietnam 44.0 10.1 19.8Thailand 36.1 8.3 16.2Myanmar 28.8 6.6 13.0Philippines 18.4 4.2 8.3Brazil 11.8 2.7 5.3Japan 10.8 2.5 4.8Total 637.0 146.5 286.8

aFAOSTAT, (2013).bCalculated from Sarnklong et al. (2010)




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According to Gunun et al. (2013), long form straw treated with 2.5% urea resulted in improved rumen fermentation, efficiency of microbial N synthesis, feed intake, digestibility of nutrients, milk yield of dairy cows as well as an economical return when compared with untreated rice straw.

The combination of physical (Gamma irradiation at 200 kGy) and chemical (5% urea concentration) treatments has the potential to increase the nutritive value of some agricultural by-product (wheat straw and grain shell) (Al-Masri and Guenther, 1999). Likewise Banchorhorndhevakul (2001) observed rice straw and corn stalk treated with combination of 20% urea and 10 kGy gamma gave a higher percent of decrease in neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and cutin in comparison with urea effect only. However, it will be a limiting factor in applying in farm due to the high cost of radiation.

Wheat straw treated with calcium oxide (CaO), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and NaOH plus hydrogen peroxide (H2O2; AHP) improved the nutritive value of straws compared with untreated through modification of cell wall with a subsequent increase in digestibility by sheep (Chaudhry, 1998). However, Nasir and Elseed (2004) found that urea-calcium hydroxide treated straw could be used for sheep feed as an alternative to ammonia treated straw. Treatment with sodium hydroxide at a concentration of 7% (pH~12) followed by ensiled may be regarded as the most effective to improve the ruminal degradability of rice straw (Ghasemi et al., 2013).

The combination of using urea-lime-treated rice straw and fed with concentrate feed (4% urea) has ability to improve rumen ecology, rumen fermentation efficiency, and nutrient digestibility in swamp buffaloes as reported by Nguyen et al. (2012). Hue et al. (2008) reported that on feeding sheep with urea treated rice straw as a based diet, the commercial concentrate could be replaced by protein source feed, such as cassava and jackfruit foliage. Chemical treatment gives many advantages on improving nutritive values of agricultural by-product and seems easier to apply than physical treatment since it needs no high technologies or high-cost equipment. However,

implementation in small-scale farmer faces difficulties mainly in developing countries since the chemical material is still relatively expensive in price which will lead in increasing cost production.b. Biological treatmentBacterial additive

Using microorganism as an effort to improve the nutritional value of agricultural by-product has been studied since at the beginning of 20th century. Biological treatment on crop residue has great potential in comparison to other treatment; low cost and reduced pollution (Malik et al., 2015). Figure 1 provides some essential details of biological treatments on agricultural by-product. Use of ligninolytic fungi, including their enzymes, may be one potential alternative to provide a more practical and environmental-friendly approach (Sarnklong et al., 2010). Villas-Bôas et al. (2002) had suggested a similar solution that use microorganisms, mainly fungi, to obtain higher protein and vitamin contents and digestibility from agro-industrial waste. Furthermore, growth of microbes on lignocellulosic wastes is able to furnish all the hydrolytic enzymes often added in the preparation of feeds, and also makes the minerals more available for absorption by the animal (Villas-Bôas et al., 2002).

Abdel-Aziz et al. (2015) reported that mixing crop residue with microorganisms such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and cellulolytic bacteria on ensiling of crop residues is one of the methods for achieving a proper fermentation and nutrient preservation. Combination microorganisms with actions that include chopping, reconstitution of moisture and pressing are also potential to improve the fermentation quality (Abdel-Aziz et al., 2015). As reported by Yanti et al. (2012), fermenting rice straw with Lactobacillus fermentum resulted in better silage quality compared to bacillus and fungi (Aspergillus niger and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (Figure 2). Acetic acid production in Lactobacillus fermentum treatment was highest among the treatments; lactic acid value was similar with control + molasses and Bacillus coagulant treatment. There was also interaction effect of microorganism type and temperature (25, 35 and 45 °C) of fermentation on lactic, acetic and propionic acid production

Table 4: Effect of chemically treatment on fiber and CP contents of wheat straw (% DM)

Type of wheat straw CP NDF ADF ADLHemi-

celluloseCellulose

Wheat straw, untreatedWheat straw, treated with 4% urea (21 days storage time)Wheat straw, sprayed with 1.5% urea prior to feedingWheat straw, treated with 3% urea + 3% calcium hydroxide (21 days storage time)

3.57.87.97.6

69.172.868.570.6

47.855.346.654.7

10.19.5

10.89.7

21.317.621.915.9

37.745.735.845.5

CP: crude protein, NDF: neutral detergent fiber, ADF: acid detergent fiber, ADL: acid detergent lignin.Adapted from Sahoo et al. (2000; 2002).



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Fig.1. Biological treatment for improving agricultural by-products (summarized from the reports of Adesogan et al., 2014; Abdel-Aziz et al., 2015).




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Fig.2. The effect of temperatures and microorganisms interaction on lactic acid, acetic acid and propionic acid production of fermented rice straw. The different letters indicate different (P<0.05) (Yanti et al., 2012) (L. fermentum= Lactobacillus fermentum; B. Subtilis= Bacillus subtilis; B. coagulan= Bacillus coagulan; S. cerevisiae= Saccharomyces cerevisiae; A. niger= Aspergillus niger)



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of fermented rice straw. However, Wang et al. (2015) found that using Lactobacillus bulgaricus GIM1.80 as a starter cultures during wilted rice straw silage fermentation can promote indigenous LAB activities even though it had no significant ability to change the nutritional value of silage.

A study by Suksombat and Lounglawan (2004) indicated that some agricultural by-product in the form of silage has a high potential to improve quality and to utilize the various types of dairy cattle’s feeds. It also suggested that the period of fermentation is at least 14 days and can be stored for more than six months. For example, rice straw, when added previous fermented juice (PFJ) as silage additive improved fermentation quality (Jin-ling et al., 2013). This was proved by lower pH value, lower NH3-N concentration and higher in lactic acid production than non-additive treatment. PFJ or abbreviated as FJLB (i.e., fermented juice of epiphytic lactic acid bacteria) is additive for silage fermentation that made from single type of grass, blended, and added by simple carbohydrates (glucose or sucrose) then incubated for two days at 30°C. This fermented juice naturally contains a number of species of domestic LAB which has been well known for the main role in silage fermentation. As reported by Santoso et al. (2012), LAB found in FJLB made from king grass were Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus brevis. Moreover, the application of these FJLB in rice crop residue-based silage reduced fibrous components compared to non FJLB silage and enhanced lactic acid concentration and in vitro organic matter digestibility (Santoso et al., 2014).

Another study on fungal treatments of fibrous agricultural by-products which contain more than 100 g of lignin/kg organic matter (OM) showed that Ceriporiopsis subvermispora and Lentinula edodes have a great potential to improve nutritive value of agricultural by-products but not for poorly lignified feedstuff such as maize stover (Tuyen et al., 2013). This result supported previous study of Tuyen et al., (2012) that both fungi and also Phlebia eryngii have a potential to improve the nutritional value of wheat straw as a ruminant feed, because of their capacity to degrade lignin during their vegetative growth, without affecting cellulose to a great extent. Similarly, Ramli et al. (2005) found that bagasse feed (combination mixture of bagasse with wheat bran) fermented by Aspergillus sojae fungi improved the digestibility of some fiber components (NDF, ADF or cellulose) in the feed. Therefore, the fermented bagasse feed (FBF) can be an alternative for goat feed to save the cost and lead to increased self-sufficiency in animal feeds (Ramli et al., 2005). Aspergillus terreus reduced hemicellulose 32.68% and reduced cellulose 16.32% after eight days fermentation in rice straw (Jahromi et al., 2012).

White root fungi such as Pleurotus ostreatus (P. ostreatus)

had been reported in many studies. Incubation under solid-state condition with this fungi in maize straw, rice straw, wheat straw, and their mixture reduced the content of cell wall and increased the content of crude protein and ruminal degradation (Fazaeli et al., 2006; Khattab et al., 2013; Khan et al., 2015). The mutant of P. ostreatus had also resulted in a similar performance, as reported by Chalamcherla et al. (2009).

Microorganisms, mainly fungi, seems to possess highest potential in degrading cell wall content of agricultural by-product. However, application of fungi in both big and small-scale farm still need more studies mainly related to animal health which in fact is linked to cost production. This is because, some fungi such Aspergillus sp. have a safe dose for consumption by livestock. Whereas the use of FJLB seems more likely to be implemented mainly in small-scale farms due to ease in preparation and being economical. Though FJLB treatment improves the fermentation quality of agricultural by-product, further investigation is needed for application in the form of total mixed ration (TMR) containing dry material of agricultural by-product.Exogenous enzymes treatment

In the last two decades, concerted efforts have been devoted of using exogenous fibrolytic enzymes (EFE) to improve forage quality and ruminant animal performance (Adesogan et al., 2014). Various enzymes used in biological treatment are shown in Figure 1. These enzymes have cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic capability to attack the lignocellulose structure of crop residue for enhancing their feeding value (Abdel-Aziz et al., 2015). Table 5 shows a brief summary of enzyme treatments in agricultural by-products. Supplementation used either singly or in combinations of exogenous fibrolytic enzymes cellulase and xylanase on maize stover enhanced in vitro DM digestibility (Bhasker et al., 2013). Addition of exogeneous fibrolytic enzyme also increases in vitro gas production and fermentation kinetics of corn stover (Vallejo et al., 2016) and wheat straw (Togtokhbayar et al., 2015). Optimum combination cellulose-xylanase-β-D-glucanase for increasing nutrient utilization from maize stover was 25,600-25,600-0 IU/g, whereas for increasing the total VFA and NH3-N concentration in the rumen of sheep fed 50% maize stover based TMR was supplemented by cellulose-xylanase-β-D-glucanase 12,800-12,800-0 IU/g (Bhasker et al., 2013). In rice straw, a combination of cellulase (7.5U/g of DM) and xylanase (15/g of DM) was more effective in improving rumen fermentation, increasing rice straw DM digestibility and NDF digestibility and enhancing the rumen bacterial numbers than a single cellulase or xylanase (Mao et al., 2013). However, Eun et al. (2006) reported that the effectiveness of exogenous enzymes was enhanced when they were used with ammoniated rice straw rather than with untreated rice straw.

The application of EFE for improving fibrous ruminant feed




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appears marginal. Therefore Adesogan et al. (2014) suggested the following for an optimal fibrolytic enzyme: 1) contain the appropriate complement of potent fibrolytic activities for improving NDF digestibility, 2) contain appropriate amounts of cofactors, co-enzymes, and activators (where needed) to optimize the fibrolytic activities and lack inhibitors such enzymes, 3) be resistant to degradation by ruminant proteases, 4) have a robust composition that does not vary appreciably with the enzyme batch, 5) be sourced from a readily culturable fungus that produces large quantities of enzymes naturally or via genetic modification, 6) exhibit optimal and steady activity under conditions that prevail where it will exerts its hydrolytic effect, 7) be in liquid form or dissolve rapidly and completely in water, 8) be thermostable if it will be added during feed manufacturing, 9) maintaining its hydrolytic activity when appropriately stored for long durations, and 10) be generally regarded as safe.

Various treatments for improving the nutritive value of agriculture by-product including physical, chemical, biological and enzymes, have been many reported. However, application in farm scale needs more investigations considering the cost production, safety aspect, and environmental impact. As of now, enzymes to treat crop by-product are still in limited production,

leading to expensive in price, but it may become viable in the future. Combination of treatments is also promising for improving the quality of agricultural by-product.

III. Mitigating Methane emission Major agricultural by-products like rice straw are mostly

produced in Tropical countries, especially India and Indonesia. That such by-products became a serious problem due to increase in annual food demand is a fact too. Burning or stacking such by-products in the field also causes another problem. Released carbon monoxide and methane in the air pollutes the environment. However, utilization of such by-product as feed for ruminants in many tropical areas decrease this problem. Nevertheless, another problem is revealed in that characteristics of crop by-product have high fiber content. As reported by Kurihara et al. (1997), methane productions tend to increase when fiber content in feed increase. Methane is produced by microbial fermentation within the rumen. Substrates for ruminal methanogenesis are derived from dietary carbohydrates (cellulose, hemi-cellulose, pectin and starch). When these substrates are hydrolyzed, hydrogen and carbon dioxide are produced, which due to metabolism by methanogens yield methane (Bhatta et al., 2007).

Table 5: Enzymes treatment in agricultural by-productAgricultural by-product

Enzymes recommended Method Result References

Maize stover Combina t ion o f ce l lu lase - xylanase- β-D-glucanase 25,600-25,600-0 IU/g

C e l l u l a s e - x y l a n a s e - - D - glucanase 12,800-12,800-0 IU/g

In vitro

In vivo

Increase in vitro DM digestibility

Increase the TVFA and NH3-N concentration in the rumen.

Bhasker et al., 2013

Corn stover 40 μg/ g DM of cellulase and xylanase

In vitro Decrease pH, increase OM digestibil i ty, metabolizable energy, short chain fatty acid and microbial CP

Vallejo et al., 2016

Wheat straw Xylanase 1.0 to 1.5 μL/g In vitro and in sacco

Improve gas production, rumen NH3-N concentration and volatile fatty acids

Togtokhbayar et al., 2015

Rice straw Combination of cellulosa (7.5U/g of DM) and xylanase (15U/g of DM)

In vitro Increase DM digestibility and NDF digestibility and enhance the rumen bacterial numbers

Mao et al., 2013

Rice straw Exogeneous enzymes used with treated rice straw (ammoniated rice straw)

In vitro Enhace in vitro degradability Eun et al., 2006

DM: dry matter, OM: organic matter, CP: crude protein, NDF: neutral detergent fiber, TVFA: total volatile fatty acids.



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O’Mara (2011) had suggested that in the next 40 years, methane as a source of greenhouse gasses in livestock production may increase as a consequence of increased food production unless there occurs a major progress in mitigation technologies. Mitsumori and Sun (2008) had suggested strategies for reduction of methane emissions from the rumen of livestock. Their strategies include 1) control of components in feed, 2) application of feed additives and 3) biological control of rumen fermentation.

Only the strategy of controlling the feed component will be discussed in here because it is more related to the agricultural by-product as ruminant feed than the other two strategies. The type of carbohydrate fermented in the rumen influences methane production via impacts on ruminal pH and microbial population. Fermentation of cell wall fiber yields higher acetic:propionic acid and higher methane losses. Methane can be reduced with diets containing higher levels of nonstructural carbohydrate (Johnson and Johnson, 1995). This application is rather difficult in tropical/developing countries where agricultural by-product is still dominated as feed for ruminant.

Table 6 provides details of investigations concerned on mitigating methane emission using both in vitro and in vivo technique with given treatment to straw/fodder or adding supplementation when rice straw was a basal diet for ruminant. The reduction of methane emission varied depending on the material used and the treatment. Sahoo et al. (2000) observed that wheat straw treated with urea alone or with urea plus calcium hydroxide and stored for 21 days reduced methane production per kilogram digested organic matter per day in sheep. A study in Nellore × Guzera beef steers fed sugarcane based diets showed that addition of 22 g nitrate/kg dry matter in the diet reduced methane emission by 32% and increased rumen ammonia concentration (Hulshof et al., 2012). However, fermented rice straw (FRS) containing lovastatin after fermentation with Aspergillus

terreus, reduced total gas, and methane production, methanogens population, but increased in vitro dry matter digestibility compared to the non-fermented rice straw (Jahromi et al., 2012). Liu et al. (2013) studied that sheep fed 20% concentrate and ensiled cornstalk as roughage added to their diet had the effect of reducing the methane emission, and the decrease in acetate:propionate ratio may cause suppression of methanogenesis by depriving the hydrogen used by methanogens to produce methane.

A study by Chuntrakort et al., (2014) on Native Thai and Brahman crossbreed cattle fed rice straw as a based diet resulted in a reduction in methane emission up to 50.1% by replacing concentrate feeds to oil plants such as whole cotton seed, whole sunflower seed and coconut kernel. Also, a recent study by Ampapon et al. (2016) on swamp buffaloes consuming rice straw, recommended urea supplements of 60-90 g/head/day when fed with cassava hay in order to reduce methane production by 16.8-18.8%. Supplementation using mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) peel powder (MSP) from 100-300 g/head/day could decrease rumen methane production about 5.5-13.8% from control when rice straw as a based diet at lactating dairy cows (Polyorach et al., 2016).

The combination of high fiber content roughage with non-structural carbohydrates in the form of TMR also has the possibility to reduce methane emission. Fermented TMR has lower ruminal methane emission in sheep than non-fermented TMR that contains whole-crop rice and rice bran as reported by Cao et al. (2010). Previously in vitro study by Cao et al. (2009) showed that supplementation with lactic acid bacteria to TMR silage containing whole-crop rice and 30% of rice bran has lower methane production per digestible dry matter than in control.

Mitigating methane emission in ruminants when agricultural by-product as feed has two advantages; increasing feed (energy) efficiency and reducing pollution to the environment as well. The

Table 6: Methane emission from agricultural by-product as based dietAgricultural by-product Treatment Animal Methane Emission References Wheat straw Urea and calcium hydroxide

followed by storageSheep (-) 17 l/kg digested organic matter

per daySahoo et al., 2000

Sugarcane Addition of 22 g nitrate/kg dry matter in the diet

Steer (-) 32% Hulshof et al., 2012

Rice straw Fermen ted r i ce s t r aw wi th Aspergillus terreus

In vitro (-) 1.02% Jahromi et al., 2012

Cornstalk Different concentrate-to-forage ratios

Sheep (-) 5.98-7.43 L/kg DM intake Liu et al., 2013

Rice straw Oil plant feeding Beef cattle (-) 50.1% Chuntrakort et al., 2014Rice straw Urea supplements of 60-90 g/

head/day with cassava hay as feedBuffalo (-) 5.8-6.5 m mol/L Ampapon et al., 2016

Rice straw M a n g o s t e e n p e e l p o w d e r supplement

Cow (-) 1.5 - 3.8 m mol/100ml3 Polyorach et al., 2016

DM: dry matter.




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application of research data summarized above at farm scale needs realization for reduction of the impact of global warming.

IV. Conclusion Agricultural by-products are still a potential source of feed for

ruminant since its nutrition can be increased by some treatments including physical, chemical and biological methods. However, application of such treatments to small-scale farms is limited by cost and lack of technology. Biological treatment may be the most practical method when applied to small-holder farmers, due to its lower cost. One promise of biological treatment is the use of fermented juice of lactic acid bacteria. This treatment can improve the fermentation quality of silage. The utilization of agricultural by-product as ruminant feed also appears as an environmental problem. Digestion of high fiber content in the rumen increases methane emission. Urea treatment or fermentation using fungi in agricultural by-product seems successful in reducing methane emission; but animal health has to be considered, when using both chemical and fungi treatment. Combination of agricultural by-product and other nonstructural carbohydrates also has possibility to reduce methane emission. Further study is needed on the application of biological treatment which easier to apply in small-scale farm such as fermented juice of epiphytic lactic acid bacteria in agricultural by-product. In this case, TMR silage will improve the nutritive value. The effect of TMR on reducing methane production also need to be studied more extensively, as this gas is the major cause (from livestock production sector) for greenhouse effect or global warming.

AcknowledgementsWe thank the Directorate General for Higher Education

(DGHE), Indonesia, for funding this study.

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