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Chapter9Migrationand SecurityPrior o 9/11.studentsf intemationalelations nd nternationalecuritypdd scantattention o international igration.Conversely,ludenls finlemationalmigration arelyanalysedhe mplications f intemationalmigration foa securily,or for understanding f international clations orworld politics Tirman,2004).he attacks n 9/11 and he subsequentbombingsn Madrid.Londonandelsewhercreatlyaltered hatstate faffairs, esultingn the ncreasedclcvancc f the security imension finlemalionalmigration.ndeed,henewscrutiny iven o rnigration ndsecuritys partof thepoliticization f international igrrtbn whichwasidentified s dellning endency fthe ageofmigration n Chapter.This chaptercannotcomprehensivelyxamine he nexus bctweenmigriltionand security. nstead. he first sectionol'this chapterwillendeilvouro elucidate hy migration ndsecurity avebecome muchmoresalient oncernn thepost-ColdWarperiod h4n n thepost-worldWar II era.The fact that nternational igration s nowperceiveds asigDilicant r prioity issue irtually arcund he world efleclsdeationalaswell as naterialransformations.hesecond ectionwill examine cydimensions l- migrationand security.Subsequenlectionswill assessthe threatposedby immigrant-backgroundslamicpopulationsn thelrun(atl in(rcrcrxnd ndl)seheWaronTerrorisrn.

Why the rediscovery f the Internatlonalmlgratlonand security xus?As rccountedn Chapter4,ntemational igrationhasontinuouslyingedand etbrgedocieties ndstates ilce irne mmemoia].Migrations ftcnproceededeaccfully,ut manyengendercdarious onflicts.Sutlice tIo rccall hatmassEuropeanigrations o theNewWorld esultedn thedecimation ndsubiugationf indigenousopulations.

ln mrny respecfs.heperiodbetween 945 nd1980wasunusual. hehorrors l WorldWar I discreditedhexenophobiaf the extremeightandperceptionsf migrantsas a security hrcat. ndeed, nternationalDrigration asoftenviewedas an economic henomenonnd a largelybeneficial ne at that.Moreover,nternationalmiSrationwas believedto be a ternporary r conjunctural henomenon,speciallyn WesternEuropc.201


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208 The Ag? oJMigrLtti)n

Box 9- Spillover f the PKK nsurgencyo GermanyDudng hc 1960s nd 1970s.he Feder,rl cpublicof Germrny ecruitedthousaDdsl Turkish ilizcns o work n ils indusries.rnd crvicesManvof these urkish ilizenswereol Kurdish ackground his secnrcdo be oflittlepoljtical onlequcnceuring hemass ecruitncnLeriod, ut bccame.rpol l r !L l *uc . , . KJrJr .h .p i r .or l ' or nr.penJen(er Jrrn4om)tornTurkeywercg.r1! nized uring he 1980s. hePKK emergedsan mpotantKurdish eparaListrganizati()neading n amcd insunectiongainsl heTurkishRepublic.Up toone-third i theover2 rnillionTurkish iLizensesidenln Gernan)by the 1990swcrc of Kurdishorigin.Pefhaps 0.000 f thele ndivldualssvmDatlrizcdhh thePKK anduD o 12.00{)ecame clivemembersl thepirryor its rontorganizationsBoLrl.tnger.000: 3) By striking l TurkishcoDsutates.irlinesandbrsincsses,hePKK rnnstbrmed crmany ndothcrWcstcm urcpcnn(a(esntoasccondiont.Morcovcr, urkishcFcssion fthePKK-lcd nlurgecy. which ook cnsofthous.mdsl lives, omplicated.rn lnrnrr i .' ( :uih El mcmbcrr l r re. .urkr 'hcn.rnrerin 'urP(n()nc,nri( 'includedmyslclious eath quads nd hc uprootirrg d lbrced elocL'lionoi Inillionsol Kudish civililns.This trackdropendered KK ttctivitte!on Germ.rn oil andCcrirran rd Tufkishcountenrlc.rsulcsighlycmotivernd signillcanl. y lhc mid-1990s,hc PKK hrd hccome vilitl Ccrn nndtionAlsecurilyconce . particularly0t1er hc PKK leL'dcr. bdall.Oc ldn, lhrertcncd o $endsuicidebombcrs gainstGcnnan argc$ nrretalirti(nrbr Ccnnrn lssistnncco Tufkey n itsstruggle ith hc PKK.l)cspircheCerlnrn ecision0 utlawhePKK rnd ts iontorgrnizrliorrs.ihe PKK possesscdn crlensivcorgaDizalionalnlirstrucluren Oc nanyrnd nca$y Europern tatcs.PKK trctics I'eirtured]rot.st mr&hcs .lndhunger lrikcs.Street cmonslrrlionsn Kurdish ndTurkish ssueshoughroutincly Lrnncdy Germanuthorities. er tagcd nd requcnllvesuliedr r r r o t e n rl r . h r . l n l 0 q 0 .h r G e f l n g , { d n a r e n r , r u ! l r t r ' , . l r c n t r h c nl '

For rnainslretn sntdeDlsol iltcrnrtioDal rclatiolrs. l tional strlesconsliluled the pfincipil cctofs in illcrnatioD l rclafions. Dd all othelactorspiLlcdnlo insignillcancc. he keyqucslions D rlcrnationirl ehtionspcrtained to peace nd war. lnternalionalmigralion did Dot appeartoberf importantly upon ehher.hc cc the nearly total l ck of conDectionbctween he sludyol intcrnational elationsandol intcrnalionrlmigrationThis stateof.lffairs llegiD to evolve n thc I970s.Somc sludent\of worldpolitics began o invesligalc low politics' as opposedo the highpolitics'of peaceand war. Keohaneand Nle broadenell hc scopeol inquirv toincLudefan\rttional pher'Io1nena.olitical evenls het affict iLt easl twostatesconcurently (Keoh ne and Nye. 1977).A window on lhe study ofinlernationrlnigratim and nternalional clationshad openedThe frilure ol poslwar guestworkerpolicics in We\tem Europe bythc mid-1970s esulled n unexpectcdmigfant sctt lementtnd fami l ) '


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Migrati'n andSe(uiry 209

ban on PKK streelproteslsby maknrgparlicipationh sucheventsa najoroftence.SeveralKurdishprolcstcrsweresubsequentlypprehendedndrecommendedbr depor{alion, lcn thooghhungerstritriesn Turksh prisonshad cosl hc livcs of numerous risoners lrd he tortureand ll treatmcfllof Kurdishprisoners as believed o bc commonplace.s a result. hedepofalionol Kurdishaclivisls xised mpoddntegal and human ighlsissucs, hichpolarizcdGcmanpubljcopnrioD.The rlTcslotAbdalhh Ocalan y Turkilh aurhoritiesn 1999sparked.tmassive aveol Kurdishprotcstsn Aurope ,nd s ar awayasAustalia.ThrceKurds {,cni illcd af(e. rying o nter he sraeliconsularen Bcrhrand scores f prolesters ere njured.Duringhis subscqucntrial,Ocalancalleduponhis followers o abandon rncd slruggle,which rcsultednrcduccdKurdishmililant acdvities n Grman oil. brl thc unrcsdledK rdishqueslionemained nd.with it, rhcpotentr. for renewd ondict.SLrchonccrns ndoublcdlyontributedo Geflnany oppositiono thcUS-led rttrck upon |.q in 2003.whichdamaSedvcralldiplomatic cl{lionsbctwccn hc knrg-timcllies.This dramadcurn of evenls adnruch o dowilh differirg Gennan nd US peffipectivesn the migration&ndscouritynexusn theMiddleEast.As thc aqwrfclolvcd intoaprctracteduagmirebr theUSA,Ccrmanapprchcnsionsbout hc inl,urjionppesledwell founded.n addition orhc hugc oll ol killcd and woundcd. t leasl2 mil lion refugeeslowedto nearby trtes,sonre f whonrwerercselllcd n Europc.parLicularlynSwedensee hapter). n the .n'gclyutonomousurdish-rulednclnvein nonhern aq. rcmnants l lhc PKK rcorgAnizednd.by 2007. uunchedslrikcs on Turkish troops within Turkey. Kurdish militants simil0rlyahckcd trrgeis n lran lronr lrnqi territory.Bolh lran aodTL[keysliuckback,rnd a najor escahlionof lightingnppearcd ossiblcas TurkishaircrAltund soldiersaMcked PKK lar8ets nside raqi territory n late2007andcarly 2(X)8.

rcunincadon. t this tirrc. thc prospccls i)r coDventiontl r nuclearw r belweeDNATO rDd WafsiLw loc-atfiliated tateshad declined\ignii icantlyBarnett.2004).nte$tate onfl icts ad also declincd(Kaldor.2001)-The accretion l setl lers. lvel led y an iDfluxofasylum cckcrs ndunaulhorized igranls n the l9iJ()s.esulledn thesecuri l iziLt ionf migratio issues:he inkingof migrationssuesosecuitystudiesWacvcr fal. . g93;tsuzant a1-, 998: irrran,2(X)41Messina,2007).oncuficntly.combatingtelrorismernergedanationalsecudtypriority n manystatcs, ot cxclusivclyn rhe ransadanlic rex(Laqueu,2003).However,hc undc$tanding f the rterlacebetweeninremationrl rigration nd errorismaggedar behinddevelopmentsnlhe realworld.Boxes .1and9.2 ecount owconflictsn TurkeyandAlgeriaspilledover into Germanyand Fmnce rcspectirclyduring the 1990s.By


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l ln Th, 4!e of A4i ! t i t t i , , l t

Box9.2 Spillover f insurgencyn Algeria o Franceln 1992, an orfshoot ol the lslamic Salvation Front' LheArmcd lslamicGroup (GlA), pxrsued rn hsurgcncv againsr he Algenan gorcrnmenr'Tens ol thousandsdied ilr .r nerciless war ol tefforism and countertelrorism. Flnnce provided lnilit]ry and ccononic support to the Algcrirngovel.nmenl.which became he pretext for the extension of GIA operafions to French rcil. A network of militarts wnged a bombing ca'npargn'f l r n c i I J l l , n r n c P : r r r ' e r i n I n l o o 5 b < ' o r c ( ' n gd i ' n d n r l < d n l r r '. ' 1 . ' b . . C I A { , , . r h o r , r l - ro h J \ c b { e nb e h ; n . l n o r l ( t - J L h ' , r n b i r r ir l .hoLrn nu cr ' , . rp rooi r . 'pon' ;h i l . l ) Int rh( l r lJJ l Some lr

mid (lee .lc. hoth h d bcconlckcy rati()rlll secufityconccrns Morcover''bolh LhcKurcl ishWorkersPa(y (PKK) anLi he Amcd IslaDrie rorp(CIA) hird hfealeDcdo lly hi jackcd irp l lncs in lo targetsSuch hfcr lslbrcsh iowedhc attacks f 9/ l l . whi .h rrc ol icn nteryrctcd sushctngiD i lewcfa n worltL ol i t ics. o\\ ,cvcr.heg/11lt tacksaclual lyel lectc( li fen.ls nd pattefnslr thc making br decadcs n rctrospect.t t rcksofthrt narufewcre prcclictablc SheDon. 001i).but a conlluenccof lnclonlrrNskedhe brelt,ln the poslw r cra, securily studies ccntred on the rsses\nclt olthrcatseiranalinS fr(m stales.Lcss altentionwas given to !hfealsposcdby non sate actois.Al Qaida.which lilerxlly means the base in Arabic'aDcl ts allics constituiedsuch I non_statc ctor' As documenleclr the9/lI Comnlission Reporl. US sccurity agenciessutlerecl tfoll1 poolcoorclinatiorllDd cgal bafiefs to infbrmation sharing Thc very iactofslhat exDhin the lack ol conDectionbeLwcen hc study of internationalnigrad;n and inlemati( 41 elrtions afgely expltin why lhc thferl posedbv-Al-Oaida \tts insufliciently and bclatedlyapprehended nlernalronalmigr i;n affects the security of states n wirys lhat diffef fl{nn otherthrcat\ due ro its highly conlplcx.diffuse and often contlidictory nirture(Adamson,2006: 97).


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ll4igrulirri tLill S(.ut i l\ 2l l

r ____+Such leLrr qpcared warranted n the afiemalh of ll Scptcrnbcr2001.Scoresof CtA rnd Al Qxidalinked irdividuals. nrainl\ of Nonh Allicxn

background.$eN.lchnrcd lbr nrlohemert in vafious plots. m.lnding onctr) rLtacl llre LIS embassy n Puris. Scvcrrl ol those t1estedrvefeFrenchcitizens of NuLh Aliic.rr background ike Zicafias NloNsaoui, \!ho $as{ccuscclof plotting wilh the pcrFtrdors ol thc 9/ll attacks.At lelst oDcljrench ciLizcnol Nort]r Atrican backsrounddicd duing thc Allied n litarycanrf r ignxgrnrst heTal lban ndAl Qr idr in AlghxnisLan.lger ians ndolhcf iDdi!icllrls oi Nofth Atiic.rn lvluslimhrckgroundwiLh inks to ihe CilAfigurdtrlnnincntly in the hundredsof drests in rhc trxrsatl.intic rea. TheantiWeltein rcsc trncnt ol sorneof thoserufesled$rs linkcd to pcrcciled

bombing! ol $tstcm targets n C|s.rtrlrnc! in 100.r.Sc\crLrl l rhc roinbershadbeen ecruirc( lnto lunddlrcnt r l is l etworkn tbePr is iu suburbs drhcir nvol \cnrcnr i rs eeply l is turhingr) hcFrcnch opLrhl jon.f lcLudin:nr)stol rhchhr l ic ronrnl l in i tyDespir . rn xrnncnt o l lcr l ro m lhc AlBcr ixngolc rnc l l l 1o Is l l l l l icrni l i l rnts$ho hid r lo$n thc ir rars in l (X)6.nranv ont inuedo l ighl . In100?. hcsc r i l i t rnts cnrnredhems. lvcs l Qr idr in Lhe s la| r r jc l !hrchrnd huIrchcd nrufdcrouso|nbin!cnlr i f r isn n Algic l \ . | fcnch rurd thcl[u( ,pcu| i ] r tc i l igcncc l ' l i . i r ls cont inuc , wony.rboul lhc polcnl i r l in '

in l t rs l iccs nduredby migrrnts rnd thc ir l arr i l ies. Despi le nocalcdvigi l rnce.se!err l l - .cnth c i r i rcnswere involved r t a !o iLs ol sLr ic idt '

Pol i l ie i r l n( l sccuri ly rnr l !s ls $e| l j \ lo$ lo gfrsp how pol i l ic i r lnlrvemtnts ncl inct l o Lrsecfror i \m. ' io l .nr ! 'd i f .etcd rg l ins l t c iv i t ix l r|ofuhl ior lo lrchievcol i t i rx l sor l \ . could hf i !c in n is l fxnt nd displLtccdpopLr l . l r i ln \ .nrcfnxt idr l lnrobi l i t ]hccrnrc kcv l tr lurc 01 r ls!nrnrelf icconl l ic ls i l l ing ore cchnological l ! ,rdlrnccd nd po\\er l i r lnr t in t s i l tc \Lrgrinslr)sufgerr l o\ t ' rncnts. l Qeich c\cmpl i t ies uch hr(]xls. s i lr (mst i turrs lc l \ !ofkol hrgcl l ln igfar l n i l i tar l tsnsrgedn I \ !nf ugrinnlhe$/est Ro). l00l i Tifnran, 00.+).

Keydimensions f the internationalmigrationand securitynexusTrrdilionrlly. scclrfityhl|.\beeD icwcd rhrcugh he pfism ol stdlesccufity.As r fesull, rl.ldvely te\\' scholrus a\,csoughl o conceptu ize whal can betelmed hemigr ti()lrL1ndecufityne\us(Miller.2000;Tirlnan.200'l).Ho\te!er.drescopc fsecufityconccns s nuchbrorder, nd s nclusircofhumansccuritt(Pokumd Crrlalrl. 199E).ntemdi( rx1 rig: antsolien sufer irsecuriLyl ndccd. hei| nsecurit) houldbc a mrlor tocu\ ol secuity studics.


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212 TheAgeofMigrdtionMuch migration rom thc South s ddven by the ack of humansecu tytlat Iindsexprcssionn impovedshment,iolence,ackot'humanightsandweakstates.uchpolitical,ocial ndeconomcunderdevelopments inkedto histories t'colonialism nd hepresentondition f global nequality

(seeChapter ). Where tatcs reunableo crcateegalmigration ystemsfor necessar-yabour,manymigrants realso brcedo moveuDder ondi-tionsof considerablensecurity. muggling,rafficking, ondedabour nd1rckofhurnan ndwofterrightsare he ateof rnillionsofmigrants- venlegalmigranlsmay have n insecureesidencetatus ndbe vulnerableto cconomic xploitation,iscrimination ndracist iolence. ometimcslegalchaneiesanpush xistiDg igrantsnto llegality, shappenedo hcsalrrpdzir,'r n Francen thc 1990s.he requentnsecurity fthepeopleof poorer ountrjess often orgottenn discussionsl state ecurity' etthe wophenomenarccloselyinked.Frequently,uchmigrcnt nsecurity s linkcd to pe.ceived hreats.whichcan be divided nto threecategories:ultural. ocioeconomicndpoliliorl (Lucassen,005).The lirst perceivedhrert, theperception frlligrant rndmigraDt-brckgroundopulationsschBllenginghe culturulslntusquo.mayoonlributcmost o migrant nsecurilySuchperceptionswcrccomrnonplacen Europe uring he 1980s ndhave ontributedo theforcmcntionedecuritizalion f migrationpolicies(Messina, 007.1Mxican ndother Hisp4nic'migmntso theUSAhave lsobeen iewedasposing cultural hreat Huntington, 004).Oftentimes,he religbusidcntityand linguisticpracticcs f migrants oom large itl pelceivedthrcats. xAmplesftheseconderccivedhreul,lhe erceptionl-migrantDoDulalions|-sociocconomichreats,nclude talians $ Third RePublicFrunce.elhnic Chinesediasporasn much of Southeasl sia. Syro-I-ebancseonmunitiesnWestAfrica,andChechenndotherpopulationsfrom heCaucasusn thepost-Sovietussian edcration iNlly, he hirdpefoeivedhrcat, erceptionsf migrants spotentially olitically isloyalor subversive.ncludesnigrant opulationsuchasPalestiniansesidingin Kuwaitpriorto the irs1Culf War,Yemenitesiving in SaDdi rabiart thc sameuncturc.ethnicChinesen Indonesiauspectedf politicalsubversionnbehalfof Communi tChina n the 1960s ndethnc Russianpopulatbns trandedn Ballic Republics ftcr he collapse f the SovieIUnbn.Thc perceivedhrcatsoI inlernationalnigrationo nationaldentityandthe mainteniLncef culturulcohesivenessre an imporlant rspcctof thechallcngesosed y intentational igmtion o the sovercigntatc(Adamson,006). nternational igration ffectshe autonomyf states,theirsovercignrerogafivef controloverall mattersanspiringwithinthe terrjtory of the stale,and tle capacityof states o implementpublicpolicies nd oenforceaws Adamson,006).Alternatively,nternafionalmigntion can also increasestatepower IntemationalmiSration oiientacililates cono ic growthand s frequently iewed s ndispensableoa state'seconomicwellbeing. nfluxes of migrantsoften slow population


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Mitr t r t iL) tnt l Secut i t \ 213conLfrctioli and thc agcing of popL atioDs.which crn adlerselv affcclcconomicpertbrnrnceLlndovenll sratesecuri l l . Additronal l l ' , an," 'mirnrnigrnnts scrve rs soldier\. .rnd intelligeDce ervices tcqucntl-,' tupinnnigranr cripcltisc and knon4edgeof lxngulLges. f efleltive publicpol ic iesarc pursuc.l .ntcrnai ionalmigrat ior cnn enh.Lncer lhef th. lndctact tio1n \1alepo$'ef Ad.rnrs()n.004j: 85i.A \ t r te s i lnmisrat iorpol ic ics an r lsLr ontr ibuteo i ts \o l j po$er' .i rs ib i l j iv rc rchieve I i)reigr pol icy anclsecur i ty rb icct ivcsri thoulfccoufsc o l11i l i t i f l or economic erns ol lersu.rsion. lc \ ic$s thclrrgc bod) ol fof! ' ign students tndyins n thc LISA rs i l l l imporl l l l tsoufceof sol l lo ! \ 'c f (Nyc. 100-1). imi l r v . t rer lmentol i lnnl igf in lscrn .Lfftr t a st l te s fcprl l l ion rbroad. r uol i i rconsequenli .r lr t tcr l i ) ld ipl(nn.Lc\ '0d 'sml l - tIo! !cr ' . jn l lucnce h 1 rf ises ir ' () invesl i Ig nsl()bir l oods thathet lerenal. le tat, :so addrcss lob.r l hal lc|gcs Cf.r-hlrn.rnd Poku. {)00: N.rt ionl lConrnrlssior n Tef| ' (r ' ist t t .rcks fofrhi i Lln rcdSrlrcs.100.1).InLenr ir t i (nhlr iSfr l ion hrt\ r ls {) hLr( l L r lsni l i (rnt i IrpncLon lhcchrngingnnturr ol v io lcnlconl l i r l \ MiSfr l ion l ' lows rn inLcfrc l$, i lh()rhrr lrc lors lo lonrcnl iol(nt c () l l icL r thfcc wrt ls: by pfovi( l ingfcs{)Lrrr . \I r l l i rc l l r l ' : l t iL onl l ic l \ , y rc i l i l r l ing nr lworks l orgrnrzc(lcr irrrc rrdbJ \cr !rn! i rs (nrdl l i lsi r in tcrnut i r r l lc f ln isrn (AdLlnrs(nr.l i l 0 6 : l 9 { ) l 9 l ) . V i ! f r n l l n d i r \ p o r i r o | l r n r u r r i l i csl l e n n o ! i d c i n l IL: ia l iL l rnr l cr fu i ls lo groufs f l rga!rd i r l forr l l ic ls 0 lhcir htnnrLul ' t .Koso!l | |A l l ) i r r j rnr( ' rnnrrn i l icsn Wrsl.rn l i Iot)c l l | rdN{rf lh ^rn.ncirl i i f rnst l l | r r ] j .rrNiLtLrl rLrrh l lhc l inulrcirrg n( i I rur) r t r ru i l t l in lhcKos(^ 'o-rbrrr t i (nr nr) \rhi(h.h! lhe ir l c ( l()0s. ngugcdn Ircr ! t l ig l r lin! wirh Scr{) irnixcc\ iD hc l in 'merSuf i i r . fcpubl icwhith rcfcdcd i iinLlrpcn(l.neen l00l i . S imiLrfh- .xrui l Sri I- .rnkunsn Eur l) fe.Clnrih.ludi ir n( lc lse\r 'hcf crLvridc l n l ld t r i ] l tcdhc Tirnri l iScr i insuff . r l i (nrln Sr i LrnLr.

Sirrec1990. he l i rr ign lud l)ul io|nlsccufi typol ieics l lnosts lr i lcsiroLLndhe \u)dLlhrvc pr ior i t izcclhL'conlbrt ing f hurl lan r l l i rk iDgxndorhcrlyfcsol t frn\nrt i( r lcr ir)rc(\ccChaplcr ' l i ) .n sonrcnsl .Lrrce\ .(r f l txDizrr iousic$ed.rs engrsing n lcffof i \n. s ch as hc PKK. hl \ 'c\ i lnr l t neousl) c( ' r rrvolvcd r hufian t f . r l l i .k ing.Othefsuth rrgrr l iTi lt iors hr \ 'cbcco ngaee(ln \ l fucs nd . l ns \n1uggling. h i lc thegfo\ \ ' insawrrcrL-ssf rhesecuf i t !Ll inrensionsf in lc lnr l ionalmisf iLt i t )ninLe9/ l Ihr\ soneri lncscd 1o eslr ict ive ol ic)- ersures.l should cobvioushrtcerlxinkindsof nl igr i t ion nd cert i l i r h lend\ol 'publ icpol ic ics nhaucesecufit!. fathcf than urldcrmire it Stmng slatesc prble ol inplcr cntillgflrhli. policics successlullyand enfbfcing l ws rrc Lr.\l posiliLnled ohlrness the fo\ler ol intcrnatioDrl migfaiio (Adrlnson. 2006: 199).h is also clear thilt mrny slillcs. cspccially in Eurofe, afe felinquish-ing elenrents l their L1utonom,a_n ordef to betlef lnlLinlain he.1bi1ily oregulite thc Dovenrertof Soods. apilrl. peolrlc nd iclcasacrosshofdef\{\ee Ch.rprer\8 and l2). Suchmersureshxveenhlnceclstrle po\\,cr ath!1'


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214 TheAgeof MiSnttionthandiminjshed t. Alternatively,weakstatesare olientimes hreatened yinlernational igration-relatedecurityssues

lmmigrantand lmmigrant-backgroundMuslims nd transatlantlcecuritySince /l I. questionsertainingo he ncorporationofMuslimimmigrantsand their offspringn Westemdemocraciesnveassumed eostraleglc. ianinJJncc.USSenareeJringn 200b elerredo trrr peas he hirdli;nL in lhewar on terrori'mrrnd gooJnumber l bools.rrticle' rndrcports aveanalysedslamicpopulationsn thetransatlanticrcasinc2001Prior to 200t, therehad beenconsiderablecholarshipn Muslimimmigrflntsand their offspring.Aside tiom areas ikc the formerYug.l lLvia n.lBulgana hcrc rrEcMuslrm opulnl i"nsa\e e'idcdtirr-mrnrenturie..noslMu\l i ln: 'n he ran5irl lJnt lcre! rc po\l-W'rrldWar ll imrnigrantsor thcir descendants.rance onslitutesomewhalol an excepti6no theputlerndue o the act that he FrenchRepublicencomp0ss;dlgeria rom the nineleenthenturyuntil Algeriun ndc-pendencen t962.Upon ndepcndcnce'anypersonsot lgerianMuslimLr"ekcroun,li \ inq In melropolitrnranceetaine.lheirFren.h i l izen-,h,n.iurthcrm,,rclcnr,'t rhous.rn,l.i f/'rr,(r'r. rcnchroopsoi AlgctirnMLisl inrir lker.rund,e,l tuFran'et 'rrord eFrisi j ls o\ e\cl.duringheinterwa|oerilod. ndcvcnpriol to 1914,manyMuslin-backgrcundor-sons roln French lSeriawere ecruitedbr empk)ymcntn melrcpoliltlnFrance. ndsonre cttled.Thc AlglianMuslimpopulalionn inte{warF-rance as widclyviewedasconstituting sccurity hreat Roscnberg,2006).

For fie nrostpart, post-WorldWar II migmtiol of Muslims o theWestwasnotviewed sa security roblem dil the1970s nd1980s'Dmost nstances. uslimguestworkelsndseasonalbreignworkenwereassumedo be emporaryesidents howouldeventuallyepatriate heUK constitutedn exceptiono ihc patternas Conmonweallhmigranlsfron India.Pakistan ndelsewhcreouldsettle. ostwar nncepursucda two-prcngedmmigration olicy.welcoming ettlementf imrnigrantsfrrrmnearb!EuropeanlatesikeIlaly but egardingoreignworkersiomlarselvslamic fateskeMorocco, u*ey,Tunisia nd'after1962' lgeriaas ernporary igrants howouldrepattate(Tap;nos'975). y the1970s,thesupposedlyemporaryoreignworker olicies adunravelled.whlie therewcre slamic undamentalist ove)nentsctiven West_ernEuropen the l9?0s, heywerenot perceived sposingmuchot athreat.Tie successf the IslamicRevolulionn Iran in 1979beganochrnAehirt ercepllon.n manlArrb.trtct;n, l [urke].ecular-rrf lenledsor. inmen'ieh hrerlened) lslamicundrmenlalrsto\ementchich


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Miglation and Securiti 215viewedthem as illegitimate. Suchgovernments ameto be viewed bysomeof the more radical Islamic fundamentalistsas the 'near enemy'fhat had to be ovelthrown and replacedwith truly Islamic governance(Gerges,2005).

Thus, by the 1980s, he growth of Islamic fundamentalismcame toaffect the transatlanticarea n a va ety of ways A massacre f St'rianarmy cadetsed to thebrutal rcplessionof Syrianfundamentalists.Manyof the survivorsendedup asrefugees n GermanyThe l$aeli invasionof Lebanonn 1982prorpted Imnian intelvention n the conflict and he


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MigratiLn ndS(utiry 215licwed them as illegitimate. Such governnrents anre o be rie\\cd b)sone ol the morc riLdicttl damic fun,:lalnentalisls s the near eneln!'thai hr.l to be overthro\\'n rDtl eplrced wilh truly lslamic gorctnance( C c r g e s .2 0 0 5 ) .

Thus, hl thc 1980\. thc gro$ th of Ishmic lunda'nentrlism cirrrc ioallect the transrtlanticrrea in a vafiet] of war_s. nlassncre l Syfilnlnn! cidets led 1o he bnrlal rePfession f Syfi.ln lirndanrentalists \4an,vofthe survivorsendcd up rs rcIugees n Ccrm.rny Thc Ts|aeli n\'asiotto[ Lcbrnonnl 19S2 ron4xeLl anian ntefvcntionn lhc confl ict rnd hecrcation ol llczbollLLh-hc P.Lrt) ol God. Anlcficln Lud Ffench lrcopsLlcplovedo lhc Beirul ifen ns P.rrt of the N'lLrltinrtronLllorce in l98ls l r i l i fcd gl ievous osses suicide omb attnckshought o hale bccrncl.l)ctfatc{l v Herbollllh or its illlics. Thc $'ar in Al-ghLuislrnbclr'cenihc'sovierLlnionLrndls Al.shrn l l ies irnd he Mujahadeen tghanis\rho l i )ughthc Sovict\ . elal l o ttrni j t on-Al.1rhrn uslrn) 'oluntccfs.\onrcoi \ !h(nnctme lronl the tr i t l ls i l thnt i .l rcr ' This lr l i l fkcd hc gcn-rsisol $4ut woul( l ater ccornc 1Qtt( l l . $ 'hichOliverRovhls hhcl lcdirs .r tr t(kJl iD.Lnt lyWcstcfrr r(n' .nrcnl l to] . l (X) l ) A LIS cd toLr l il l (nr ' l s l rLtcs.nr iLrd ir )glk is lLrrrnLtSrut l i r \ r : rb i l l .r r rnc. l rnd idc(l h 'lvhrlrLlrrdccn.in l { , \ \ ' inghc ( lc l t l l o l Lh.So!i t l Llnion n Ai . !htrn is l ir r r . lh tI>rk is l rn i nlu Scrvirfs rr l . l l igcrrc( jrgcrrcl \orr ldhclf crcir lc hc T l iblr . uhich rtc |u i tc t lh.n! i ly lnr()rgsl hc, \1. lhrrnic l i r ! .cs n l i r l is l ln 'nI)olhcfrsc ol rclugLt solditrs. lv l()9ar.hc l i t l ibrr lh i t r l c i1] jd (nrtrololor rn(^1 1Al-qhlnrst l l r r' I 'hc |cf t . l r i r tor \ 01 he l99l bornbing l lhc World I i r t ic ( cr ' l ' r InN, lLr l rhnlr i rncrc mrinly A b i | rrrr iglantso (hc USA lrr rclfu\| rrr . lh 'l l l t l . lshr)Lrl i lh lvcgrlvrr lr izct lgrcltcralarrt tanLlstn)nscfeoLrrr lrrmenstr \ srerfss i( ) rr) l l ( ] i lef ir l ornrDission\n thc USA irr!csl igrLl ingcrfofrsrn$,rfn.d th ir l rd i l i t iorr l lcourltc|nrcasur'csrc|c necdecl.Ll l he wrrr lrr lgs\ \ i f fc hfsely nol hecd.r l NiLt ion.l lbmnrissi i)nnr lcr fd is(Al l i rcks jr(mrheLln i t i r l Sratcs.00+).On lhe elc of (henc\t nr i l lenniu ln.n l l f r l L IScusl(nrs qentdctccteLlhc rcrvotl \ l lc ss f Ahl) lcdRessl ln\. nAlgel l l l rAr|ned sL.lmic roupmenbcf l iv i rg i r l C nrd. l , rvhophnlrcd () rr l t lckLos Angclcs irpol l .By 1001.a nunrbcr r iUS of i ic i i r ls crrcd L rr t istfophic ttrck by Al-Qiidir upon largetor tllfgels D hc IISA. blll trilc!t10pfevcntl (Shenorr.008).F( l owrng heLIS ed nlasim ol l raq r 20( 1. r! ndrcd\. l oot housand\.of Elrrofc n Mudims hive volunleefed 0 ight the USA i n 1r q rnd In r)'hrve dicdof becnc.rptured. housuds ofEufopeanN4uslims .LvccceivednihLtrry rr i r i ig in f . l ps n theMiddleErlslandNorlh Afr ica (MENA).rDdhave ubscquentl) ctluned to Eul1)pe Scheuer, 008) The lcrr'orrstaltrcks n Nhdrid andLortdonxnd thc nunrerous liLnned fiacks hwa[edby Eur-(rpcallolicc and \ccurity agencics. ho h.1vc et.riDedhousrndsofsu\peclcd lldica]Mu\lillrs since2001.pro\'idc amplegrounds or concerrebout N{usli1nsn tsurope.Thcre is 1\lruggle for lhe be rts rnd nindsol Muslims jn the Wesl. but the prcponderrnce f e!idcnce suggeslshirt


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216 TheAge of MigrationAl-Qaida-styleadicalism olds ittle appeal or the vastmaiority ofMuslims n the ransatlantic.ea-Theprofiles lrdhistories f Islarnic opulationsn Norlh America ndEurope requitediveryent- uslimsiving n NorlhAnrerica regenerallymore rosperousndwelleducatedthanuslimsnEurope, anyofwhornwere ecruited s unskilled abour CSIS- 006).HoweverevenwithinWestern uropc,Muslimpopulatioosypicallyarehighly heterogeneous.MuslimsofTurkishbackground,br example, rc verydiverse. herearcSunnis ndAlevis o|thodoxMuslimsanda non-orthodoxhiitcoffshoolrespectively),f well asethnicKurdsandTurks.ManyTurksandKurdsarcquitesecularn orientation. 1s lrue thatmanyMuslim rnmigrantsand hei descendanscontiontncorporation{rriers nhousiDg,ducationandemployment ndendure rejudice ndracism.However,he gistoflhc hugcbodyof socialsciencecsearch n the ncorpor'ationf Muslirnimmigrants nd heiroffspring uggestshatmostareslowly ncorporat-ing. much ike previous aves f immigrLrtionn thetransallanticpacethnthave een iewed sproblematicr threateningn thcpast Lucassen.2005: lso ceChaptcn0 rnd 11).Pcrhaps he best analysisof largely MENA-backgrcundmigrantpopuLationsn Europebothpriff rc and alter 9/ll hasbeenconductedin Fftrnce. ne well knownstudy, onductedy MichdleTribalar,oundquiteconlftrsting vidence bout h stateof incorporation f vtrriousnational-originommunilies'rom heMENA area Tribalat.1995). hecvidencc evealcdhe widesprendse,olFrcnch n nrigrant ouseholdsanddccreusing seof Arabic andother molher )ngues.Furthermotc,the cvidencehowd deolinen traditional rrrngedmArriages,tisingintermarrirgeatewith French idzens ndsocialpractices,uchasyouthdatingand cohabitation ilh French itizens,hatsuggestedn overallpaltcn ol-inrprovingncorporation,f no!assimilation.hem^jorproblrnarcaswcre high unernphyment. erccived iscrimin$ionand educa-tionalproblcms. ribalat lso ound hatsome onmunities id no1 ir thegenerirl tern.PersonsfAlgcrianbackgroundendedo bc css eligiousand mole secularhanpersons I Moroccan ackground. urthennorc,the Turkish onmunity n France xhibited lowerprocliviryo Frenchusagcat hone, inleractedesswith Frenchsocielyand virtually neverintennarried ith Frcnch ilizens-Tribalat's tudymadeobvioushedanger fovergeDeralizationith respecrto the ndedibly heterogeneousENA backgroundopulationst France.osaynothingol the estof Europe r theWcst.B u1 erkey nsight.hatFrancc'sMuslins were ncorporatingndbecoming rerch ike earl erwaves fimmigrantso France, gelyagreed ith the nsights l othersocial cientists.France'sbp expertson radical slam, Cilles Kepeland Olivier Roy, doublthatextremistswill find muchsupportn immigrant-backgroundopulationsin Europe,althoughKepelcriticizedBritish tolerarion f radicalMuslims nthe Londonarea Kepcl,2002,2005;Roy,2003).Their assessmentsppearbomeoul by reseiLrchnpublicopinion n the Middle E.rstandNorth Africa


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Migrutiot) atltl Se ti\ 211md otherpredominrntl) Muslim areasof the world. r'hich e\,idencc ctnt\upport or tel.lorism Esposito ndMogahed. 007).I t is di l l lcuh to chrraclerizehe gis lol the burgconing ocialscicrccliteratufeconcerned ! ith incofpofrtion ol migr LnCh.Lckgrund(cspeciall)Musl in) populat ionsn Eurcpe . ncofpofat ioD foces\es fe compler.Scholars blloN diYcNc approrchcsand rhe evidenceapperrsnixcd andvarinbie iom one countfy b the next.The attacksof 9/l I and in Madfidttnd London halc had rhc cffcct of translorlning hc dccadcsold. indccdcentur cs old, queslionof lnigr.rnl rcoryor.rlior in WeslcrncouDlrics rrlo.rD lnpor.rnL ecui ly ssue. otonly n Eur pebul LLlson Nol1hArncricnrnd Austfal ir . n recenLerrs lnuchhrs lreenwrit len bout he susccpl ibi l i ty. ndeed he ikel i i lood. f ln igrantMusl i rnand n Srunt-hackgrundMui l i In nrobi l izat ionnto c lrof is lmovcrncnlsYcbf.2005: srrvcr. 006:Phil ips. 006:Bcfl inski. 007). or hc mostpirr t . uch rt ic lcs nd booksnppciu l tcn | l l ldequ.Ltel)r.rsed rpon ocial c ienceiteftr iurescft.r iningro lnlgr 'irnr ncofPofirlrcn.A nroreme.rsufedrn.r l )s is'ouklbegin , i th heacknowlcdgcnrcnlhr li l l l dcvclotc.l olrntf ies fe hishly vulnefrble o the hrvoc $fcrkcd b]violcncc rrrncrrLqrs. ' lh is ulDcfNbi l i lyshcighlcncdy hcpcrmcibi l i t ) ,ol dcvclo} '( l i t rLlLiso ln iSf tr t i ( )nLrnging rom i l lcgrl nr igrr l i r)r r )hunrrrr rr l l i r [ inS. Mole hroadlypul . rs lobcrl C(x)pclh ls i r lucLl . hclcy sr:curi tyhfcrL lo dcvcl opcri ourlr ics n lhc lwcrr ly i fst ccnlur! isdinndcrcrnanir l i0{i r ) rn i r i led f l i t i l ing l i t lcsc\ lcmrl lo lhc (lcvclopc(l.ounlf ics ( '(x)pcr.00l) . I hr lc fy r{)n( i i l i r )nsornluciveo hccrncf!.necol ler . I rn is lhr.rLtsrc r lso lhose onrlucivc{) nr.rssrsylu| l r cel i r r ls ; r r r lhunr n l f t l { i rk i |9.In lh. Dot sr fcccntplst. r \ t fcnrc ic l l is l gfoups (nkcd to nrigi i l tpopLrlnl ioosof n l i rsssulp{n1 bu( gencfr l l ! did not succce(l n i tsnr(rb i l i /u l l (n.'hcrc s l i t t lc rcrsonnot ro fxpcct hrt pxt l ! ' rDo hokl l lothe twent)- l i rs l c l l t ury.Thc l lc \ ! gc lcf l l l jo l lol tcrfo| is{or l t i l | r iz . l l i rnrshls thushf sucrcedcdD rlLfrct ing hc supporl f l i in{c of thc r l l ig lauta0d migr.rnl ackgfound opuhlioD. he Mrdrid rDd LondoD oNbingsir l lcs l1o he sefiousnes\f the thfe.L l osed v t his i insc. But the kcyli) rlly succcsslil coLlnlcftefr'Lrrisnrlfategy nvolveskno$ ing who is rndwho is not rhe cnenr),. hc grur1bulk of rigrautand nligranl bilckprounrlpopulrt ions hould ot be conslrued s the enemy.Sccn n th i \ I ighl .successfulnc.ofpofalion 1 nigfLrnt Dd migrurt-brckgroundpopulationsin wesrcm coul1lrics oolns as a geostratcgicnper ive in the wilf (nr

Migration,security nd the Waron TerrorismWhat hr! been erned the Wrr on Tcnorislrr y drc CeorgeW BushAdninisrmtiou involves calculated exaggeuti(rr rnd misleddingsimplitication. fter largel! ignoing rhc ttucatposedby Al Qaida n


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218 TheAge of Migrdtionits first months in oflice- the Administration then declarcd a war andIikened t to WorldWar IT (Clal*e.2004;Shenon, 008). n doingso,the Administration xaggeratedhe thrcatposedby radicalMuslimsata timc whenoverallsuppofi or achievementf Islamic undamentalistgoalsh oughpolitical iolencc addeclined ignificantlyndmiinstreamIslamicundarnentalisloveDrentsad ejectediolencewhileembracingincrementalefornr Gerges,005;Roy,1994). his s not o suggesthatUS retaliation gainst l-Qaidaand hs Talibann Afgh^nistann 2001wassonrehownwaffanted:n theconlrafr'.The Administrxlion imultaneouslyommitted classic rror n coun-terterrorism y nisidcntifying he enemyand overrcactingo terroristoutra:es.t did soby incorrectly pecifyinghe crroristenemy, reatingan amalgamationf global errcrist hreats hat had ittle or nothing odo with reirlity, lthoughherearewell known ies rndcontacts etweenmovenrenlshatengagen lerrorism, ay. irr examplc, etweenhe rishRcpublican rnly and he ArnredForces f the ColumbianRevolution(FARC) n SouthAmcrica. t thencompoundcdhe errorby linking thegovernnrentf Iraqt() Al-Qaidaand henusing hatandan unwarrantedclaimconcerning eaponsf ntass estructionsa pretexto invlde raqThe invasionol lraq provedcounterproductiveo the campaignagainstAl-Qaidaand ts allics. ike the Taliban.n AighanistanRicks,2007).Ncverthele$$.he Usled attackon Afghanist4n.atersupportedby a NATOdeployment,.rdlydamagcd alibanandAlQaida fbrces nAfghanistan ithoulcliminatinghem(Miller,200?).By 2007.Talibanti)rcesn Afghanistarrerc esurgent,npartduem theabilityofAlQaidaandconfcderates.ike theTaliban,o use rontierareas l-Pakistan sde hctosanctuaryo regroup,rainand ecruit.Thus,by 2008,Al-Qaidaremained veryrcaltbreat. till capable f striking the ar enemy'as thadon ll Scptcmber001.AlQaida probably layed om ole n the mounting f the attack nMadrid n 2004and he attacksn London n 2005and2007,althoughtheseall,Lckswere ilili,rtly viewed as home_gmwn ut inspiredbyAl QaidaBcnjamin ndSimon, 005). nearly2008,French ndSpanishauthorities hwarfeda plannedscies of attacks n WesternEurope.apparentlyimedagain oprecede eneral lectionsn Spain.Mostofthesuspccts erePakistanimigrants, everal f whomhadrecenllyarivedfrcm the frontierareaof Waziristann PakistanSpain'smost mportantantiterrcdsmmagistate ommented,... the ihadi thrcat rom Pakistanir the biggest Dleqing hreatwe are acing n Europc.Pakistans allideological nd raininghotbedbrjihadists, nd heyarebeingexportedherc' (Scolianoet al., 200i1)-Hence, he US Secretary f Delbncecorrectlyclaimed hat the outcome f the war in AfShanistan irectlyaffectedEuropean ecurity Shanker nd Kulish, 2008) However, isexhortationbr Eurcpeals ,., to fractureand destroy lis movementin its infancy to permanentlyeducets nbility to strikegloballyandcatastrophically,hiledeflatingts deology' gain ppearedo ignorehe


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MigrdtionarulSeL rit\ 219sevcral ecades hichhavewitnessedhe rise andebbof ritdiclll slam(Roy.1994;Gerges,005).While ulrloward evek)pmentsn Pakis&In nd Afghanistan rovedunscttling.t remainednpentive to assess ccuutcly he threalposcdby Al Qaidaand ts allies.Thejrvidence s cordernnedy most sl.lnicfundamentalistsnd the vrst majority of Muslimsaround he world.includingMuslims n thc West.They constitutel fringe movernentnIslamicpolitics hathas ittle or nothjng o do with movemenlsikc theLcbanese ezbollah r the P lestinianHamtlsor Fatah Al-Qaida lokespcrceptirs of grievancehr( arc widely sh.Lred y Muslilns.But theconflatiDol groupsike H:rmas ith Al-Qridaonly mpedes rcgrcssn:rnali importantssuc.he ongoverduercation l .l Paiestiniantrte hatcouldassuagehose er'ceplionsf Srievance.It femainshighly unlikely hat movementsinked to Al Qaidacanachievetrategicictory.hc akeoverf tl countryike Pakistan, lgeriaorAfghanistan.owcver. veterrn ormerCIA rnalystwithextensivexpc-rience n Atghrnistan asprcdictedhat he USArnd its allieswill loscthe wars n Afghanistan nd l.rq (Schcucr.004,20{)8) Consolidationof Al-Q idr controlover ny givena.eawouldexPosehittarca o attrckby all thc Derns lvailableu the US mil i tary. undamcntalislusl iminsuflectioDsn the 197(l-2000eriodwerccrushed.hehilure to detbat'the

Dcar remy suchas eginresn EgyptandAl8eria.n parl due o USandFrnch sistance,ledostslanricundamcntnlisls) modcnteheirpolitics nd t()eschcw nnedstrugglc. l-Qaida's likes agrinst thc hfeneny thusnecd10be seen in whal heywere.actsofdesperationyliingcmolenrent ith imitedpruspcctsbr nrcbilizingnuch uppo liorllMuslimsanywhele. gain.other rnllystshavenlrdestarklycontustingassessnents.specially onccrninghe prcgrcss f radical slam n lheCtucasus. omuJia.igcria,Thitiland ndBangladesh,here adicalizcdforl11cr igrantworkers n theCDlf states nveemergeds a new anddestbilizing actor sccScheuer.008)EveDhccounterproductiveourse f US oreignandnational ecudtypolicysiicc 2002h s l1ot undaDrenlallymprovedAl-Qaida'song-termprospects.hc nvasbnol lraq appearedlmost rovideDlialor Al-Qaidarnd hasbad radicalizing flectuponMuslirnsn Europend clsewhefe(Gerges,005).However,he violentand ctrogradeoliticsof Al-Qaidalargely oom t topolitical blivion Miller.2007).Evcn heTaliban houldnot be confiated ith Al-Qaida.Hcnce,measurcdigilance nd nternationalooperatil)nn the hre.rtof tcrrorism osed y Al-Qaidaaod ts allieswill be requiredbr sonretime.Itwill rcmainapriority n theacceleratingace fbilaferal.egionalandmultilateral iplomacy oncemingntemationalmigration ndsecu-rity.Thc attacks n 9/11did have hc effectof heighteninghe saliencyof miSratioD nd securilyconcernsn forignpolicy and nternatjonalrelations. nd thatsalicncy, hilebelafcd,will likely endureather halldiminishrrespcctivef Al-Qaida fite.


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220 The Ageof MigrdrionConclusions: igrationand securio/in the age of migrationA11epochs nvol\,e ontinuit iesnd discontinuil iesith the plLstThe cenlralityand pervasivencssf perceived onneciions etweenmigrationaDdsecudtydemarcatehe prcsentela from thc Cold Warcra in $4rich,whethefrightly or wrongly,migration did not llgureccntral ly n sccurity h;nking.Ncvertheless.ertain eatures f lhccurrcntepochecho dramasol lhc distantp?rst. thnic cleansinglndhLrnan faffickinghavedeeplystaincd he ageof migration,bu1suchtragediesren()1 ithout mple recedcnt.ear-globalonsciousnessard consensushat hephenomcnaonsti lutentolerablel-frontsohuDan fights difterenlilte thc cuftent era from tbe pl|.\l. t remaiDsfar frornclcar. owcver. betherhe emcrgent lobal onsciousDessconcerning llnranrights and democratic alueswill prove dulnblc(Shaw. 000tHaber .rs ndPensky.001)CrowingundcrstandingndapPreciat ionf migratit aDdsccurityconnectionsncludche alizrl ionhat heworld mostPowerful ndwealthiest ations rnnolaffbrd o be ndiffcrento mllss uffcring. haosrnd polit ical xtfernismn dishntpl&ccs. uropenncadeNlppearedto gfusp his rnore cadily htn theirAmerican ountcrpi l f ts.n partbecauscf Europc pr'oxinri lyo thc MENA. whichmeanshnl thchunriln onscquences)fconllicts hereoltcn inrn)ediulelyfl'cctEulr)pethr rgh clugcc rrivrls. uch rropen-Anrcicirn ivergenccs.n turn.thre teDedhc cohesi(D l thc key securityNtitution ol lhc postColdWarcra,namelyheNo h A(lrnt ic reutyOrgarizationNATO) Kupchrn. 998r indbelg.005).

Guide o further readingTherehasbcen fernarkablcutpour'ir1gf scholarshipboutmigralionand securitysince2002. Kcy earlierworts includedWeincr(1993),wacveret al. (1993), yolr nd Ucarer2001).PokuandGrahau 1998)'GrahanandPoku 2000)andWeiner ndRussell2001)Notable ecenlcontibDtioosncludeAdamson200,1,006),Alexsecv2005), reednan(200.+), leinschmidt20{)6), ucassen2005). irman 2004)andGuildaDd anSelm 2005).on Muslins ir Europe, eeCSIS 2006),Benjamin ndSirron 2005),Cesari 2004),Dederian(2004),Haddad 2002),Kepel(2002,2004).Laurence ndVtissc2006), eiken 2005).Roy2003.200'1)ndKlausen(2005).On complex ecuritymplicationsf tlansnitlionalopulationseeArgun (2003).Ostegaard-Nielsen2003).Ogelman 2003),Silverstein(2004)lndRosenberg2006).


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Chapter OMigrants nd Minoritiesin the LabourForcePeopie nigratc for nrany reasons.Despite recenl govcrnnent Policiesli)cusingon econonlicmiSration.mostmiglalion to OECD countics is nolspccificall) lin economicpurposes.Thc larges!enlry catcgory or nlirnycountfics s I nily rcunion.h addilion.largcDurnbersomc o seek elugefronr war and persccution.while olhcrs move o enhance hcir cduc.tli(nr'The increrscd aseol mob; l i ty n the ageof lnigrat ion s also erding1(l mofe movemcrl for narriage. lctilcnlcnt or sinlply in scafch()1newl i lesty lcs.Lrt LIrgcroport im fnrigranlso novei)rexpl ic i l lyconolnicrersons: in scafch ol highcr incontes,hetler cmployrnentchanccs orprolbssion iLdvInccmcnt.oreo!er. l l intcrn t i (n l l l ln i ! l fa t io, ] as Lrncconornicdinrcnsion.ndperccptionsolconunic ituscstDd onsequenccswcighhe.LVilyn public ol icy-nakingn hothmigrant-sc,rdingrndccciv-ing counlr ies. endirgcounlr ies x)k t() fcrn i l t . rnees.nvcslnrcntsrrrdlechDologyransler y migftnts rs esourcesbf ccononric ()wlh,$hi lcrccciving ornries fc conccfncd i th thc folc ol nr ierfanlsD nccti gdem nd or LLrbour dski l ls .' I 'h isch.tptcr beuses n th0 posit i(nol lnigralr ls nd nl in(ni l ic s l lthc labour i n-ce. ssessnrentsl lhc costsand beneli ls f n l iSr l l t ionbr\jarioussoci.ll gloups (suches nigl nts lhelnsclvcs. ish of low-skillcdlocrl workers.enploycrs and weltaferecipicrfs)are highly conlroversirl.and have bccome incleasingly politieiTed. Thc chaptef will Pro!idean int foducl iono suchdebatcs, ut can only covcr 'asmal lp lr t of lhcconplex issucs.We conceDlratc r the situltion ol lower sk;lled nigranhand heirdesccdants n rdv nccdeconomies. ighly ski l lednigrat ioiis not discus\ed n dctail. becauset wils coveled n the sectionon hraindririr or brair circulltion in Chapter3.we explore hesessucs irst by looking at thcfactors haLdrivc delnrndfor migrrDl labour in advrncedeconomies.and how lnigmnts nrect hisdemnd. The nexl scctionpresenls nfomation on the work situationol'

igrants,prying attcntion o both ibreign born workers thcnselvesandlheir descendrnls: hc secondgeneration.Then we look briefiy at thedisputc anong ecoiomists aboutwhethcr mmigration is good or b.rd'fbr the recciving econ(nny.A fufiher secti{rl1 lamines the dynanics oflitbour marketchangc,and ljnks these o lhe hew political ccononly' olglobalizalion and the social tnnsfbrnation of socielies n both Norlhand South.22.1


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222 TheAge fMigrationLabourdemand n advanced conomiesIt is otien s.rid hat abourmigration tom poorto rich countiesmeefs,ilutualneecl\ seeCEC,2005b;GCfM,2005).Poorcountries ave oomanyyoungabourmarketentrantsor their weakeconomieso employ,so hey need'to export urplus orkers. ichcountries,y contrasl.avedecliniDg umbers f youngpeopleentering heir labourmarkctsandcannot ill thegrowingnumbers fjobs. so hey need'to import rbour.But it is important r rcalize hal suchneeds rc socially onstructed.nChapter we discussedhe historical ndeconomicactorshatstimulaleenligmtion rom the South.Her we are concerned ith correspondingprocessesn theNorth.The 'need' for low-skilled labour in northem countrics is sociallyconstrucledy thcpoorwages, onditions ndsocialstatusn certainsectorx.A Europeantudyshowedhat immigrationplays n mportant ole n imprcv-ing aboumarket fliciency. ecauseome.iobsre.rvoidedy nfltivesl

dirty.difficultanddangeousobs.hw-paidhouscholdervjceob!. lowskilledobs n the nformal ector f the economy,obs n seclors ithsli)ng seasonalluctuation,.g. mning,roLd epairs ndconstuctjoD,hotel. estaulantndotherourism-relatedervices.Miinzetal.,2007i7)Tf the conditions nd status f suchobs were mproved,ocal wofkersmigbthemorewilling o akc hemwhilemarginal mphyersmightgooutof business.he result nightbe hatcertain ypesof work wouldbccomeunviable, nd be relocatedn lower-wageconomiesn the South.Suchbflllhoing' or'outsourcinghas n factbeen ommon ince he 1970snthe manufactuing ector. heremuohof lheprcduction asbeennrovedto new ndustrial conomies. griculturcalsoseerrsan obviorschoiccfor outsourcing.ince roductivitys low Duringdebatesn theNAFTATreaLyn $e early 1990s,MexicanPrcsident alinas uggesledhat rwouldbe better or US consumers() uy tomafocsroducedn Mexicothan tdratoes produced y Mexicans n California(seeChaPter8).However, olh local farm employels nd local farm worke$ wouldbe hu by Dovingpbductionoffshore, nd heyhavehad hepoliticalclout o prevenlhis happening.his explainshepcnistencef the EU'sCommonAgriculturalPolicyand US farm subsidies,oth of whicharccostly o taxpaye$, isadvantageouso consumersndhighlydamaging)agricDlturcn poorcountdes.

Ratherhana re?d br migrantabour,weshouldhereforee analysinga denuntl, which is put forward by powedul economicandpoliticalinteresN. overnmentoliciesn receiving ountries ave cspondedothis demand itherby creatingecruitment ndmanagementystemsorlegal oreign abour,by lacitlypermitting and ometimesegularizing)irregular employmcntof migrallts, or, often,by allowing a mix of regularand rregularmigrlDtemployment.


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Migruflts.o1iMi orities in the Labour Forte 223Recognilionf hedemandblmigrantlabourinpostindustrialconomiesrepresentsshift n approachn recenl ean.As describedn Chflprer .foreign abour mploymentn Europe lagnatedr declined ffer1973 naperiod l recessionrnd estructuring. anyEuropeanountries dopted'zeroimmigr.rtionolicies, ut wereunableopreventamily cunion ndpermanenteltlement.heUSAch^ngedts mmigrrtion ules n 1965. utdid notexpect signilicantncreasen ent cs romnontradilionalources.However.he early 1990s aw an upsurge f migBtion to developedcountries,rivenby botheconomic ndpoliticalactors.The re ctionof policy-Drkers as o tighten p nationalmmigrationrcstfictions.rndo incrcasentefnationalooperationn bordercontrol.nimportanteasonor this cstdctivenessespeciallyn Europe) lls he earthrttempoturymigrantsmjghtagajnurn llto newethnicminorities. here

wii! dllo iinolher e$on. n viewol increasedemandbr highly skilledpelxrnneland offshoring t low-skilledobs.governmentselievedhatlow skilledmigrantworkcFwouldnotbeneededn the uture.Restrictivehbour nrigl tbn policieswereDraintainedhrough he 1990s. oreover.SoutbefnEuropean ountrie! hat had beenmaior sources f migrantworke* n thcpastnowbccarncmportanlnrmigralir)nre:Ls-In fcccn!yeaN herehas beena gradualshift in official vicws.Aninrpoftant rilestone ts the SiissnulhContntisrio,rr?r)r./2001). hicharguedhrl Geflnuny adk)ngsince ecome n lnmjgrationountfyandwould ccd o elyon abourmigration) 6l l both ki l led nd ers-ski l led.iobsn the luture. n Britain.alter nearly30 yearswithoutany serk)usecononricnalysisl-migratiul.heHoDre f i ice ublishedreporlh.rthighlightedhepolentiulenelitsl abour r igrat ionGlovertal. . 001).Whdt ed o hese hangesJA nlajot?unotni( laLt r. was hc rcalizationhatdevelopcdount escould not export all low-skilled work to low-wagecountries.Thernanulircturef cars.computersndclolhingcouldbe shifted o China,Bruzil or Malaysia, ut the consnucti()nndustry. otelsand restaurantsandhospitals ad o be whereheircustomersived.A mqot denotsfttphi.rclor was he ealizationbat otal e ility rateshad allcn sharply. urostat rojectionshow hat hc population f thcEU25asa wholes likely ro f'allby 1.5percent rorn457million D 21X)4to,{50n llion by 2050.However.hedeclines brecasto bemuchgrealerin Gennany 9.6percent). tuly (1J.9ercent)and he A10 states, hichjoinedrheEU in 2004 11-7 erccnr).Morc serious till is thedcclinc nwolkingagepopulation15-64):n 2005,67percentof thepopulalion lthe EU25 wereof workingage, ompared ilh 16percenraged65 andover.By 2050, workingage opularionf57percentwiil have o support30percentaged 5 andover CEC,2005a: nnexe ables and2).As theEuropean ommissionrguedCEC,2005a: ection .2):

In the short o mid-term, abour nrmigrationclln . .positivelycontributeto tackling he effects f this demogfiphic volution nd will prove


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221 Th( Ag?oIMi!tutit 1crucial to sntisfyi g cunent and future labour narkct nccds and thusensureeconomicsustainability ndgrox,th.

However.migration s likel] to rke only a snall co tribudon-sincc heimnigration levelsneeded o fully counteract Lgeing ould be exrrelnelyhrge. Moreo\,er. he demographicbcncfit of ilDmigration s a short ernlone.becrusc mnigrant tertility behaviour ends o trke on the prttems olthehostsociet) n thekrDg un.An ilnportant !o.'rdl.&./(, defives rom the economicand denro-eraphicshifts. The propofti(nrof childfen rged 0-14 in the EU25 population spro]cctcd o f;Lll rom 16..1 er cent n 2005 to I3.4pef cent n 2050(CEC.2{){)5a. nnexe'lhblc 2). lf thcrc arc fewcryoumg eople. hey !\ill expecibcttcr cducatioDal ppoftunities, nd lew ol lhem wiil accepl r-skilledjobs. Europcrn labour mrltet expertsnow l irnrcasl hat rranuil iobs inlranulacturing nd rgriculturenr ! decl ine. ut ther s l ikely to bc agrrwlh in unnict delnand of lorv skillcd scrviccworkcrs n househokl ndcare obs MLinz t r l . . 2(X)7: ) .

How migrationmeetsabour emandMil fant l rbolrr mar lca cruciLr l ont f ihut ior]() the posl-wlr hoom iDadvrnccrl eonomies.'his r) lc in hbouf lbfccdyn.rmics,Lrs lucst l()rr f dir) thc 1970s nd l9i l0s.hul s l f (mgly clsscf lcd iolr l thc 1990s.l 'hcirvorirgc unrhef l l i )rc ign'horn ( ' rkcfs ncrclscd n OECD coLlntf ics(rhcadvlrccd industr ir leountr ics l Iun)pc. Norrh ADlcf i t ja.OccNnir..hprn rnd Kofc ) by 20 perecnt run l{) l) l )11) 005.B} l (X)5. i rc ign-bolr$,(nkcf\m de up nrbslrnt ir lshrlc ofthc l l rbcnrfbrce:25 in Austfr l irncl Switzcrlaud.0 pcf eent D C n da nd a()und 15pef.enl in thcLISA. New Zerlancl.Austria anclCcr'mlry. Thc hgurc fbr othcr Weste rluropcall countrieswirsafound ll per.enl. The lnigrirnt shrrc wis lowcfoDl) in Jap an 0.3pef cent) .Kofer (0.8pef cenl).rnd olncCcnlrulandErsrcrr Europca collntfies(OECD,2007: rll.From 1995 o 1005 hcrcwrs sustr ined mwlh in OECD econonics.leading o stnmgdem nd for hbour. ln thc USA. 16ntilllon new obs verecreiLted. l $'hich ocarly9 lrlillion (55pef cent)wefe illed by lbreign-bornpersons.Migrants nade up between one-lhird lnd llro lhirds of nervemployees n mosl Westeln aod SouthernEufofean countfies.Due todcnographic ct(ns the nunber' of nationalsavailable br employmentrctually declined r Celm.rny..rndsimilar dccliiresare tbrecasl or othefEuropean ountries. akirs fic fuure contributionof migf.rnt {,orkers llthc more mportrD! (OECD.2007:66).New innnigranls otien bring skill\ q,ith then: the old slcrcotype ofthe unskilled migrunt colnjl]g in to take thc leastqualilied positions sno longer valicl (Col]ins. 2006; Portes and Rumb t. 2006: 67 68). lnBelgium. Luxe'nbourg-Swedenand Denmalt, over 40 per cent ol theemploycdmigrantswho ufived liom 199-5o 2005 had tcrtiary education.


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Migra t:t dnrl Minorities in the Labour Force 225ln Francehe igurewas35percentand n theNetherlands0percent. nmanycases,migmntworkers adhigherqualification rcfileshan ocal-bor[ workers. nly n Southern uropeanountries idbw-skil]ed abourmigration redominateOECD, 007:67-68).

But even n Western uropemigrantswere mpo ant o en,ployersorlow-skilledjobs.orexamplc, study I UK employenoundhatmigrantswerean importance ource f less-qualiliedabour n agriculturc; otelsand catering; dministmtion,usiness ndmanagement;ndJinance.nsomecascs.cmpioyemprcferred hem b loc:rlsbecausehey werc 'morcrcliablc.motivated nd commit(ed', nd morepreparedo work longerand lexible ours'and workharder' handomestic orke$ IllstituteorEmployment tudies t a1., 006: v).Migrants n the labourmarketThere arc many ways of dcscribingand assessingnbour mx.ketperloflnance,ereweconcenlratensecloral ndoccupationalistribution.Nremploymentndselt-employment.Themigrant eneration'Sectoraldistribution' efers o the induslriesn which Inismntswork.Frequenrjnh.ormigrrnrmen n he1970! creminurlsorLin ir. , \ fr\.on buitdingsites, r in low-skillcd crvices uchas garbage ollecliollandstrect lcaninS.Womcnwerealso10be li)und n factoriesespeciallylextiles nd lothing, ngineeringnd ircdprocessing)ndinsefliccs uchascleaning ndhcalth. odaymigrants anbe ound ightacrcssheecon-cnny,However,hey emainoverrepresentedn manufactuing zlseclordescrtedynany nntionals.n taly,Cermany, inland ndAustrio. tleastonc n five oreign-born orkerss in manulacturing;n Japanhe igureis 54percenl.Migranlwor'kerarealsooverrepresentedn constructionnnrany ounlries. owever,n thepostindustrialECDeconomies.ervicesjobspredominate.ndmostmigrantworkers rc o bc ound n thissector.Here he tbreign-bornreovereprcsentedn hotelsandrestaurants,ndthchealthcarendsocial ervicesectol OECD,2001:12J3).'Occupationaldistribution' etbrs o the obspeopledo. Forcignbornpersons re overrepresentedlr cleaningobs:morc fhan 50 percentofsuchobsareheldby migrantsn Switzerland,ndmorc han30percentin Austria,Germany, weden,taly,Greece nd he USA. Theyarealsooverrepresentedn obsaswaiters rcooks, nddomesticarcIs. hese letypicallyobswith poorpayandconditions.Dd ittle security. owever.foreign boanpe$onsarc alsoovefieprcsentedn somese ice occupationsrequiring igh-skill evels, uchas eachersin Switzefland nd relalld),docto$ and nurses(iD the UK) and computer expefls (USA). Overall,migrantemploymentn the tertiarysector eemso be 'dualistic'with


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226 TheABe f Migrutiulconcentrationt low andhigh-skill evelsanda gap n betweenOECD.2001:13 11).Inthee lyst ges fnigration, ost igrants ucceedn gell ingjobs.and are farelyunenrployed.he picture odry is rmre nixed, as Trblel0.l shows.n Southern uropeapartiom Italy).unemploymentatesbrthefbreigD-bornre only slighllyhigher hdn or the nltive-born.BLrl nWcstcrn uropemigmntworkersave orne hebruntofrestructuringndrecessi(ms.rd hirve rtuch ighe.unenrpkrynenlrtes hankrcalw{}rkers.Thesituations difterent g.rinn theUSA DdAustftrlir:egrl lnmigmntshavebecomewell integratedDlo he abourmarket, nd unenrpbynrentratcs or the foreign-bofn rd nativesafe very simihf (OECD.2007:7l-72). Bul it is important o rcmcmbcrhat thcsc igurcsarc only fbrlegally cgistcrcd orkers.UndocLxnentedigrants re n a muchnroreprccariousituationsee elow).

Tablc L0I UnenryloJnentates fforeign-bornndnutire-bornpopulationsn seleded ECD ount es(2005)Untnt o\n1ut rul! 2005.p.t L\r1l

N.tti! hont lot(i9,1 ht)nt Nativ ho l.bft,iU,-har

Bclr iunrCzcch cpublicl)cnnrarklr inlrnd

HurgaryhelrndItrlyLuxemboufgNcrhcrlandsNorwayPorlugalSlovakRcpuhlicSpainSwedenSwltzerland

CanadaUnitedStates

'7.55.08.39.210.2t 5 . l1.11.59.2'1.5'1.5:1.3

17.01 2 .01.93.73 . 85.05 2

20.316.5t2.12t).216.5l6. l1 5 . 97.1

1,1.67.59.58 . 59.728.6l l . 5t 4 . l9.11.15.25.2

6.36.24.08.0u. l10.65.97.06.21.01.61.)

15.1'7.l)'7.92.11.71.16.3

l t . l1 :1.E10..11.2t 6 61 3 . 317.5

6.11.2I 1 . 91 2 .58.521.09.515.67.11.45.05 . 1

s,r,1/ OLCD12007) nnerTrhle Al l


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Migrants dnd Minorities i lhe l^about Force 22'lOvcrall,migrants till end o haveoweroccupationaltalus ndhighcrunemploymentules han nonrnignntworke$. Yet tle labourmafketpositions f migant worte$ are nuchmorevaried han hcy were20or 30 yearsago.The averagesiven n the tablenr.ryobscurc uitebig

diflerences etween igh and low skilledgroups.or between pecilicoccupations. ew migrantsoflen comewith higherqualificationsndgainaccesso belterjobshan he;rpredecessors.ldclmigrantworkers,by conhast. ftenseem o havegot stuck n the rr.rnual nanufacturingseclorsor which hcywcreo ginally ecruited. estructufingnd ecessionshaveoften cd to uncmploymcntr displacementiom thehbourfrrrce rrr suchgroups.Onc indication f this is the fact that migrantshave ower abour i)rcepa{icipationutes hrn nativcsn manycountries(OECD. 007: nncx ablc Al.2).However,hc OECDmaterials toogeneralo reveal hecornplex attcrnsof diffbrenliationased n ethnicity, endern{i eg{l status.Wcwilllookat the UK i$ just oneexanlplefor the US situation eePortes ndRLrmbaut.006:chryter4). In the UK, ethnic nequalily asbccomcalong-tcrmcature f the aboufmarket. n officittl tudy used n he2001Census howedhat Bangladcshi omenhad he highest nemployDrentratcat 24percent sjx times hatof whitewomen.BLLngladeshirenhada 20percentunenploymentale, iNr times halol whitemen. ndianmen

andwomen rd only slightlyhigherunernploymentates hnn heirwhitccounterpa . All othcrethnicminoritygroups bothmenandwoDrenhad unenrpk)ymentales wo to thrcc incs highcr hanwhitcs.YouDerpeople nder 5yearswere ar norc likcly to bc outofwork. Thc atc bryoungBantladeshicn was40 pfi ccn!,comparDd ith 12pcf ccntofyoungwhitenren.Otberminorilyyoung rcnhdduncmploymcntlcs of25-31percent.Thepicturebf youngminofity woDren assimilar.withunenpk)ymenlirlesconsiderablyigher han br whites ONS. 002).Thegeneral icture n the UK in 2001wasof a labour brce stratiliedbyethncityandgender rd with a highdcgrcc fyouthuncmploymcnt-enerally.people t' ndian.Chircse, r l shbackgroDndendedo have mploynentsituationssgood sor olnelilnesellerhan heaverageorwhileBilish seealsoDustmannndFrbbri,2005). y conlrasl. thergroupswerewoNe f}.with a dcsccndingierarchyf blackAfiicans. lackCaribbeans,.kistanis.and at the verybollorn BangladeshisONS. 004).Cender islinclionsvaryryoungwoncn of blackAftican andblackCaribbean thnicityscem operform ettern botheducatirmndempbyrent hanmenofthese roups.while heoppositeppearso be hecasebrPakistanisndBangladeshisseealsoSchierupt al.,2006r 20 130).Thesecond enerationMosI abourmigrants o OECDcountries p to the 19?0swereworke$with ow skjll evels- s a rcsul1 [ subsequenledenentprocesses,new


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228 TheAge of Migrations(ond ge erdt on native-bornersons ithbothparentsoreign-born)asemeryed.n moslOECDconntrics zruonrwith d tl.iUftuion ackground(foreign-borne$ons lus hesecondeneralion) akeup a argeproporlion of youngadults thehighest hares in Australia45percentof per-sonsaged20 29), followed by Switzerlandand Canada 30 35pef cent),alld thenSweden, SA, he Netherlands,ermany, rance nd le UK(20-30percent) OECD, 007: 9).Sincemembe$of the second enerationavegainedheir educationin the hostcountry,t is valuableo compareheif experienceoth withmigranfs f thesame gegroupandwithyod,lgpeoplewhodo not hdwa nigrdtion backgrcuntlnative-bornhildrenof native-born nren19.Studies l schooliDgn irnmigration ountries uing theearlysettlementperiodpredictedhatchildrenof immigrantsmight nherit heirparents'low socioeconomicositionsCastlestal.,1984: hapter6). usthisn laclhappenedl tudies singnational tatisticscensuses,abour orcesurveysetc.)and nternationalomparativetudiessuch s OECD'S rogrammefi)r Inlernalional tudeltAssessmentPISA)nowmuke t possib]e() ivea provisional nswer. or he USAdatahave een rovided y heCurrentPopulation urveyand he Childrenof Immigrants ongitudinal urvey(seePortes ndRumbaul, 006: hapter ).In general,he research hows hat the second enerationasbetteraverage ducationalutcomeshan he migrantparentgenefirtion.heyalsodo bctlff than oday's oungmigrants f thesame gegroup 20-29).However.he outcomes f the second eneratfunag behind hoscofnative-bonloungpcoplcwithouta migratbnbackground.his maybcpartlyexplnined y thc ow educationalndsocioeconomicevels l-thcirparcnts. inoe uch actors end o be transmittedcross enerations,hePISAstudy ssessederlbrmancel ls-year-ddsn mathematics,cience.rcading and oross-curricularompetencies.he st$dy showed hal,evenafter rllowing or parcntal ackground.econd enerationtudcntsrcnainedat a subslantialisadvantage.hisapplied articularlyo fbrmerguestworker-recruitingountries,ikc Cermany, elgium. witzerlandndAustria.Second-generalirDducationisadvxntageas bund o be nsig-nificanl n the cases f Sweden, runce,Austmliaand CanadaOECD.2007:79-80).This makest clear hat heoriginalmodeof l^boDrmarketincorporationanhave ffects hatcross enerationseealsoPortes ndRumbaut. 006;92-101).The OECD rcsearch lso revealed ubstantialender ifferences.nall OECDcounrries tudied excepthe USA),second-generafionoungwomen idbetler han heirmale ounterpartstschool. his sparticularlyinterestingn vicw of the tact thatyoung mmigrantwomenoftenhavelesseducali{Dhanyoungmmigrantmen OECD, 007:8l). Schoolingrhostcountries ee s to have n mpofiant mancipabry ffect or secondgenerationomen-In the ong un, themost mportant uestionor the second enerationis whether hey can get decentobs in the host country.The OECD


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Migtunts utltl Minarities in rheLabour Ftrte 229found that youngsecondgenerationmembershad a hiSher employmentprobbility than mmigrantsn the saDre gegfNp. but still sufiered ig-nificant disadvantage omparedwith young peoplewithout a migrationbackground. orryingly,ie disadvantageeemedreatest t the op endof thequalincationcale. ndicating he persistencel r 'glassceililrg'fbr minorities. ative-bornhildren f immignnts iom Aliican countdesseemed ()have hegrcaleslabourmarketdifficullies:members f thesecond enerationn Europewereup to twiceas ikely to be unemployedasyoungpcople ithout migration ackground.ossiblcxplanationsorIhis ncludcdackof accesso informalnctworkshathclp n job fincling:lackofknowledge f the abourmarkct: nddiscriminationn hebasis foriginor cl.rssOECD. 007: Jl-ti5).MjgrantentrepreneursUp (J hc 1970s.igrants especiall,n Europe ere een swage-workers.and rnrely becarne clf-cmpbycd r cntrcpreneurs.n somc countrics(such s Gerrnany. wilzerlnd and Austfit) their workpermitsniliallyprohibitedell--employment.he siluationwasdifferentn the USA,Aus'trulia lnd the UK andFrance.wheremigrants egano run sma]lshopsandcaf6s arlyon.Sincc he 1980s, igrant elt-cmploymenrasbccomc1al morcconmon everywhere.he OECDnotes hrt fbrcign-born ef-sonsmadcup 12pcrceulof thc sclf-cmploycdn the UK, 13pcr ccDr DBelgiun.France DdCcrmany. nd 14pcrceDl D Swcdcnn 2005.Scli-enrploymentoes ol nocessailymeanan rnprovedociirl ositiur Inanynrigfants hooset t|^s lall-back olution, ecausehey lre unenrployed.or fird Ihcir upwardmobility n paidemploymentlockedOECD, 00?:?4-?5.Nonetheless.USstudy D heearly 990s ound hatsel :enrpk)yedpersonso.on nvel.nge.rvehigher ncones hnnemployeesPortes ndRumbaut,2006:81).Typical mietantowned businesses re ethnic restaurants,momfi1dpop' food storcsand conveniencetorcs WaldinBer t al., 1990).ImDriguntowncdbusincsscstequentlyemploy amily membersrcmthe countryof origiD.LightandBonacichl9ltiJ) raced heoriginsot thcKoreanbusinessommunly n Los AnSeleso the KoreanWar.whichlcd o extensiveransnationaliesandeveltuallymigration etweeD oleiLand he USA.Mor ecently, ess 2005: 8-95)hasshown owKorcanentrepreneur\ame o dominrte he New YorkgreeDgrcceryusiness,tfirst employing o-ethnics,hen repltuiDg hem with Mexicanworkersat lower wages and then re-employing oreanswhen the Mexicansdemandedetter ayandconditionsseelsoWaldinger.996)-Immigmnt enrcpreneulship as been assessed ivergently. omescholars tress he economicdynumismof immigranl entrcpreneuNwith theirpositive ffects poneconomic rowthandqualityof life forconsume$Fix andPassel, 994: 3).A morecriticalviewpoint tresses


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230 TheAge ol Migrationthc human ulGringentailed y lltense ompetition,onghoursof work,md exploitationf liimily abourandof illegallyernpkryedliens Collinset al., 1995; ight and Bonacich.glili: ,125436).The growth )1smallbusinessn Europe s stronglyinked o neoliberal oliciesof economicderegulation,hichhavcmade t easiero st^rtbusinesscsnd o empl(rywolte$ on a short-term.asu basis.n manysuchbusinesses,oth heemployersnd heworkcrs remigmnts f rembenofcthnicminorities.ln theUK, anofficialstudy howedhat hegrcupsmostlikely o beself:employedn 2001werePrkisl,rnis23pcl cent) ndChinese18pcl cent),compared ith l2 percentofwhile British see lsoDustmann ndFabbri.2005). elfemploymeDtflen cllected espcrationo escape.rycle f ow_paid nsecurejobsndufiemp]oymeDl.he2000 2001annual ocalArcaLftour ForccSurvey howedhatonc n sixPakistiLnisn employmentasir crb driverof chauffeur,ompared ith 1 tler'cenl f whiteBritjshnen.Fortypercentof Bangladeshi enwere ilher ooks r waiters, omparcdwith I perceDtol while Britishmen.Tenpercenlof blackAfricanandwhite rishwomenn empk)yrncntcrcnLr$es,ompared ilh 3percent fwhiteBrilishwomen. y conttusl rditns.Chinese. hite rish.andothernon Britishwhitegroups ad ates f prot'essbnnlmploymentf I 7-20perccnt, omprredwith ll pcfcent br whileBrilish ONS, 004r).Thedatashowa complex alternof ethnicandgender egmentatbn,with sonreethnic minority gr'oups oingquite well while othc$ arcdisndvantagcdlnd inrpoverishtd. here s no clear statllsdistinctionbetweenhc cmployed nd the sellcmployed the tornlercalr ncludehigh-status rnagerss well ashw-paidscrviceworkers. hile hc atiernngc frdn nredical rofessionals() crb divcls and bod_stallperato|s.EthDic lnrll businesss an mportant aft of thenewpoliticaleconomyof the abour orcc n devek)pedountdesscebelowandalsoLightandcold. 1999; citz.1998;Wnldinger ndLichter. 003).

How does immigration affect hosteconomies nd localworkers?Sore economistsrgue hat mmigration raydamagehe economy yworseninghe balance f payments,lusing nflationand reducingheincentiveor ploductivity mprovenents.t is alsochimed hatmigranlsmay harm lowerskilled level workersby compting br dleir jobsand biddingwagcsdowD.This hasbeen akenup ;n headlines uchas'EastEuropemigranls elp o take oblesso six-year igh' in Britain'smass irculationDdil] M4ll (17August2006,quotedn TUC, 2007iL0)A Bilish cconomjst urnmariscdis reporton abolrrmiSration:

It concllrdeshat heeconomiconsequencesflarge-scalcfirmigrationarc mostlyminor, ncgativeor transienf,hat the interesls f more


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l,|ierattt, o d li.4 oritie' in th? Lnh"ur L r,, 211vulnemble ections f thedomestic opulationmay well be damaged,and hatanyeconomic enelits reunlikely o bear onparison ith tssubsmltialmpact npopulation rowth.Suchindings re n line withthose rom otherdeveloped ountries. Rowthom.200,+)

By contrast,BritishHomeOflicestudy bund h:rt n theory... Digrationis likely to enhunce conomic rowthand hewelfare f bothnatives ndmigrants'ClovcletaI.,2001:ii).Accordillgo anearly tudy fposc]945Eufopean xpansion.hc cntiy of migrant rorke$prcvents ottlenecks,pl-(rvideskills and rcduccs nflationary ressures.hese actors lbwcontinued conomic xpansion. hichbencfitsocalworkers oo. n theabscncc f a migrant aboursupply, tLLgnalionighl ensue,eadinSolower ncones Lbrall (Kindleberger,967).Similarly.a rcvicw ol theliterature ll n]lcroeconomicmpacts f immigration iom the 1970sothe ea y 1990sound hatstudics onvergein concludinghat morjgra-tioncauses o crowding-outn he abournarket nd does otdeprcssheincome { nrlionals' OECD.199.1:64).However,nrnrigr'irtionTl{y ave iffcringeffccts or different roups flhe hostpopulation:mployers aybenefitmostwhileunskilledworkersmay lose.Hatton nd Wil l iamson2005:125)af6rm that unskil ledworkcN n the USA wereadversely ffected y intcrnationalmigntionpfior o Wo d War I. In lhcir vicw.whatDanicls 2004) etbN o rs therlosingof thc ColdenDoor. heenaclment)1'estrictiveuwsandpolicicsthrtcuruilcd mnligrat iono heUSAafter1918.etlectedpolit icrlwil lto p()fect Dskil lcdorkcrsHatton ndWill ianrson,2005:7'/ ,222).1\\whrt ex enl fe such istoricalind ngs elevantodry I n I997a reportbya NationulReselrrch ouncil NRC)panelof lcadingUS economistr Ddothersocial cicntistsbund hat.while he uggr'egatempact f immiSm-tion on theUS econo)rywasquitesnall, if 'produccsnct cconomic ainsti)r domesticcsidcnts'SnithandEdmonsbn. 997:+).Bul theypointedouf hat:

Even when he ecoDorrys a wholegains.however.heremay beloscrs swell asgainefs Dn)ng ifferenl roups f US csidcnts-longwilh immigrantshemselves,hegainers re he owners l prodrlclivcfactors hat arc complementaryiLh he aboDr f immiglants tlutis domestic, igher-skilled orkers, ndperhaps wnersof capitillwhosencomcswill dse.Thosewhobuygoods ndservicesroduccdby immigrantabourwillalsobenelit. he osersmry be he ess-skilleddomestic orkcn whocompete ith mmigruntsndwhosewageswillfall. (SmithandEdmonston. 99?; )

Thc econonetric tudies ar ed out by the NRC panel evealedhat'immigretionhas had a relatively mall adversempacton the wagesand employment pportunities[ competing ativegroups' SmithaDdEdmonston,9g7i7). But someUS economistsrgue hatnegadve ffects


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232 TheAgeof Migrationon the receivingeconomyand the wagesof competingworken are muchmore e ous.Hatton ndWilliamson stimatedheeffects f immigrationto theUSA uponearnings etween 979and 995under wo scenarios,one n whichcapitalwasassumedo be ixedanda secondn whichcapi-tal volume changed s a resultof vaious factors. n the first, immigrationrcducedhe earnings f skillednative-born orkers y 2.5percentandunskilledby 4.6percent.However,n the second cenario,he earningsof skilledworkersncreased arginallywhile the eardngsof unskilledworkenagaindecreasedy 4.6percent- HattonandWilliamson, 005:304-306,31718).Borjasclaims hat herehasbeena pattemof dcclining kills n post-1965rnmigrant ohorts. s entries rom Western uropewere eplacedby those rom AsiAandLatinAmeiica, hedifferencesn socioeconomicandeducationastandardsetweenhe egion were eflectedn decliningskills andrisingpovertyof post-l965mmigrants Borjas,1990;1999).However,uch indings recontestedn Portes ndRumbaut'snalysis fmigrants' ducationalualiiications2006:67-76)Morerecently. orjasIound hatbelween980and2000 mmigration idnotaffbct verageagesol theworkfbrce, ut ed to a 5-10percentdecreasen unskilledwages(Borjrs, 2006). Borjasalso found that the workersmost negativelyaffectedby immigrationwereminorities,especiallyblack low-wageworkers see lsoBorjas.200l).By contrast, S economist ard oundthat immigrationhad no ncgativempacton Americanworkers Card,2005).Australiar economisls ave also been studying mmigrationformanyyears,as t hasbeen he rnotorof economic rcwth n Australiasince he 194{)sWooden,1994;Foster,1996).An analysis y Fosterconcludedl

that immigntion impactson both demandand supplysidesof theDconomy.mmigrants reateobs as well as ill themi hcypay axesas wcll as makedernands f government;nd heybring funds romoverseas nd conlributeo higherexporfsas well as to imports. ..Butbeyond heir merepresence,he rcsearch vidence howshat hedemandandsupply,side ffectsn factbalance achotherso closclythatno more hanmarginalmpacts anbedetectedor anyofthe keyeconomicndicators.. To heextenthatanyofthc usualmeasDresfeconomic ealth avebeensigdficantlyaffected,heevidences thatimmiBration asbecngenerally enedcialor theAustralian conomyand or theemploymentmspccts rd ncomes fAustfalian esidents.(Castlestal. ,1998: 3)

A BritishHomeOllicestudy ound hat thereis ittle evidencehatnativeworke$ are harmed by migration. There s considerableupport br theview hal nigrants reate ewbusinessesndjobsand lIl labourmarketgaps,mprovingproductivityandrcducing nflationarypressures' Glover


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Migrunts dnd Minorities in the Labour Fort? 233et a1.,2001; eexlso Dustmann nd Clitz.2005).Rcccntly.hc TradesUnionCongressommissionedstudy,which bund hat

The overalleconomicmpactof immigralkrns limited but positive.Migrantworkers ontributenore n taxes hrn they cceiven benelils,ard migration mbablycads o highff cvslsof cmploymcnt ndwagestbr nativeworkers.Migrationmay possibly e linked to an increasein wrge nequalityn this counfy. but the cvidcnccs not conclusive.... The only irdequatecsponse () he smallnumber f specific ascswhefep()blerrsdo arise s to denand equalrights for nativc andmigrartworkers.TUC.2007)

C carly, conomistscmain ivi


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234 TheAge of Migrationto getwork in unionized:rctories albeitusually n the owerpositionswithin hese andenioyedmanyof thebeneilts l high wages ndsfongwelfare rovisions.As longas he economiesf Western urope ndNo h Americawefeexpanding nd -acedittle internationalompetition,his apprcach assuccessful,ut it ran into difficulties n the 1970s: ecession,rowingcompetitiontom Asianeconomiesnda declinen profit largins cd toa secordpftd.r?ased n a new ntcrnational ivisionof labourLabour-intensive roduction as moved o low-wagc conomies, hile migmntlabour ecruihnentbr the Norlh wasstopped. his ed to the closure fmany rustbeltfrctories'with hei sfongunions. estructuringaspushedfolwardby the new-right overnmentsf the 1980sThatchern the UKandRcagal n the USA),openingheway or a rollback f worker ights.Economic eregulLLtionnd he smallstafe' ed to majorsocial hanges,suchas theernergencef thc 'workingpoor' in the USA- millionsofpeoplc boweren eDploynentbut arned oo ittle o climboutofpovertyaDdwereno longer ntitled o welfare ynents-Zero mmigration oli-cieswereoneaspect [ thisshift n Europe. lthough xistingDrnrigrAnlsremaincd. ltenexperiencingnemploymentndsocial xciusion.However,he very success f neoliberal lobalizationed to 0 newtl1iftlphctse y the 1990s:he re-creation f swcahhops ndother bnnsof exploitalive ork n lhe advancedconomies.ocial ransfbrnrion nthe Southcrcatcd conomic onditfunsonducive ()emigration f bothhighlyskillednnclunskilledworkers o theNorth(Schierup l aI..2006:243-244).This corresporded ith the new demand br migranlwork-e$ outlined rbove. he 'contcxtsof reception' Portesand Runrbaut,2006:92-93) br newmigrantswerequitedifferent rom thoseof theirpredecersorsn the1960s nd 970sra aissez-fairetate hit offeredittlcprolectionoworkers; eakunions nd ragmentedabourmarkctswhichopenedhe door or xpbitaLivemploymentractices;nd he exis(enceol'elhnic ommunities ith varying apacity-ohelpnewcomcrsn thejob

11s mportant ot oglorify bepast:hem grantworkersf he1960s nd1970s erealw ys n weakcconomic nd egalsituations,ndvulnemblcto exploitation. owever.he iabour orce dynamicsof postindustrialecononies rebased n a prcliferation f employmentelationshipshatditJerenlialeorkeflon hebasis f ethnicity.aceandgender,eadingocomplex ndofienhighlydisadvanlageousormsof work br migrants ndminoitics.Newemploymentorms: ubcontracting,empotaryworkandcasualizationA key element f neolibeml mploymentractices asbeen he drive otum wageworkers,who enjoyed heprotecfionof labour awirndcollective


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Mignnts andMinoritiesn theLdbourForc 235agrcemenfs.nto independentcontracto$',who haveno guamntee twork,have o buy theirown toolsandequipment. ndbearall the risksof accident,icknessr ackofjobs(Schierupt al.,2006:ch.pter9) Theprcssurco becomendependentonlractors asaffected ccupationssdiverse sbuilding ndesmen,ruckddvels,graphic esigncrsndarchitects. striking xampler'{nnheUSAcoDcernsheNewY{}rkblack-cardrivers',who takeexecutivesnd ou sts o and rom thc airports Onccprid cmployees,heynowhave o buy theexpensiveuxuryvehiclesoncredit) ndbearall opcratingosts.with noguaranlecf work The csultis bw incomeandextrcmeworkinghours.Mostof thc drjvers rc SouthAsians.Theywerehard'hit fler thc cvents f ll Scptember001,notonly by thc shafpdownturnn work. whichplungedmanydrivers ntodisastrousebt.but alsoby dsinghostilityon theprrt of customersndauthoritiesNess. 005:130-180).Ernployingmiglants n a temporary asjss notherwayof cnhancingemployerontroland cducing emandsor betterwages ndcondilions.TheOECDbund hat nigrants remoreikely o beempl(ryedinernpofttryjobs han nativesn all EuropeanmmigrLrtbnountriesexccpt ustriaandSwilzerland).n Spain 6percentof the irreign-bornaveelnporaryjobscompared ith lcss han30percentofhcals. n Porlugal. olafldndFinland.emporary mploymcntffecls30 percentof foreignersOECD.2007:75J6). The old ideAol migrants s a subordinatc.lexjble Abouflbrce s clearlynotdeud.Econonric efegulationas lcd to the removalol legalconlftrlsoDcnrpbymenl nd hereduction f work-sitenspectionsy laborf nr fkclauthorities.his allowed1lbig expansionn casual mpk)yncnt:httt s.hiring by the hour or lbr specificasks,especially f migraDls. oungpeoplc ndworrcn.Casualizedjobsre ypical br cleaning,aterirg'andolhcrserviceccupations,utalso br thcconstruclion,exfileandgarmentindustries. any big lirnN no kDgerengage ircctly n ploduction, utsubcontractt to smaller lons n sectors f the abour arketwith ahighdegrce finfofmdity andscantcgulationl'working onditions hroughouisourcingosubcontractoNheystrive brI naximumof flcxibility. hcfrequent elebrationf thc riseol 'ethnicentreprcneurshipccds o beseenn thecontext f suchrcnds,MigrantwomenworkersIn Chrpler 2 we summarizedsonte heorcficaldiscussions n gendcrandmigmfion.As early as l9ll,[. Morokvasicargued halmigmnt wo cnfromperiphcmlzones ivirtg in Wcstern ndustriaidemocraciesl

reprcsenla ready made labour supply which is, at oncc, the mostvulnerable, he most llexible and, al lellst in the beginning' the leastdemandingwork forcc. They havc been incorporated nto sexually


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236 1le Agt t \ , l iBra nsegrcgatedabour narkets al the lo$'est st|atu1nn high techDolos),industdesor at the 'cherpest seckrfs n those ndusuies which airllbour intensiveand employ he cheapcslaboul to relnainconrpetitive.(N{orckvrsic. 98:1:86)

The disaclvaDtagedositiollof lnigrunt 1lomenpersisls odai,: he OECDfound htt'inllnigrant wolnenare cnerllly thegroupwith lhe cast alouf-rble outcones n thc aboufmatker ... both n rbsolute erns and clirtivc ochildrenof nxtivesol thesamegendcr' OECD.1007:81 E2).Even iln,rlenlcmbersof thc majori ty population end to bc disrdvantageLlomprr.cdwlth men.bcciuse ofr |inge of fhctorswhich nclude:empkryersassump_tionsthrt thcy rr not primary brcrdwinncrs: he expcctitioir hat rvominarc temporalywofkers \\,ho will lcrve to gct rnarriediwomens ncccl in.part rme$ork dLte(r l rml l \ , ( r rmitncnts:sk j l l dc l i r i t iors$,hich avr)ulmasculiDeccupations..qctrdcFspeci l lcocial ctwo&s:nd gendcr lseddiscrirr inLrt i()nco|tpnfeSchfovcr l r l . . 1007).Migrrnt wouten accr l llhcsc LLct k)o.bur n rddir iona|c disadv:rntagedry slcfcotypcsr lhcchrfrLctcr ist ic il spcci l ic lhnic rnd acialg l ' ( )Lrps.nd otren lsoby welk

Mirfrnt wontc nfc hus l isadvintLr ledv two ntcdockin! c ls , ntcch_rursnrs.Mi!f0Dt ntcn.of coursc,fc al \ ( )a l f ic lcdhy thc scc(nr( lc l . tndrt lny i t \ 'colvrrwrscsandoccuplt i(n st i t lushiu rr r t l jor i tyr l)upwomcn(l l1^!nc un(lMisrrL. 003: 189). ' lhc ey ssuc o cxrnrire s how I lc lorsol i rcn( lc fnd cthIr i r i l ) ' n te l1rcru speci l ic (n.k i tu l i l i ( rns.nL,ppr-oochr s l o k x J k r l l h e i ) r n n l i ( J n1 l h n i cn i c h c s { ' t i c n s c d r rs l u d y in g c r c -pfc cufshrp)nd thL'L'xtcrto whichgcndcfpl . rysl prr l in thisl usel i r lrc \ ' icw l l i te i r t rc is pr1)vidcdy Schroveft . r t . 007).Arothtf way s k)!- \x lnrnehc iDlcrsecl ional i l \ ,f lhc l tc lu.s, s B()wnc.ud Misr l (200J)do f l ) hc i fc \rn l i l ln t ion f l i lcc tndge|dcr n lhc US i lblrurl r t fket .( i )Dl l .Lr) o neolibcrLl lheori l .s l lhc l . ihour lurkel. which rEuelh. l t \ 'L1r ' i l l t i (nsn cmployrncDrt l tus iLredUc lo dif fcr ing levelsoIh lr l ran pi ta l (Br)wne and Misfa.100.1: 06).nr :rny tucl ic \ hor! herolpor-txDcel r i lcc.gerdL'r . l tss and sexualor ienr i t t ionn:r l locat ingposrrions.Thc specific (and u\uatly dis.rdvalrraged)osirionof rnigl'ani\ \ 'omens c lur i i l l to ccl. t n sectors uchas he grrmcnl ndustr) .A USstudy reverled that wolncn of colour tLredillcrcnrially sitLtaredn localIiLbolrr lrfket\ co1l]piucdrith White $'olneDand co-ethnicncn. so thatcconomiccstrucluf ing ffects ach roupuniqLrely 'Browne ndMisn.100- l i +91). he stud\ reviewed vidence l incfeasing rge ncqu.Ll irybetweenWhiles, Black rnd l-atinos. nswcll irs betwccr hieh and low-. k l l e de r o u o . , B f , \ n . r n J \ 4 i . r . t l | { r { . t . r b , . r - r . r t } , r , - t t - r o p r J r lhbour mrrket statisticsbund !hat:

there s a clemarcation etweenEU rld third-counu)*nationalsalongnalionrl, ethnic andgender inesand cgal status. he ntajodiy ol thirdcountr! nalioDds are emploved n vulnerable. ow-skilled. low paid


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Migrants andMinorities in the ^.tbourForce 231jobs n medium nd ow segme s...Thclearesharpdiffercncesinpaybetweenmen andwomen.which can be explained n paft by women'sdisproporlionalc epresentationn low pay sectors,such as cleaningand domestic lvork, the casualor parftimc natlue ol many fcmalejobs and thejr concentratior n the infinmal sector (Ayfes aDdBarber,2006:30)

Thisstudy lsopointedo thespecial ulnerability f women ndchildrento trafficking,whichcanIed to bonded omesticword.carework andemploymentn swcatshops.ut s mainly inked o prcstiluliont is esti-mated hatbelween 20,000 nd170,000crsons rc traflicked nto theEU each earand hat7-580 percentof themare nvolvedn scxwork.Indeed exwork seernso havebecome n ethnicniche n Europeodaylup to 80 pcrceDt f the oughly0.5millionsex-workers thoughto bemigrantsAyres ndBarber, 006:30).The employmenti migrantwomen omeslicworkerss r c tegoryofgendered nd racializedabour hat hasexp nded cmarkablyn recentyears n virtually all advancednduslrialeconomiesAnderson,2(X)0:Cox,2000).Herewe find the nterseclionf Sende,edorlns hatdetinechildcarcDd ouscwortasirturaltasksbrwonen,withmcialstercotypesofethnicminorit iessservants.

Hist)ricnlly,dome$tic ork hasbeenperformcd y ethnicmino tics,andethnicily,nation^lity.rndcitizcnship-$tlttusonstruct n idea01-doDrcslicofkers s others'.whodo nol dcserveetter ayor wofkingcondilions.Work conditions re inlbnral. leavingamplc room tbreDrployeno usepersonrlprcferencesnd biascso enterdecisionsabout biring. pay and the tratmcnt f their doncstic employees.(Browne ndMisra.2003t502)Domesticwork can become nichc br migruntwomcn Schrovert al200?:536 537);however |d the conditions.t doesoffcr a chance l ajob,oftencorrbincdwith live-inconditionshata' perceivedy migraDtwomen'samiliesassheltercd. omestic olt is marked y a hiffarchyol 'wort lasks, f fbnnaland nformalnmdes f employment,ndof grcupswith varied laluscs.or nstance,ilipinadomestic orkenareprelencclin someplaccsdue to lheir bcttereducation nd English,bu1 ejcctedin othe$ becausehey are seenas 1ooactive n defendingheir fighlsSuchhierarchiesreoilenScneratednd eprcducedhroughhe ormalpracticesf rccruihnenl gcncies.ut theyarc also ncreasinglyormedthrough ractices t'agencicsndsocial etworks rnbeddedn aSrowingundergroundconomyed by undocumentedmmjgrutionrom Africa,Asia,andL;rtinAmerica, swcll as fom Eastem urcpeand he ormerSovietUnion Jordan nclDtivell,2002).Domesticwo1k by migr.ultwomen can be thc result of increascdopportunitiesofprofessionalorwhileollaremploymenlforma.jority-group


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238 TheAge of MigftLti.rnwomen: hiring foreign maids can free women in Italy, the USA orSingaporeiom housework nd childcarc Huanget al.,2005). Suchtransnationalarchier'archiesometimcsoa stageurther,when nigrantdomestic orkers irca maid n thc ho e country o look afler heirownchildren. his naymean igher iving standardsndbetter ducation,uIat a highemotiomlcost.The groMh of the informai economyOne of the nrostdramalic rDd perhapsurprising trends f the rut20yeam asben ie growthof infbrmal conomiesnadvancedounlries.ln thepast.nforrnrlemploymentraclices ere ssocifltedith ess evefoped ountriesn theSouth,whereackoI regular mploymentn industtyand hepublcsectororced eople () cGtch iving hrcugh ettyFoduc-ti()nand rading.NcoliberalisDrndeconomic eregulatioDave ed to aburgeoningf informclwo.k n formcdyhighly egulatcdabourmarkets.All the rcnds lrcadymentioned subconlmotiDg,emponrywork,cilsu-alization. ndgenderednd acialized orksjtuations cirnbesumncdLlpthfi)ughhe conccpt I infoonrlization,elined y Ness s: rcferring1C)redistribulionfworktrom cgulirtedectorsf theeconomyo newunregu-Ialed ect()s fthe !ndcryroundr inlbfmalccononry'Ness,2005:2).Ahhough nlbrnr0l mploymcntan allectnatives s well as nigmnts.i eeiulnf rigration as beencruoirl to ils growth.This is palticularlyobvk s in the USA,wrlh its officiallyestimaledrregulalpopulation f12 nillion (Passel.006).Most of them re MexicanandotherCentralAmericnD ndCaribbeanigrilDts n low-skillcdobs- ahhoughhc laxregulirknregine n thcUSAnteanshat rregularnigrantsrcoftcnn legalcmploymentelationsbips.n Europe sdrnatcsf the rregular opulatioDarc cssprecise.angingiom 5 to 7.5million Ayrcs ndBarber. 006i29;Diivell.2005:Tablc2-1).SorneEufopean oliticians rgue hat rregularimmig ation s thecause f infbnnalizarion.urotherobserverselievehatthecausalitys theoLher ay ound:econonic eregulationlndempbyerpnctices ave reatednlbrmal ectorjobs,brmingapullirctorbr rregularrnigrirntsReyneri,003). hisappliesmost bviouslyn SourhenEurope,but nfo ral work swidespread,orinstancen British gricullure.leaningandcatering, Dtalso n thecases f faffic wardens ndsecurityworkbothservicesevolvedypDbliculhoritieso subconlracrors.Thereeulated crmrn abourmarket as ongbeenseen s hc anlith-esisof the nfomal or 'bldck'economiesl Southern urooe. cr frendsbwards hegrcwthof smrll enterprises,ercgularion,asualization.ndcontracting ut haveopened p the spacc or inlor al employmcnt erctoo,asoneEU-comrnissionedtudy ound:

In Germanynfbrrnalwork s not imited o undocumentedoreigue$.but s sodone nueasingly y foreigners ith egalstatus,rby young


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Migftlt1tsdnd Mi orities inthe Labour Force 239rdults of Tu*ish origins .. The trend s linked o a generalncreasern S(huarzarbeit'blackwork'] ... In somecasesn GennaDyt isperceived snecessiLryo work in the nfbrmalsector o supplemeniincome rom ow publicassistancc,nd,also o eamnoney for workandnot to be a rccipicntof publicassistirnce-n othercasesworkingwithoutapermit s a resultof aprecariousegalstatus, pcrmit o staywhichdoesDot ncllrdeln rcctued ightb a workpermit. he nfbrmalareoften heonlyjobswhich ow skilleduncmploycdersonsan ind.(WilpcfiandLaacher, 99913)


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Migrants ndMinoritizs n th?Luhour 'orce 239adultsof Tukish origins .. The trend s linked o a generalncreascln Sthwarzarbeit'black work'] ... In somccascsn Germanyt isperceiveds necessaryo work in Ihe nforma]secbr to supplementincome rom ow publicassistance,nd,allo to ea|nmoney or workandnot to be a rccipienlof public ssistance.n othercascsworkingwilhoulapetmjt s a resultof aprecariousegalshtus,a pemit to staywhichdoes ot ncludem rccruedight o a workpcrmit.The nlonnalrre ollen heonly.jobs hich ow skilledunernployedersonsan ind.(WilpertandLaacher1999r 3)

Intbrmalwork s a crucialpartofthe newglobalpolitical conomy, tlenvital or thc survivrlofcertain ndustriesn advanccdconomies.sNesspoinlsoul:Now he eliablejobsn theestablishedtbour0rarket ave een ephcedby ow wngeobswith substaDdardonditions ommonlyoundunder-Sround- hus, Dfbrmalizationocsnot epresentndustri decline uthorizontalestructuring.ftcndone o maintain nd ncreaselcxibilityand compctilivoncssn regbnal.n bnal and ntcrnationalmarkets'.(Ness.2005:3)

Labourmarket egmentationTaken ogethef,hc variousbrrnsof labour broe estructuringcscfibcdin this section ddup to a process l /(boar rna et se|netrtutiur.Tl\ismcanshatpcoplc'shances)1-getting.jobsependnotonlyn heirhumancapital i.e. heireducrtion ndskills)butalsoon gender,ace, thnicityand cgal status.Somelimes.he egullyvulnerable tatus f rna y lbr-eignworkefsbstersesentrncntgainsl hem n hepartofnativeworkers.who irar hat heirwages ndconditions ill beundermined-n addition.migranlwo,kersmay bek)ng o racialor cthnicninorilies, stigmatizedthroughdeologiesf racism ndexpcricnccsf colonialisln. uch actorsDray ereinfbrcedy resentmcntf foreignworkersor social ndcultumlreasonsfor nstancc, osfility o lslam).Labourmalketegrrentations notnew.InWcstern uropen the1960s.thediscriminationnherentn theelnploymentnd esidcntialcsdclil'rsol guestworkeroUciesunnelledmmigrantsnlo specilic cononic ectors and occupafionsCastles nd Kosack,1973).Collins regardcd he'impactof postwar mmigration n l}legrowthand iagmentationf tbcAustralian orking lass'asoreof themoslsirlientaspectsf theAustralirn immigration xperience'Collins, SSl: 87).A 19119S Departmentof Labor eport ound hal: Newcomelsarrive n the Unitcd States ..withdistinctegalstatuses.n turn, lis pmliferulion flegalstatuses aybccomc new source f socialaDdeconomic tratilication'US Depar!nrent f Labor,1989:8).


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240 TheAgeof MigrationHowevcr, hc characterof labour marketsegmentations changing ncomplexways, inked to a new globalsocialgeography.n the l9lios,Sassen 1988)showedhow lorcign investment nd displacement fmanufacturingobs abroad ad fbstered ew miglatorystreamso the

USA. Linkagesbetweenglobalcities and distanthinterlands reatedparadoxesherein normous ealth ndhighly emuleratedrofessionalemploymentneasily oexisted ith growingunskilied eNice ndustryemploymentndThird-Wo dlike ernploymentolditionsn undergroundindustries. hecasualizationf labourandgrowing llegalalienemploy-mentwer haracteristicfglobalcities.Considcrablellegalemployme:ttof migrantsoften coincidedwith high unemploymenl f citizens ndiegally resident liens.The latter were ikely to belong o minoritiesandhadoften beenvictimsol job lossesn industrieshat had shiftedmanufacturingperationsbroad.Twcntyycarson, Nessexaminedhe translbrmation f the socialgeographyl NiJwYorkCity(Ness.2005:hapter ). n theearly wentithcentury,mrnigrantabour iom Southern ndEastetnEuropchad becnclucial o theemergencefthe gaflnent, inting, meatpacking,onslruc-tion and transportationndustries.ndustrywas concentraledn 'ethnicneighbourhoods'nd mmigrants ame o fbrm he backbonef lhe city sstrong abourmovement.n the ate twentieth entury,hcsc raditionalindustrics ere c

age of migration cap

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