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AGRI 2372 – A Global Agricultural Society
About the course:
Designed initially as a global course (General Ed. course requirement)
Requirement dropped the following year
Next year offered as AGRI 3372 – Contemporary Issues (Intensive Writing course)
About the textbook author: P.R. Cheeke
Chapter 1 – DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS (AND PLANTS) AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO HUMAN WELFARE
Learning Objectives: 1) To briefly discuss the evolution of
humans, emphasizing the roles of animals (and plants) in the development of human society.
2) To discuss the domestication of the major species on a global basis to illustrate the diversity of animals and plants that contribute to human welfare.
3) To discuss the diverse contributions of domestic animals and plants to humans, particularly emphasizing some of the roles that might be less familiar to North Americans.
I. EARLY HUMAN EVOLUTION
II. THE DOMESTICATION OF
PLANTS AND ANIMALS
III. ROLES OF ANIMALS AND
ANIMAL PRODUCTS IN
HUMAN WELFARE
IV. ROLE OF LIVESTOCK
PRODUCTION IN
SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
V. LIVESTOCK IN
DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMS
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Chapter Outline:
Source: Heifer International.
Chapter 1 - DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS (AND PLANTS) AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO HUMAN WELFARE
I. Early Human Evolution
- Earliest archeological evidence of Homo erectus (1.6 million years ago) from Africa indicates: Hunter-gatherers
Used fire
Developed tools
Social organization
Source: Smithsonian Institute (http://humanorigins.si.edu/).
100,000-200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa to Asia and Europe
NatGeo Jan. (2013)
Chapter 1 - DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS (AND PLANTS) AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO HUMAN WELFARE
Humans Evolved as Omnivores: Cooking with fire detoxifies plant
toxins/increased energy (supporting smaller gut and larger brain size) and protein digestion
Dental morphology (similar to both herbivores & carnivores)
Early humans consumed organs, (including brains), fat and bone marrow
Opportunistic feeders (both plant and animal food products)
Cultures without livestock have remained to this day as primitive hunter-gatherers
N.B. The topic of evolution is accepted by the Catholic church.
Chapter 1 - DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS (AND PLANTS) AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO HUMAN WELFARE
Hunting and Gathering:
Humans existed as hunters and gatherers, gathering foods like seeds, fruits, roots and tubers. The distribution and characteristics of plant species were determined by the environment; the physical (climate, soil, topography) and biological interactions of plant, animal and human populations. No one truly knows what caused humans to propagate and grow specific kinds of plants near their homes. But it changed life as it was and changed humans and their surrounding environment forever. This evolved into organization of a more agrarian society. About 4,500 years ago, tribes from the Middle East introduced agriculture throughout Europe, displacing many hunter-gatherer societies (article).
Source: Crop Science
Department, Oregon State
University.
Source: Gen Ed. 110/Washington State University.
II. The Domestication of Plants and Animals
Source: C. Simpson (PLSS 3332: Plant Propagation Lectures).
Source: C. Simpson (PLSS 3332: Plant Propagation Lectures).
Source: Ms. C. Simpson (PLSS 3332: Plant Propagation Lectures).
Source: Wikipedia
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breeding).
Early Crops
Meso-America : maïze, bean, avocado, tomato, vanilla, cocoa
South America : tobacco, groundnut, potato, sweet potato, cotton, tomato, pineapple, peppers, Cassava, rubber-tree
Middle East : oats, barley, rye, wheat, peas, lentil, flax, olive-tree, vine, fig-tree, date palm-tree
Central Africa : millet, sorghum, yam, coffee, oil palm-tree
Western China : millet, soya, tea
South-East Asia, Southern Pacific : rice, banana, sugar cane, orange tree, egg plant, coconut tree, pepper
Source: Ms. C. Simpson (PLSS 3332: Plant Propagation Lectures).
Source: Ms. C. Simpson (PLSS 3332: Plant Propagation Lectures).
Yams Sweet Potatoes
Plant Domestication
• “The domestication of plants is one of the first
steps in moving towards a full-fledged agricultural
economy, although the process is by no means a
one-directional movement. A plant is said to be
domesticated when its native characteristics are
altered such that it cannot grow and reproduce
without human intervention. Domestication is
thought to be the result of the development of a
symbiotic relationship between the plants and
humans, called co-evolution, because plants
and human behaviors evolve to suit one another.
In the simplest form of co-evolution, a human
harvests a given plant selectively, based on the
preferred characteristics, such as the largest
fruits, and uses the seeds from the largest fruits
to plant the next year”.
Source: http://archaeology.about.com/od/domestications/a/plant_domestic.htm.
Fig Tree in the Judean Desert of Israel
Plant Domestication
• The most important food crops were
and still are seed/grain crops like
wheat, barley and rice, which provided
carbohydrates, and legumes which
provided proteins. Rudimentary
genetic selection and propagation
cycles allowed these people to select
for high yield, seed size, and other
desirable qualities. Single plants of
some species (grape, fig, olive,
pomegranate, potato, yams, banana
and pineapple) could be selected
directly from wild populations and fixed
through vegetative propagation.
Source: Ms. C. Simpson (PLSS 3332: Plant Propagation Lectures).
Figure: American Scientist (July-August, 1994).
Case, L. 2008. ASAS Centennial
Paper: Perspectives on
domestication: The history of our
relationship with man’s best
friend. J. Anim. Sci. 86:3245-3251.
Animal Domestication
DOMESTICATED BOVIDS
Cattle (Bos taurus/Bos indicus)
~7,500-8,000 years ago from Near East/ Europe
Challenge to domesticate
Social behavior
History/Rituals/Customs
Provided meat at first
100’s of breeds world-wide
Water buffalo (Bubalis bubalis)
~4,000 years ago from Pakistan
Uses include work, milk, and meat
Typically fed low quality, fibrous diet
Yak (Bos granniens)
~4,000 years ago from Himalayas
Uses include work, hides, milk, and meat
Others (Banteng, Bison, Musk ox)
N.B. Widely used in Asia as a work animal.
Photos: Wikipedia.
BISON (Bison bison) North American origin
Pre-Columbian estimate of 60 million head
Near extinction by 1890
Presently, >400,000 head
Hybridize with cattle: Females sub-fertile
Males sterile
Recently domesticated
Unique traits
Niche meat markets N.B. Loved by environmentalists.
GOAT (Capra hircus) Near East
~10,000 years ago
Natural herding/Social instincts but less gregarious than sheep
Ruminants/Grazing, but are better browsers than sheep
Provided meat (not milk or mohair)
N.B. Blamed for erosion.
SHEEP (Ovis aries)
Near East (descended from goats)
~10,000 years ago
Natural herding/ Social instincts
Ruminants/Grazing
Rituals/Customs
Provided meat (not wool or milk)
N.B. Hair breeds common in LDCs.
Photo: Wikipedia.
HORSE (Equus caballus)
Asia (So. Central Russia) ~4,300 years ago The ancestral “Przewalski’s horse” Initially for Trade, then as a “war
machine” Tremendous influence on human
history (Riding/Work/Politics) Selection for body size Stirrup invented 1,500 years ago Iron horse shoe Western Europe as draft animal Early 1900’s – millions of horses in U.S. N.B. Probably the most abused domesticated species.
Source: http://nationalzoo.si.edu
Donkey (Equus asinus)
A major work animal in many countries. More hardy than horses, especially more heat-tolerant. Also used as guard animals (article).
N.B. Donkeys evolved in deserts of Africa.
SWINE (Sus scrofa)
Near East/Asia ~8,000 years ago Old vs. New World Pigs Wild scavenger Captive reproduction Selection for docility Family “garbage disposal” until 20th
Century Primary source of meat “Pastured Pork” (Polyface Farms) N.B. Pork is the most important meat source in the world.
SWINE (Sus scrofa)
Figure 2. Global status of pig breeds. Source: The state of the world’s
animal genetic resources for food and agriculture (1st), 2006 [8] Source: Chen et al. (2007)
CHICKENS (Gallus domesticus)
Descendants from SE Asian junglefowl
Domesticated ~3,400 years ago
First for cock-fighting
Provided meat & eggs
Suitable for subsistence farms - “Family without chickens is sign of poverty”
Commercial line selection/ Hybridization (Corporate-owned)
“Pastured Poultry”
Other major/minor poultry include Ducks, Geese, Guinea fowl, Muscovy, Pheasants, Pigeons, Quail, Ratites, Turkeys
N.B. Studied by Charles Darwin
RABBIT (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
Iberian Peninsula
~400 years ago
Domesticated in Monasteries
Garden/kitchen “wastes”
Provided meat
45-50 U.S. breeds
Other small species include, for example, cane rats, capybaras, and guinea pigs
Rabbits vs. Hares (article)
N.B. Increased importance in development projects to alleviate hunger and poverty.
OTHER LIVESTOCK SPECIES Camels
Guinea pigs
Llamas
Reindeer
Deer/Elk
Reptiles
Other terms:
Aquaculture
Game farming
Microlivestock
N.B. Niche species or breed of cultural and(or) geographic importance.
III. Role of Animals and Animal Products in Human Welfare
Multiple benefits from livestock production (A “symbiotic relationship” -
Animals may live a life free from fear and stress): Animal proteins generally have higher nutritional value than plant proteins (e.g.,
eggs and meat). (Link to recent article in Nature on early cheese making.) Major source of wealth (as dowry and as “walking banks”) Cultural roles (animal sacrifices, cockfighting, bullfighting, rodeos, shows) The sacred cow of India (dung, milk, and work) Animal dung as fuel (e.g., from dung patties to biogas (methane), typically from
conversion of straw or other fibrous feeds, as well as for fertilizer) Use of feathers, fur, hair or wool (natural fibers) as less important than in the past Leather – Still is widely used for various purposes Pharmaceutical and medical products (e.g., antibodies and hormones) Animal Power – Important in many developing countries, but still used in
European countries (Poland and Russia). Animal power is making a come-back due to fossil fuel shortages (Brazil and Chile). Oxen and buffalo can subsist on fibrous feeds.
N.B. Draft animals provide the power for the cultivation of nearly 50 percent of the world’s
cultivated land and the hauling of over 25 million carts. More than 240 million cattle and 60
million buffalo are kept as work animals (Teleni and Murray, 1991).
IV. Role of Livestock Production in Sustainable Agriculture
Terms for discussion: Sustainable Agriculture Alternative Agriculture
(to Monoculture) Soil Erosion Crop Rotations Optimal Resource
Utilization (nutrient recycling)
Crop-Livestock Integration
Land Stewardship (shaping values)
Industrial Agriculture
V. Livestock in Development Programs
The perception of many
animal scientists is that research plays “second fiddle” to grant funding awarded to plant scientists to do research. Reasons?
Expatriate (foreign) “experts” have livestock as the “bad guys”. Reasons?
The multiple roles that livestock fulfill are often ignored by economists and politicians.
Philanthropic organizations (Heifer International).
N.B. Timely article (link) Grassroots approach to development: “Passing on the Gift”
Source: Heifer International.
VI. Conclusions
Table 1-1 Contributions of livestock to human well-being in a global context (Adapted from Hodges, 1999)
- Provision of work-draft animals
- Transportation of goods and people
- Animal fat and protein for improved nutrition
- Milk to enable human infants to survive
- Leather, wool, and horn for clothing and shelter
- Animal fat for burning for illumination
- Dung fuel for cooking and heating
- Animal power for pumping water to irrigate crops
- Benefits on crops in integrated farming systems
- Conversion of fibrous vegetation to human-edible food
- Influence on human culture and values, traditions and rituals.