AFTERACETUR ANDAQURTE LONIKANDTHENANDNOW G.S.GHUR YE ,LessorEmerituso(Sociology Univel'liityofBombay POPULARBOOKDEPOT LeminnRoadBorny7 (f r #,; 22 JAReleacdOn. ______ _ Thibookhouldbereturned on Ihedatemenlionedbelow;OT Borrowerwillbeliableforoverdue chr of5 P.per dayfromtheDUE D

CI.0601. , 20 J 54 .,')....-811cIu!..meautlun" CasteandClassinIndia IndianCostume CultureandSociety O(;cidentalCivilization IndianSadhus RaccRelationsinNegroAfrica TheMahadevKolis &xualBehaviouroftheAmericanFemale FamilyandKininIndo-EuropeanCulture Vidyas HharataNatyaandItsCostume TheScheduledTribes AFTERACENTURYANDAQUARTER 79'L -@G.S.GKURYI: Firstimpression: June1960 Jaiyshtha1882 U.A.S.BANGALORE UNIVERSITYLIBRARY. 12JAN 196B 12fl Ace.NO._,...........4.l:r....._ Cl.NO ......... MI, , Printedby G.G.PATHAII& tPopular Press (Born.) Pvt. Ltd. sse, TlU'deoRoad Bombay7 hi I.. f Publishedby G.R.BHATKAL forPopularBookDepot Lamington .Road Bornbay7 -PREFACE THECOLLECTIONofthematerialwhichformthebasisof thisbookwasinspiredbyCoats'studyofLonikand,aviiig nearPoona,madein1819.Itwasmadepossiblebyth researchgrantwhichtheSyndicateoftheUnivrsityof Bombaykindlyplacedatmydisposalforapilot-survyin Havelitaluka in theyears 1954to1958.The actual fieldwork inaccordancewiththeplanofthispilot-surveywascarried outbyDr.L.N.ChapekarandthenbyDr.M.G.Kulkarni, both beingthenResearchAssistantsintheUniverityDepart-mentofSociology.Dr.Kulkarnifurtherhelpedwithth sample-surveyandthepreparationofthemanuscript.Dr.A. BopegamagepreparedtheplanofLonikandprintdaftr "Perspective".Iamdeeplythankfultothesefriends. "Prasad" Khar,Bombay52 1-6-60 G.S.GHlJRYJ: PREFACE PERSPECTIVE PLANOFLoNIKAND CONTENTS 1.LoNIKANO:AGENERALVIEW 2.ORGANIZEDSOCIALLIVING 3.RELICIO-SOCIAL 4.DOMESTICLIFE:BIO-SOCIAL 5.DOMESTICLIFE:SoclO-EcONOMIC 6.APPR.AISAL v XI 25 44 70 R2 107 "No one canstudythegrowthoftownswithoutarealization thattheirsiting,theirexpansionorretrogressionandtheir irrftuenceupon nationallifeare due tomany factors, physical conditions,historicaldevelopmentsand,inpart,thequality oftheirtownsmen." -S1IIWILLIAMSAVAGEin TheMaking01O1.lrTo1D'l\.8 . "If apositivepolicyoftownandcountryplanningistobe pursudwithadvantage,itmustbebackedbyaprogressive understanding'Ofthepersonalandsocialneedsofthe communityandofhowenvironmentalconditionsaffect thesatisfactionoftheseneedsandthedevelopmentof communitylife.Tocreatethisunderstandingdemandswide ndcontinuousfactualobservationandstudy." - ReportoftheCommitteeonQualifications ofTown-plannersin TownandCount",Planning,1941-51 (Cmci82(4) LISTOFPHOTOGRAPHS Atyplc.Jvillagescene. ThespreadingneemtreeinfrontoftheChawdlwithtypicalhoIn thebackgroundandthewayleadingouttothePoona-Ahmednar Road. TheChawdl-thecommunitycentre. Storeyedhousesofsomeofthewell-la-dopeopleIntheShlnd-alinear theVithal-RukminitempleoftheRaviraoShindefamily. Anothergroupoftypicalhouses. Oneoftheworsetypeofhous5IntheMaharwada. Newertypeofhouses. Maharwada-thequarterswherethescheduledcasteofMharslive. ViewoftheShlnde-aliwiththeVithal-RukrnlnitempleIntheback-groundandcrumblingvillagewaU- lIea-furthertotheright. Theresidencc-cum-shopandtheMaliteashop.offthPoona AhmadnagarroadaboutthespotwherenlanelendsIntothevillaa. Thevillage-well. Charnbharwada-thequarterswherethcscheduledcasteofth Chrunbharslive,offthePoonn-Ahmadnngnrroad. TheolddilapidatedtempleofMnhadevnearthecremationgroundwith the'tulasi-vrindavan'byitsside. Thelaneleadingoutofthemain DarlDaja. AspectofthevillagelookingInwardsfromtheChawdl. SideviewoftheBhairavtemplenearthetempleorMahadev. ThetempleofMahadevinthenorth-eastquarterofthevUlage. ThetempleofVithal-Rukm1nibuiltbytheRaviraoShindefamilywith ita'nagarkh1ina',thedrumhouae,atthehitherend. The'Sthan'ofMhasoba. ALohar-blacksmith-atworkin hisworksbopattaclledtohI.hoUle. AChambhar-leatherworker-at workinhishoUle. PERSPECTIVE G ROUPINGSofhumanbeingsbsdon spaceorlocalityandthosecentredon interestsofallkindsaremorrcntthan groupings basedonkinship.If earlyhumanity orderdits life throughthegroupingofthehordeortheextndedfamily,it rooteditselfinspatialgroupingsinmanypartsoftheworld fromtheNeolithicage.AndtheusageofAmericansocio-logistsdesignatingaspatialgroupingaloneascommunity stressesthesignificanceof thismodeofgrouping.ItsarHst typeiswhatinEnglishiscalledavillage,i.e.,agroupof humanbeingswholivebyworkingonlandwithinafairly restrictedarea.Thereisnodoubtthathumanity,civilizdor non-civilized,livedasmembersofthesetinycommunities calledvillages,withwhateverinterconnectionpossible,for long,beforeinMesopotamiaormoreprobablyinPalstin, one of itssectionsdevisedthe newer modeofspatialgrouping calledatownor acity.Everybodyknowsthat,thoughsome 1:otonlylargebutevenverylargecitiesexistedlongbefore thenineteenthcenturyoftheChristianera,itisonlyduring the nineteenth and evenmore so in the firsthalf of our cntury thattownsandcitieshavegrowntremendouslyinnumbr andinsize. Thegrowthinnumberandinsizeoftownsandcitiesis due among other things to the growthofpopulation.It stands toreasonthatgrowthofpopulation,whichisnotthesole cause of the growth innumber and in sizeoftownsandcities, may not leave the primary spatial groupingofvillagewithout significantchange.TI-.roughthemaintechnologicalstages, muscle,steamandevenelectricity,theimportanceoffaceto faceintercoursebetweenandfirst-handcontact ofhumanbe-iugshasremainedparamount,whatevermaybethecasein xiiAFTERACENTURYANDAQUARTER the newerstageofnuclearandautomationaltechnology. The communityofavillagerequiressomemenwhohave theappropriatequalitiesandthenecessaryabilityforleader-shipofthegroup.Perhapsthedictumthatagroupgetsthe governmentitdeservesembodiesthevalidexperiencethat appropriateleadersareinherentinthegroupitself.The situationenvisagedinthisdictumis,however,oneofstatus quoandhasnoreferencetothequalityoflifedesiredtobe achievedandlived.Whenonethinksofleadersforacom-Dlunity,one hasinviewagoal;andthatisgoodandefficient livingforthegroupasawholeanditsconstituentindividual members.Sizeofagroupingandadequatenumberofappro-priate leaders must havesomerelation.It should bepossible intheorytodetermineboththekindofleadersandtheirre-quisitenumberforagroupofaspecificsize-varyingwithin certainlimits-for agiventype and kind ofgoodandefficient living.Butdoweknoweitherthroughsocialhistoryor throughcontemporaryandappropriateenquiryorthrough socialbiologyofourpeoplewhethertherequisitenumberof appropriateleaderswillbegenerallyfoundinagivensizeof our population, and particularly in the kind of common villagl:! population?Weare afraidthatwehavenodatatogoby on thisveryimportantproblem.Wefeel- itisapurelysubjec-tive andan apriorireasoning-thattheprobabilityofsatisfy-ingtheleadershipneeds,withoutintheleastminimizingthe roleofspecificandspecialeducationforleadership,inthis matter,ismuchgreaterinafair-sizedvillagethaninthe smallandverysmallones. The sizeofvillagecommonlyprevalent amongpreliterate people may provide some indication of the more or less normal sizeofthistypeofspatialgroupingunderratherprimitive technology.TheLangoofEastAfrica,weareinformed,live incompactvillagesvaryinginsizefrom10to150huts.l Frankfort2 quotesGordonChilde'sstatementthatthesettle-mentsofNeolithicEuropecoverednomorethan1.5to6.5 acres each with eight to ten households.Later,Childe asserted thatthenormalsizeofsuchasettlementwasabout16to30 1.EncyclopaediaBritannica(14thEd.),videLango. 2.TheBirthof CivilizationintheNearEast,p.37. PERSPECTIVExiii householdswithabout200to400souls.Frankfort himselfap-pearstoconcur inChilde'sopinionasfarastheancientNear Eastisconcerned.Childeshimselfwrote:"Theeffectiveunit ofsocialorganizationinpureNeolithictimeswasgenerally verysmall.AtypicalThessalianvillage,ratheradvancedin theperiod,coveredanareaof100by45metersorjustover one-tenthof anacre."GriffithTaylor,thegeographer,thinks thatinmodernEuropeanconditionsasettlementwithless than500personsmaybecalleda"village".4 Inourcivilizationtheunitofspatialgroupinghascon-tinued tobenamed,over mostofthecountry,aftertheSans-krittermforit,viz.,'grama'.Thistermisasoldasthe oldestextantliteraturenotonlyofusIndiansbutalsoofthe whole human race, having been, quite often and in conjunction withsomespecifictraitsofrurallife,mentionedintheRig-veda5The word 'grama'-appearing in Indo-Aryan languages oftodayaseither'gam'inNorthIndiaandGujarat,'gai'in Bengal or 'gav'in Maharashtra and in the Dravidian languages as'graum'G--etymologicallymeansacollection,andinthat senseisquitecurrentinsuchusagesas'indriyagrama',the totali cyofsenses.The headmanofavillageor itsleaderwas animportant personageandwascalled'gramat:li'.Wedonot knoweitherthesizeorthesocialstructureofvillagesinthe Rigvedicagebeyondthisfact. Some references in the Upanishadsthrowoccasionallight onsomefeaturesofrurallife.Thusweknow7 thatthe physicalconfigurationusuallycontrastedwithavillagewas 'arat:lya',forest.Thesettlementofakingdomandtheestab-lishmentofadministrationbyasovereignrulerarereferred toonlyintermsofvillages.s Thelatercontrastbetween 'paura'and'janapada',i.e.,townandcountry,doesnot figure; insteadonly'janapada',countryanditsfolk'janapadas'are 3.ManMakesHimself, p. 109 4.OurEvolvingCivilization,p.199. 5.MacdonellandKeith:VedicIndex,vide"Griima". 6.ManualofAdministrationoftheMadra.6Preridency,Vol.III (1893),p.331. 7.ChhiindogyaV.,10,1-3. 8.Pras-na,ill,4. xivAFTERACENTURYANDAQUARTER mentioned.And weare informed that agreat king,evidently greater thanalocal potentate,couldremovehissubjects from one part of the country to another and ask them to settle down whereandwhenhechose.oThatthesevillages,theunitsof spatialgrouping,werenotisolatedbutonthecontrarywere verywellservedbylinesofcommunication,atleastinthe north-westernpartofwhatwasBritishIndia,isclearfrom an express statement and an indirect reference, the latter testi-fyingtotheverywellsettledandorganisedmodeofcountry-living.Toelucidateacertainrelationbetweentheindividual andtheSun,thesimilieofagreatroadstretchingbetween twovillagesandmutuallyconnectingthemisused.1o The useofananalogyofamanbroughtblindfoldfromthe Giindhiiracountry,roundaboutTaxila,beyonditsconfines, 'atijana',andlefttherewithhisblindsremovedandaskedto gotohiscountry,beingtoldinwhichdirectionitlay,even moretellinglyestablishesthesecurityandsafety,goodcon-ditionandregularityofinter-communicationandroadsfrom onevillagetoanotherinachain. 1 t Indologistsareaccustomedtogetunexpectedsidelights onanumberofcuriousfactsofancientsociallife,inthe worksofthegreatgrammarians, andPataiijali.These revelationsmaybeconsideredtobetheactualitiesofabout thefifthtothesecondcenturyB.C.,atleastintheregionof BritishIndia,extendingfromTaxilatoKanpur.Inoneof hisaphorisms, hasmentioned"griima"village,and 'nagara'towninonecompound. mentionof'nagara' isperhapstheoldestreferencetotownbythisdesignation. IntheRigveda,wecomeacrossmentionoftownswiththe appellation'pur'.12Inlaterliterature'pur'or'pura',which isthe basicword inthe component'paura' of thecombination 'paurajiinapada',13standsfortownor urban and'janapada' for countryor ruralhabitat.Yet,'pur'or'pura'isnotthesame 9.II,1,18. 10.Chhiindogya,VIII,6,2. ll.Ibid.,VI,14,1-2. 12.VedicIndex. 13.SeeJunagadhinscriptionofRudradamaninD.C.Sircar,Select Inscriptions,Vol.I,p.174.. PJi)RSPECTIVExv as'nagara',thelatterwordbeingusedtodesignatealarge town,acity,ratherthanatown;andfurthergradationis indicatedbytheappellation'mahanagara'greatcity14,and 'sakhanagara'sub-city15. PatafijalicommentingonPfu:lini'saphorismlaysdownhis conclusionaboutthedistinctionbetween'grama'and'nagara' bystatingthattherearefourkindsortypesof' samstyaya's, agglomerationsoffolk.Theyare'grama','ghosha','nagara' and'samvaha' .Ofthese'samvaha'isnotmetwithanywhere andP.K.Acharyainhiscompendiousandcomprehensive Dictionary of Architecture,too,doesnot list the word.Ofthe firstthree,inlaterliteraturetheterm'ghosha'generallyde-notesacow-herds'villageorhamlet.AlmostinPataii jali's time'nagara'hadusurpedtheplaceoftheolderword'pura' asanappellationforanurbanunitofhabitation. hasdevotedachapterofhisworkArthaJastra (1I,1)tolaydowntheprinciplesandpracticeofsettlingthe population'janapadanivesa' .Heprescribesthatthephysical extentofavillage,'grama',shouldbebetwee:noneandt wo 'kosa',i.e.,between2250to4500yards.Tensuchvillages weretohaveonefortfortheirprotection.Theunit ofsocio-administrativepracticenexttoavillagewasoneoftenvil-lages.Manutooenvisagedthesameunitasthenextlarger thanavillage.The next largercluster,according toforwhichabiggerfortwastobebuilt,wasformedby200 villages.And bigger units forprotectionconsisted ofthoseof 400andof800villages.Manu'sschemeenvisagedagroup of20,of100,andof1000villagesforadministrativepurposes. Hisexhortationfortheprovisionofmilitaryprotectionseems tobe perfunctory,contemplatingasitdoes,unitsofone,two, fiveand villages.I6 Inscriptionalevidencedoesnotbearoutthisschematic hierarchyofvillagegrouping.Inacopper-plategrantI7 ofthe famousking,VakpatirajofDharadated980A.C.adonated 14MahapaTinibbanaSu.tta,S.B.E.Series,Vol.XI,p.99;P.K. Acharya,ManasaTa. 15.Mahlibh{i rata,XII,87,6-8. 16.Manusmriti,VII,114-17. 17.IndianAntiqu.ary,XIV,p.159. xviAFTERACENTURYANDAQUARTER village isdescribedasbelonging tothe'Tinisapadradvadasaka', Tinisapadra- Twelve, i.e., to the group of twelve villages known fromitsprincipalvillageassuch.Another18,belongingto the11thcenturyA.C.andhailingfromKotah,describesa villageassituatedinthetwelve-village-groupofaparticular village, the name of which cannot be correctly deciphered,and thelatterassituatedinthedistrictof' Chachchuroni'.Fur-thersouth,accordingtoarecordofthe11thcenturyfrom Bijapurtaluka1o,thevillageHonwadwasamemberofthe Bage-Fiftygroup-agroupoffiftyvillageswithBageasits chiefvillage.BageisidentifiedwithRaibag.Thisgroup was included in another bigger unit which was aSix-Hundred groupthoughunnamed.Andthislastformedpartofastill largerunit,whichiscalledthe'TaddavadiThousand'and wasevidentlyagroupofonethousandvillages.'Taddavadi Thousand'isotherwisecalled'Taddavadi-nad'. Groupingofvillagesintolargerunitsleadsonetoan inquiryaboutthetotalnumberofpopulationsettlementsin thecountry.Thetotalnumberofsettlementsorvillagesin anadministrativeorpoliticalunitmaychangeinaccordance with changes in the fortunesofkings or theirdynasties.This changeisduetoinclusioninorexclusionfromaparticular administrativeor politicalunit.Butit cannotaffectthetotal numberofvillagesinaparticularregionorcountry.The previousconditionofsettlements,theprosperityorotherwise overlongperiodsandther.ateofgrowthofpopulationand itsqualitydeterminetheincrease,decreaseorstatu.squoof theirnumber. IntheHavelitalukaofwhichLonikandisaconstituent village,the total number of villages has continued to be almost thesameforoveracentury.Wehavecomeacrossonlyone villagewhichdidnotfigureattheCensusof1881butdidso about20yearsthereafter.Availablelandhavingcometobe assignedtodifferentunits,newunitscanonlystartassub-unitsandmayrisetothestatusofindependentvillagesor thepre-existingunitsmaygrowinsizeoftheirpopulation. Itappearstousthatitisthelatterprocessthathasbeen 18.EpigTaphiaIndica,XXIII,pp.131-35. 19.IndianAntiquary, XIX, pp.268-9. PERSPECTIVExvii goingon,notoveracenturyorso,but,overmorethana thousandyears. Afewoftheinscriptionalrecordsmakementionofthe numberofvillagescomprisedwithinaparticularregionor a political unit whose extent we knowor have reasonto be sure about.ThusthefamousAiholeinscriptionofaboutthe7th centuryAC.specifiesthetotalnumberofvillagescomprised inwhattherecordreferstoasthe'threeMaharashtras'over whichaparticularkingruled,asninety-ninethousand.It is notquitecertainastoexactlywhatportionofourcountry wascovered by the'three Maharashtras',astheearliestmen-tionofMaharashtraasaunitoccurringinthestonepillar inscriptionfromEraninSaugarDistrictreferstoonlyone Maharashtra20In another inscriptionaccordingtoAS.Alte-kar21dated768AC.theKarhatakadistrictinMaharashtra had4000villages.ThenumberofvillagescomprisedinKar-hataka is stated in 1054 A.C.to have been 10,000.This change .illallprobabilitywastheresultofadministrativeorpolitical manipulation.ThecountryofPuriKonkana,whichinthe inscriptionalrecordsisequivalenttoourpresentdistrictsof NasikandThanaandalsoincludedapartofKolabadistrict, hadabout1100AC.fourteenthousandvillages22About eighteeneightiesthesedistrictscomprisedatotalnumberof 4859villages and 2290hamlets!In an inscription of1079AC. , theAmodaplatesofPrithvidevaII,theentireareaknown asKosala-togaugetheextentofKosala,onemustbere-mindedthatthewholeofChhattisgarhDivisionequalsonly southernportionofKosala-issaidtocontaintwenty-one thousandvillages23Anotherpartofthecountrynearby,the Komomandala of the inscriptions, corresponding to the modern 1'egionsurroundingthevillageKomointhePendraZamin-dari,25milesnorthbywestofRatanpur,had750villages aboutthemiddleofthe12thcenturyAC.Anotherareain thequarter,DandoraoftheinscriptionsandSargujaState oftoday,comprised2100villages,andBaghelkhandnine 20.V.V.Mirashi,Inscriptionsin theKaZachuriChediEra,pp.608-09. 21.StateandGovernmentinAncientIndia(1955,ed.) ,p.201. 22.Mirashi,Zoc.cit.CXXXIV,149. 23.Mirashi.01>.cit ..1)1).404.454. xviiiAFTERACENTURYAND.It.QUABTR hundred.Theinscriptionwhichprovidesthisinformation recordsthat5600villagesconstitutedthecountrycalled Vihara,whichisnotidentified2-l.In thethirdquarterofthe 16.hcentury accordingto Abu!data,Jhalawad-only apartofpresentSaurashtra-contained1200villages.May wenotconcludethatthetotal numberofunitsettlements or villagesinour country appearstohaveremainedmore or less thesameforover athousandyears? Theremusthaveexistedothertypesofhabitats,perhaps smallerthanandaspartsofavillageorothersbiggerthan astandard village as the occurrence of the word 'palli'2Gmean-ing ahamlet,shows.But theiractual recordcannotbedated earlierthan the firstcentury A.C.,getting firstmentionin the Mahabhiirata,theManusmritiandtheYajnavalkyasmriti.We readin t.hefirst-mentionedwork(III,13,220)notonlyabout 'janapada'sorruralunitsand'nagara'sorcitiesbutalso about whichisunmistakablytheoriginal ofthemodernMarathitermforavillageandthe basisfortheGujaratiword isnextattestedinalist of typesof habitats recorded in the(V,30) , quotedbyP.K.Acharya27Thevillageparexcellencein Western India towards the end of theancient period evidently gaveitsappellationtothemoderndistrictofKhaidain Guja-lat.Acharya28 hasreferredtosome inscriptionsofaboutthe 6thtothe8th century AC. inwhichawholedistrictoreven perhapsadivisioniscalledor asthenameofaparticularvillage occurs in aRashtrakutainscription of the reign ofKrishnaII.. InaKarnatakainscription,againquotedbyAcharya,the wordappearsinthemodernMarathiformofasa typeofspatialgroupingalongwithothertypeswhichgraced theKuntaladesaorKarnataka. Ininscriptionsofthemiddleofthe7thcenturyA.C. modernSankhedainBroachdistrictandPimpalnernear 24.Ibid.,pp.451-54. 25.JarrettandBlockmann,Ain-I-Akbari,Vol.ll,p.242. 26.Saptasati. 27.Manasara,Vol.VII,vide'Khetaka'. 28.Ibid. PRSPECTIVExix DhuliainWestKhandeshappearasand . Yajnavalkya,aboutthe2ndcenturyA.C.,isperhapsthe earliestauthorandalsooneoftheveryfew-maybealmost theonlyone--whogivessomeindicationofthesizesofthe differenttypesofhabitationalunitscurrent inthecountryin histime.He30 mentionsonlythreetypes,twoofwhich,the smallest and the biggest are 'grama', village,and 'nagara', city. Theintermediatetypehedesignates Apararka commentingonthepassagefromYajnavalkyastates.that isacollectionofhouseswhichisbiggerthana villageandsmallerthana'nagara',city. Medhatithi,anearlycommentator,aboutthe9thcentury A.C.commentingonapassageintheManusmriti(VIII,219) statesthata'grama',village,isacollectionof'sala's,houses. The definitionof'grama',village,givenbyMedhatithiappears tohave been acceptabletowriterslikeApararka.Andit ean be seen that though it is incomplete and imperfect,none which isproposedoracceptediscompletelysatisfactory.Theonly specificationthat should be attempted istostate the minimum and maximum number of houses which when in juxtaposition, isacollectionlargeenoughtofunctionasaunitoforderly living. Manasiira(IX,456)doesnotappeartomakeanydis-tinctionbetween'grama'and'nagara',while,Vishwariipa,a writer later than Apararka,commentingon theabove-referred topassagefromajnavalkyasmritiinterpretstheterm'khar-tomeanaparticulartypeofvillage,viz.,oneinwhich themainvegetationisthornyorprickly.Andthefactis thatthetermdoesnotappearinlaterliteratureasadesig-nationofavillage proper,except inthe Karnatakainscription alreadyreferredto. Anocherworddesignatingavillageoravillage-likeunit is'palli'.Aswehavementionedelsewheres1,thewordis listedinSanskritlexiconsandisknownindescriptivelite-29.V.V.Mirashi, intheKalachuriChediEra,pp.76. 112,114. 30.Ydjnavalkyasmriti,II,167. 31.G.S.Ghurye,TheScheduledTribes. )exAFTERACENTURYANDAQUARTER rature of modern times in connectionwith the social organiza-tion of the BhilsofRajasthanand Malwa.It isnotdescribed in anyoftheSanskrit works mentionedabove.But it occurs morethanonceinthePrakritwork,SaptaJatiofHala,gene-rallyassignedtothe2ndcenturyAC.andconsideredtobe representative of popular usages,asadesignation of aregular village,withitsheadmannamedinthestandardmanner,as ' grama':li' .Inscriptionsofthe5thtothe8thcenturyAC.in the Kalachuri Chedi era, however, record anumber ofvillages with names ending in 'palli' and more often in 'pallikii'33.Thus, wehave'Suvarnarapalli'SankhedainBroachdistrict,'Puro-hitapallika',modernPaland'WarafOP CUM/Ill/DINe, r,MPII ,1M,.,I>fIN"'OuJ, ;:: :'OOTPAl,., =CAR1 BII (HOWDI - WALA.1LONIKAND:AGENERALVIEW LON1KANDorthetownofLony,asits earlieststudentSurgeonCOJI:.tg;lr"h;1I1 thl"drumhou,('.;I tth, 'IlIthl'I"(' lld .. ALoha I'hli1l'blllith- a twor kinhi sworks hopattuclwdtohihouse. ACh daughterofthehusband.Oncethechoiceofamatein marriageisloosenedfrom- itsmooringstothetieofkinship the search for abride becomes free andtherefore lessconfined tocertainlocalities. Thatthisisacorrectexplanationisborneoutbythe fairly large number of the wives of the heads and their brothers havingbeentheirhusbands'closerelatives.Ofthe95wives oftheheadsandtheirbrothersexcludingthetwoMuslim familiesandonebigamousmarriage,27weresuchclose relatives.18ofthemwere theirhusbands'mothers'brothers' daughters,oneher husband'sfather'ssister'sdaughter,and8 wiveswererelatedinawayotherthanthis. Pemeliesabout2.5milestothenorth-eastofLonikand,andWag-holi4milestothesouth-west.ThesituationofSirurtalukaisspeci-fiedbythefactofthePoona..Ahmednagarroadenteringitalmostdue eastfromLonikandovertheBhimariver. Do 14 EST IeL IFE:B I0- soc IA L 77 Thisshouldnot be takentomeanthat there isnoinclina tion to seek formaritalallianceamongcloserelatives like the mother'sbrother'sor father'ssister'sfamilies.Therearefour daughters of the heads who are married to their father's sisters sons,onlyoneofthemacousin-sister,thethreeothersbeing ownsistersofthefathers.Thetotalnumberofmarriages oftheheads'andtheirbrothers'daughtersinthesamplearc 56.Marriageswithcloserelativesinthesecondgeneration formabout8percent.Thepercentageofsuchmarriages inthe heads'generationisabout22at leastand maybemore than25. Oursampleincludes62marriagesofheads'sisters. Amongthemagain,onlyin4marriagesthehusbandswere their wives' fathers' sisters' sons.The percentage of marriages withcloserelativesamongtheheads'sistersisthusslightly lower. Onthewhole,wemayconcludethatmarriagewitha doserelativelikemother'sbrothers'daughterorfather' s sister'ssonisrarer inthe later generationthanintheearlier. Thegeneralconclusionisfurtherborneout,indirectly though,bytheareaoforiginofthe mothersofthe heads.Of the 35mothers about whominformation about the village from whichtheycamewasavailable,21or60percentwerefrom Sirurtaluka.Lonikand,thevillageitselfwhichcontributed 21.82percentofthewivesoftheheadsandtheirbrothers, hAdcontributedabout39percentofthemothersofthe heads. Wehave seenabovethat inthecase ofsisters'marriages, marriagewithhermaternaluncle'ssonorsuchrelativewas slightlylowerinpercentagethaninthelatergenerationof daughters.Lookingtothevillagesinwhichthesistersand daughters of the heads were married,wesee that aconcentra-tioninthecaseofsistersfollowsthepatternofthemothers of the heads much more than isthecasewithdaughters.The daughters'patternapproximatesmorecloselythepatternof concentrationdiscoveredin thecaseofsons'marriages. Of the 62married sisters,aboutwhomvillagesintowhich theyweremarriedareknown,26or41.94percentwere marriedinthevillagesofHavelitaluka.Thosemarriedin 78AFTERACENTURYANDAQUARTER thevillagesofSirurtalukaform21.81percent.In case ofdaughters ofthe heads, Havelitaluka provided husbands for 38per cent ofthem,Sirur taluka vyingwithit withthesame percentage.InbothgroupsofmarriagesLonikandoutofall villagesprovidedthelargestnumberofhusbands.But whereasinthecaseofsisters30.8percentofthehusbands camefromLonikand,inthecaseofdaughtersonly21per centwerefromLonikand.Wemayconcludethissectionof domestic life,that ofthe ramification ofkin throughmarriage, anditsareaofsocialsolidarityonkinshipbasis,withthe observationthat onthewholethereisatendencyinthelater generationstoseekmatesformarriagesin diversifiednearby areas,withlessaccentoncloserelationship. Theachievementsofthestabilityofthe marriage-relation are indicatedbythe factthatamongsomanymarriagesthere isnonewhichprovedsterileandonlyonewhichwasbroken bydivorce.ItwasthefixstmarriageofabrotherofaMali joint-family and the wifewas her husband's mother's brother' E'. daughter.Themarriagetookplacein1948.Thehusband wasthen25yearsold.Whenitwasbrokenisnotknowll, butitisstatedthatthemancontractedhissecondmarriage in1956. LeavingouttheRajput-Pardesihouseholdweseethat oneisheadedbyawidow.Shehasthreesonswholivein separatehouseholdsoftheirown.Thewidowliveswithher grown-up unmarried daughter.The widow whoisaBrahmin, beingthewifeofthepriestofthevillage,isrespectedtothis extentthat sheiselectedamemberofthePanchayat.How-",ver,therearepeoplewhoprivatelycriticizeherforher generalconductandtheconductofherhousehold.Shehas beenawidowforovertwentyyears.Inonehousehold,the head,whoisawidowerhadtriedhisluckwithmarriage fourtimes.Unfortunatelyevenhisfourthwifedied.Both hisfatherandmotherlivewithhim.Oneheadofahouse-holdislivingwithhisfourthwifeandfourwiththeirthird wives.Eleven householdsare run by heads with theirsecond wives. Of the sons, one Mang ladhas twowives and aChambhar lad hasonewifeandanother womanlivingwithhim. Do MEST IeLI FE:BI0- SOC IA L Of the twentythree heads'brothers whoare married four arelivingwiththeirsecondwives. Leavingoutthefifteenfamiliesof'balutas',ofMuslims, ofBrahmins,ofthePardeshi,RajputandtheMahars,the remainingthirty fivefamiliesare distributedamongseventeen familynames.Kandclaimsninefamilies,Zurungesix,Shinde four,JagtapandValunjtwoeachandBandal ,Bhondwe, Birdawde,Dabhade,Garud,Gawde,Hole,Magar,Pharate, Raut,TapkirandYadavoneeach. ThreeMarathaandthreeMalifamiliesarevegetarians, whiletwentytwoMarathaandsixMalifamiliesarenon-vegetarians,onenotreporting. Oftheforty-eightHindufamilies,thirty fourreportthat theirfamilydeityisKhandoba,threebothKhandobaand Mhasoba,Rama andMhasoba twoeach.Khandobawith some otherdeityisthefamilygodoffourfamilies.Aratherun-knowngoddessbynameAkhadiHonjaiisthepatrondeity done fanlily.And strange to say,the god Vithobo, whosemostfamousdevoteeslivedandworkedinHaveli talukaandthenearbyregion,isthefamilydeityofonlyone family;andthenew-fangledideaofcentringMalisocio-religious life on Savantamali has asyet secured only one family totreatSavantabiibiiasitsfamilygod. Of the thirtyfive families,there are onlyeleven familiesin-cluding the one Brahmin familywhichreportdailyworship of the family idols, six say that they worship them occasionally and eighteenstatethattheyworshipthemonlyonreligiousdays. Tofacilitatetheunderstandingofthetypeoffamily currentinLonikandwegiveonpage80ananalyticalstate-ment. It isseenfromthestatementthattherearetwentyseven familiesout of48in the sampleinwhichneitheroftheheads' parentsisliving.Theheadinthese27familiesisnotonly thevirtualheadbut isalsotheheadforthetotalityofsenti-mentsandactivityofthemembersofthefamily.Ofthe27 familieswithoutthehead'sfatherormother,12arenuclear, the members composingthem being the head and hiswifeand Inallcases,unlessotherwisestated,pluralityofwivesissuc-cessiveand hasresulted fromthedeathof thepreviouswifeor wives. 80ArTERACENTURYANDAQt1AR'rER Composition Head,wife,unmarriedchildren,fatherandmother,withouta marriedorunmarriedbrotherofthehead Head,wife,unmarriedchildren,fatherandmother,andamarried brotherandthelatter'schildren Head,wife,unmarriedchildren,marriedsonsandwidowerfather Head,wife,unmarriedchildren,widowerfatherandmarried brothersandtheirchildren Thesameasabovebutwiththeadditionofamarriedsonofone ofthebrothers. Head,wife,unmarriedchildrenandwidowedmother Head,wife,unmarriedchildren,widowedmotherandmarried brothers. Head,wife,unmarriedchildren,widowedmother,marriedbrothers andmarriedsons. Head,wife,unmarriedchildren,widowedmotherandamarried son.. . Head,wife,unmarriedchildren,andmarriedbrothers Head, wife,unmarried children,marriedbrothersandmarried sons Head,wifeandunmarriedchildren Head, wife,unmarriedchildrenandmarriedson or sons.. Total No. 2 1 1 .1 1 9 2 " .) 1 3 2 12 10 48 hisunmarriedchildren.Ofthese,infour familiesthe mother orthefatherwaslivingtill1952,andinsomeofthemthey diedthatyearandinothersbefore1958. AmongthetwentyonefamilieswithoneOrtheotherof theparentsoftheheadJiving,thereare9inwhichthe widowedmotheroftheheadistheparent.Thegroup other-wiseisthestandardnuclearfamily,thehead'swifeandtheir unmarriedchildrenbeingtheothermembers. Amongthetwentysevenfamiliesinwhichnoneofthe parents of theheadislivingin fivemarriedsonor sonsof the headand/ or head'smarried brothers inadditiontohead'sun-marriedchildrenaretheothermembers.Therearethree familiesamongtheothertwentyonewherethewidowed motheristheotheradditiontothemembership.Andthere are two others in which the same membership with the absence ofmarriedsonorsonsconstitutesthegroup.Theseten familiesthusmay bedescribedasjointhouseholds.Tothese ten must beadded three other morecomplexjoint households fromthegroupoffamiliesinwhicheitherboththeparents D 0IIIEST IeLI FE:B I0- soc IA L 81 are alive oronlythe widower father oftheheadisthe surviv-ingparent.In allofthemamarriedbrotherorbrothersand hisortheirchildrenarecomprisedinthegroupinaddition tothehead,hiswifeandtheirunmarriedchildren.Ofthese inoneboththeparentsarealiveandintheremainingt wo onlythe widowerfathersurvives.Oneofthesetwoismore complex thanothersasamongitsmembersthereisamarried sonofoneofthebrothers.Intwootherfamiliesboththe parentsofthe headarealiveand formmembersofthe house-holdalongwithamarriedorunmarriedbrotherofthehead andthehead'sunmarriedchildren.Thenumberofjoint householdsinthesampleisthusfifteen. Thetenhouseholdswhichhavehead,hiswife,theirun-marriedchildrenandmarriedsonorsonsmaybeclassedas extendedfamilies.Tothemistobeaddedonefamilyin whichthewidowedmotheroftheheadistheadditional member.One more familywhichisevenmore extendedthan thesebelongstothisclassandincreasesthenumberofex-tendedfamiliesinoursample,totwelve.It compriseshead, his wife, unmarried children, married sons andwidower father ofthe head. If oursampleisrepresentative,amongthefamilies,of Lonikand,alittleover31percentarejointhouseholdsand another25percentextendedfamilies. We may close this section on domestic life in contemporary Lonikandbydrawingattentiontothethreehouseholdscon-tained in the sample which have as their components collateral relatives in the femaleline.They are XIII,XXIII and XXVI. InthehouseholdXIIItwobrothersformthejointhousehold. Theirwivesaretheirmothers'brothers'daughters.One daughteroftheirsister,whois15yearsoldandunmarried liveswiththem.InfamilyXXIIItheparentsofthehead are aliveand the head's widowedsister with her two sonsand onedaughter livesasamemberofthe household.Inthelast faxnilyofthisgroup,threegenerationscollateralsarerepre-sented.The head's father is amember andhiswidowedsister tooliveswiththem.Theheadisawidowerandhissister's sons,onewithhiswifeandanotherunmarriedaremembers ofthehousehold. 5DOMESTICLIFE:SOCIO-ECONOMIC Toprovidethedomesticsceneofcon-temporaryLonikandwithfleshand bloodweshallnowbrieflypassthefami-]iesunderreviewbothontheirsocialandeconomicsides. To beginwith the nuclear families,asalready noted,there arefouramongtheminwhichoneortheotherofthetwo parentswasalivetillrecently.Inoneofthem(1)*tillthe deathofthefatherofthehead,thefamiliesofthefatherand the father's brother, though legally separated, were living toge-ther asajoint household.After his father'sdeath the present headofthefamily,aged30yearsandeducateduptoVerna--cularFinal,andhisfather'sbrotherdividedthehousehold. Theheadhasfourchildren,allsons,theeldest9yearsold andtheyoungest1tyears.HeisaMarathabycaste.The familyowns40acresofdryand5acresofwetlandbuthas onlyonecowandonehenandneitheranyoxennorany bullock-cart,ploughorcycle.Anotherfamily(II),Maliby caste,hasaheadwhois50yearsold,andhissecondwifeis 43yearsold.Hehasatpresentsevenchildren,3sonsand 4 daughters.Of the sons, the eldest aged 20years isthe head's firstwife'schild.Heiseducateduptothesixthstandardand isemployed inthe P.W.D.forthelast8years.Onedaughter fromthehead'sfirstwifeisatpresent18yearsoldandis married.There was another daughter fromthe firstwifewho hadmarriedbutdiedlater.Twoofthehead'sdaughters,13 and 12years respectively, are studying, the elder in the second standardandtheyoungerinthethirdstandard.Thethree '{)therchildren are 7,6,and 5 years old respectively,the middle lope-roofedonestoday.TheVithoba-Rukminitemplewith itsspiregivesLonikandoftodayconspicuitywhichtheold templeofMahadevstillstandinginaneglectedstatecould havegivenLonikandof1819.AddedtothistheSavantababa Mandirandtheschoolbuilding,thePoonaRotary'sgift,al-mostabuttingonthegreatPoona-Ahmednagarroadimpress Lonikandonthenoticeofthepassers-by. Nexttothephysicalappearanceisthecompositionof thepresentpopulation.Astudyofitisnotonlyinteresting butinstructive.WehavenotedthatsinceCoats'timethe populationhasincreasedby150percent.Ordinarilythis growth in numbers will be very largely credited tothe balance ofbirthsoverdeathsi.e.naturalgrowth.Butthatisnotso asourinvestigationtendstoreveal.Outofthe50familiesof oursamplewithatotalpopulationof427,22familiesor44 percentcametoLonikandfromsomewhereelseduringthe last25to90yearsi.e.,morethan30to40yearsafterCoats' descriptionofLonikand.Ifthispercentageofimmigrants shouldbeanythinglikearepresentativepercentage,inthe total population,of immigrants,thennot lessthan 40per cent 110AFTERACENTURYANDAQUARTER ofthepresentpopulationofLonikandisthedescendantsof the immigrants whomigrated toLonikand 30to 40years after Coats'time.Thismeansthat the natural growth ofthepopu-lationofLonikandoveracentury andaquarterhasnot been morethan50percent.Evenif wemakesomeallowancefor emigrants,ifany,fromLonikandandnaturalextinctionof some others, the natural growth of the population ofLoni over acenturyandaquartercannotbemuchhigherthan50per cent. Weshallnotgointothedetailsofsexandagedistribu-tionofthepopulation,therelevantremarksbeingalready made.Weshallrefertothechangesinthecaste-wisecom-positionofthepopulace.Asalreadynoted,Coatshasgiven thecaste-wise distribution.Wehave drawnthereader'satten-tiontothefactthatCoatsreferstothecultivatorsingeneral, callingallofthemKunbis,andassigningthemtothefourth caste,thecasteofShudras.He furtherdistinguishesthemas eitherhereditarycultivatorsi.e.'talkaris'or'uparis'i.e.culti-vatorsonlease.ThereisnoreferencetoMarathasnorto Malis.ThefirsteditionoftheDistrictGazetteerofPoona 1 publishedin1885,inwhichasstatedthereintheaccountof KunbisisbasedonCoats'accountof1819,theKlmbisare dividedintotwomainclassesnamelyKunbisandMarathas and theobservationisaddedthat between thetwo"it isdiffi-cult todraw aline."They areone group of husbandmen;and thoughMalisarerecQrded2,theyaredismissedwiththe remark"theircustomsarethesameasthoseofMarathasor Kunbis."InourinvestigationofthepresentLoni,wefind thatthereare MarathasandMalisbut noKunbis.And whe-therthereisanydistinction,ornoneastheGazetteerstated, hetweentheMarathasandtheMalis,itisquitecleartous thatasfarastutelarydeityisconcernedtheMarathasof Lonikandthoughjoiningwholeheartedlyintheannualwor-shipofMhasoba,declareittobethedeityoftheMalisand proclaimthattheirdeityisKhandoba,whichisafact.In privatethey will add "eventheMalis'tutelarydeityisKhan-dobaandnotMhasoba." 1.PartI.fns.pp.286-296. 2.op.cit.p.309"anotherclassofhusbandmen." ApPRAISAL III Thegreatestcompositionalchangeliesintheabsenceof slavesandofimmigrant merchants.AccordingtoCoatsthere were8familiesofslaveswith18personsandatleastone house in Lonikand was owned by aslave.In the present Loni-kandnoslaveisknowntoexist.Therewere,accordingto Coats,3familiesofJainshop-keepersofKannadaextraction andtwoMarwarifamiliesofshop-keepers.Betweenthem theyowned3houses.TodayinLonikandthere "isneithera JainorHinduKannadiganoristhereaMarwariassuch. IntheirplacethereisaRajputfromDehraDunwhohas marriedalocalRajasthanilady'sdaughterandhassettled downasashop-keeperforthelast15years.Hismother-in-Jawwhohasbeentheresincelongrepresentsperhapsthe remnantsoftheoldMarwaris.Butthesepeoplehavetaken tothe dressand languageofthe Maharashtrianssomuch that theycannotbedistinguishedfromthelocalMarathas. The grocery trade ofLonikandoffersinteresting specimen oftheeconomicsandsociologyofruralgrocery.Coatshas givenalistofarticlesthatweregenerallykeptintheshops ofthegrocers,whichaccordingtohisdescriptionwould appeartobe5innumber,givingtheaverageofaboutone shopforevery114persons.Heinformsusthattheshop-keepershadgreatweightinthetownshipandactedas bankers.Theywerereadytoadvancesmallloanswithout security,charging37percentinterest.Theysoldtheirgro-cerymerchandiseonthebasisof12months'creditafter whichalonetheinterestwascharged.Bulkofthedealings carriedonwiththecultivatorswereonbartersystem,the settlementcommonlybeingmadeattheharvesttime.The listofarticlesavailableatthelocalgroceryshops,ranging fromclarifiedbutterorgheeincludednotonlysennaleaves, salammoniac(navsagar)andthesaltofmercury(puska-poor)butalsopaperandink.It alsoincludedpoppyseed (khaskhas),bhang(theintoxicatingleavesoftheCannabis Sativa)andopium(aphu)andarsenic(somul) ,alsosaffron (keshar)andmusk(kasturi).Thegroceryshopwasthusan ' all-purpose'storeincludinginitnotonlythegrainsand pulsesbut alsodry-fruitsandthespicyvegetablesandcocoa-nut,in fact all thenecessitiesofdailylifeincludingcloth. 112AFTERACENTURYANDAQUART!: " ItintriguesustoknowthatintheshopsofLonithere wasavailablenotonlysaffronbut alsotherarerluxuryand medicamentofmuskorKasturi.Intoday'sshops,evenin thewell-stockedoneoftheKands,wherethedailysaleof commoditiesbringsinaboutRs.30,wehavenotmetwith thelatterstuff.Thedry-fruits,the'badams'(almonds)and dateswhetherdryorsoft('kharik,khajur')arenoteasily available.Thesedryfruititemshaveaplaceinthereligio-socialritualandaregenerallyusedasfoodonfastdays. Thestrangeomissionsfromthelistarepepper,chillies andoil.Peoplewere burningoillampsand'karanji'(Ponga-nuiaglabra)orsomesuchoilwasused.Theywouldhave alsorequired'karadai'(Carthamustinctorius)ortiloilfor seasoningeatablesand'kopra'oilfor -hair.Coatsdoesnot mentionany'teli'oroil-presserandtheneedsofoilcouldnot havebeenprovidedbythe'balutateli'. Todayallchilliesandpepperarethereandtheymust havebeeneventhereinCoats'time.'Til'or'karadai'and 'kopra'oilareavailabletodayinallthefiveshops.Theold typeofoilforlampisnolongernecessaryandkeroseneis used in its placeand that isstockedagaininallthe fiveshops. Asyetnoreadymadeclothesareavailableinthesesh0pS. Goingintothehistoryofthegrocers'shopswefindthat allthefiveshopsinexistencetodayarefairlyrecent,oneof themhavingbeeninexistencefor25years,twoforabout 10yearsandthe remainjngtwo forabout only5years.Three oftheownersareMarathas,oneMaliandthefifthaRajas-thanicalledhereaPardesi. The state ofaffairs about the grocery shops before 25years isnotclearlyknownbutwewereassuredbythememories ofthe oldestresidents that thepreviousgrocer theyremember wasaMuslim,whodiedissuelessandthathiswidowleftthe villageafter hisdeath. Teawouldappeartobeapost-Britishadditiontothe Indianlistofdrinksanditisbutinkeepingwiththegeneral expectationofsociologiststhatinabigvillagelikeLonikand situated asit isonthethoroughfareconnecting two important ThiscommodityinthecityofBombaysellsatRs.30.00a'tola' 01'about Rs.75.00anounce. ApPRAISA L 113 centresofpopulation,thereshouldbeateashopinthevil-lage.Actually,therearetwoandtheyareownedbywhat lire known here, as already stated, as Mehmans, that is,neither Shindes,KandsnorZurunges.OneisaMarathaandthe otheraMali.TheshopoftheMaratha,whoisalocalresi-dentis15yearsoldbutthatoftheMaliisarecentaddition theownerhavingmigratedtothisvillagenotmorethanten yearsago.Whatwasthedrink,ifany,thatwasavailablein ashopbeforetheBritishadventormorecorrectlybeforethe adventoftea-shopisnotknown.Butthattherewouldhave beensomeeatableslike'chikki>lxisttodayasstatedabove. AfurtherobservationofCoatsonthismatterisvo=ryim-portant andthat is,"a personpossessedof8 pairsofoxen ... isthoughttobeinverygoodCircumstances",becauseit impliesthatthereweresomefarmersinCoats'Loniwho owned8pairsofoxen .Today,however,wehavereasonto believethatthereisnotasinglefamilyinLonikandwhich owns8pairsofoxen.Asamatteroffactinoursample, thereisonlyonefamilywhichownsmorethanG oxen;and oursample,thoughcomposedofonly50families,contains twoorthreerichestfamiliesofthevillage.Thisindication oftheimpoverishmentofthepeopleinitselfsupportsour previousobservationmadeinconnectionwiththedispersal ofthe familiesintheirfieldsandisitselfstrengthenedbythe factthattheproportionoflandbroughtundercultivationis higherthanitwasin1819.Todayarablelandformsalittle over70percentofthetotallandwhereasin1819itwasa littleover53percent. ByfarthegreatestchangethatLonikandhasgone ApPRAISAL 117 throughisonthesideofthefacilitiesforeducationandits spreadand the organizationonwhichitssocial lifeisbased. Today,thankstotheRotaryClubofPoona,thereisa niceschool building.Evenbeforetheerectionofthebuilding abouttwoyearsago,theschooladdedtheseventhstandard andthusmadetraininguptovernacularfinalexamination possibleinthelocalschool.Thereareclearindicationsthat Lonikarshaveanintensedesiretotakeeducation.Wennd that among the 48headsof the familiesof our sample,25have had some education.Twoof them had studieduptotheMatri-culation,threehadpassedtheseventhMarathistandard,one eachthesixthand fifth,sevenpassedthefourthstandardand eightthethird.Threeoftheheadshadpassedthesecond standardand23hadnotdoneanythingintheline.Ofthe 25brothersoftheseheads,12havehadnoeducationwhile onehaspassedtheMatriculation.Threeofthemdidthe Matriculation.ThreeofthemdidtheMarathiseventhand oneeachthe sixth and theseventh standard.Fourpassedthe Marathifourthstandard,onethesecondandtwothefirst only.On the whole, theeducational performance ofthe heads' brothersmaybepronouncedtobeverysimilartothatofthe heads. Amongthe79sonsoftheheadsandtheirbrothers,27 havealreadystoppedtheireducation,and19ofthemare already married.Ofthemarriedsonsonlyoneisuneducated whileoneisaMatriculate.Oftheunmarriedsonsoneleft offfromtheXandonefromtheIX standard.Ofthe52sons oftheheadsandtheirbrotherswhoarestillgoingtoschool, 8areintheI,11intheII,11intheIV,7inVandVIeach, 4 intheVIIand1inIXstandard.Wemayconcludethatas faraseducationisconcerned,thingsaregoingforwardin Lonikand. During thelast fewyearstwoagencies,oneoftheUnion GovernmentundertheCommunityDevelopmentProjectand theNationalExtensionService,andtheotherthatofthe RotaryClubof underitsownidealshavebeentrying tohelpandtransformthevillagemachineryandlife.The laudableendeavouroftheRotaryhasgiventothevillagea fineschoolbuildingbutatthesametime,wearesorryto 118AFTERACENTURYANDAQUARTER note,has tended tomake the villagerslessself-dependent.As alreadymentioned,forlittlethingsconnectedwiththeschool andotherthingslikemedicalhelpeverynowandthenthe villagersexpecttheRotaryClubofPoonatocometotheir help.Somuchsoisthisdependentattitudedeveloping-not perhaps without indirect encouragement from the outside agen-ciesthemselveswiththeirverynaturaldesireofshowingthe experimenttobesuccessful-thatinthecaseoftheMahila MandaIortheLadies'AssociationstartedbytheNational ExtensionServicein1954theRotaryClubofPoonahasto spend Rs.75per month to engage alady whogoes fromPoona onSunday and staysin Lonitill the followingThursday.She conductsclassesintheoldschoolbuildingandtriestoteach embroidery,stitchingandcuttinginthedaytimetogirlsand toladiesatnight.Thejustificationforthisparticularacti-vityliesinthefactthatthepeoplehaveshownafaireager-nesstoattendtheclasses,bothchildrenandladies.They havemadeout anumber ofthingssomeforuseandsomefor beauty only. ThelocalpersonswhocontacttheRotarymenandcarry ontheintegrative,ameliorativeorculturalworkarethetea-cher bynameZurunge, andreferredtobypeopleasZur unge Guruji,thelocal'savkar'orthegrocer-cum-bankel'Kandby name,and oneBuwa Tapkir whoisanagriculturistofmiddl-ing status.The last person is an immigrant but ofthe Mehman or in-law type. HecomesfromCharholi Budr uk in the North-West.ThefamilycameandsettledinLonikandwhichisa villageofhismother.BuwaTapkirandhisbrotherhave inheritedsomelandfromtheirmaternalgrandfather.Buwa Tapkirthoughnot highlyeducatedisapersongiventonews-paper-readingandhasaknackforknowingdetailsaboutthe familiesofLonikand.Hisnewspapercontactwiththeouter worldandhisdirectcontactwiththeinnerworldofLoni-kand haveconspiredto givehimlocalimportance.The influ-encethathewieldscanbewellgaugedfromtheincident abouttheoperationofvasectomythatwasproposedtobe carriedoutonsomeofthelocalpeople.Thedoctorofthe Rotarywhowasinchargeofthecampaignfirstofallwon overBuwaTapkirandmadehimagreetogettheoperation ApPRAISAL ll9 doneonhim.UnderTapkir'sinfluenceandthedoctor'sper-suasionsix othermenofLonikandagreedtohaveitdoneon themtoo.FortheoperationtheyhadtogotoPoona.But ononepretextoranotherTapkirdidnotpl'Qceedandthe doctor could notpersuade others togowith him.They insist-ed that they would goonlyifTapkirwent withthem.Tapkir-isabout50yearsold. Zurungeteacherisalsoanhonorarycompounderfordis-pensing medicineslocallyaccordingtotheprescriptionofth visitingdoctoroftheRotary.Heisalsoanagriculturist.Be it notedthatthoughheisateacher,heisnottheheadmaster oftheschool.Hisservicesinthedispensingofmedicines havebeenconsideredassoinvaluablethattheRotaryClub hasintervenedtopreventhistransferfromLonikand. Zurunge'sbeingcomparativelyfreefromtransferisafactor inhislocalimportance.HeisaMali,andMalisconsulthim inmarriages,wheremoreoftenthannotheofficiatesasthe priest.TheMalisofLonikand donotemployBrahminpriests foranyoftheirreligiousorsocialrites. KandSavkarwhoisoneofthetrioisinactualitythe mostimportantmanofLonikand.Foranysocialorreligious function Kondiba Kand, the "savkar" as he is generally known, isthetreasurer.Surplusmoneythereforeremainswithhim. Anyoutsidemonetaryhelpforanyvillagepurposeistaken in his name and isdeposited with him.Being agrocer hecan obligeanumberoffamiliesinsmallorgreatways. Allthesepersonsworkasthecoreofthecommitteeof managementfortheannualMhasobafestival.Noneofthem is,however, amember ofthe VillagePanchayat formedunder thePanchayatAct. The villagersofLonikand beingkeenlyaware ofthe need forandpossibilitiesofwaterforirrigationintheirvillage hadsometimesuggestedtotheGovernmentagenciesthata damcouldbeandshouldbeputupinthestreamthatruns tothewest and south of thevillage.Onagreed basisofshar-ingtheexpenses-thevillagerstopayone-thirdofthetotal expenses-thedamwasfinallyputupin1955.Butunfortu-natelythedamhasnotbeenabletodamthewaterandthe-wholeschemeasawater-providingmeasureseemstobea 120 AFTERACENTURYANDAQUARTER failure.TheGovernmentdemandsfromthevillagerstheir share oftheexpensesandthevillagersrightlypointoutthat sincetheschemehasfailed,theycannotbeexpectedtopay asagreeduponpreviously.IntheGovernmentaccounting an amountofaboutRs.6000whichrepresentsone-thirdofthe totalexpensesofthedamisshownas'taqavi'loantothevil-lagers.Thevillagersdisowningthisarrangementandtheir responsibilityforit,thedead-lockstillcontinues.It iswork ofthiskindthattendstodiscredittheGovernmentagency andstrengthenstheoldattitudeofthevillagertowards schemesofameliorationinwhichheisaskedtosharethe burdenofhisquota. Inviewofwhathashappeneditwillnotbeoutofplace 10referheretotheobservationsofahighlyintelligentand deeplysympatheticBritishIndianofficialmadeaboutasmall townorlargevillageintheadjoiningdistrictofAhmednagar almostexactlyacenturyago.R.N.Goodine,whomwehave referred to and quoted previously, in his Report on the Village CommunitiesoftheDeccanremarksonthedireneedofpot-ablewaterfortheflourishingtownofYewlaandtheutter inability ofthe localpeopletocooperate for providing it."Th(:> munificenceofsomeindividualinby-gonedayshada tank,butit hassincebecomechokedwithmudandisconse-quentlyuseless.Asusualin suchcases,thePatelmight have affordedsomeassistancefromhisoffice(byformingasub-scription,orwhatnot,havemadethenecessaryarrange-ments,but thiswascontrarytotheregulationsofthepresent Government.Duringthelastfewyears,severalefforts,I understand,havebeenmadetoinducethepresentGovern-menttoformanaqueduct,andithadconsentedtodefray halftheexpense,iftheinhabitantswoulddefraytherest.A subscriptionlist wassetonfoot,buttheamountofpromised subscriptionsfellshortofthesumrequiredandthemeasure failed,throughthedissensionordisunionofitspromoters. Governmentsubsequentlyrescindedthemohoturfaortown dues.ApetitionwasagainmadeforanaqueductandGov-ernmentagainprofessedwillingnesstobear halftheexpense, ifthetownwouldbeartheremainder,urgingatthesame timethat,asithadrelievedthepeoplefromsogreatan ApPRAISAL 121 amount of taxes,they oughtcordiallytocooperateineffecting anobject entirely fortheirownbenefit.Another attemptwas madeatasubscription,butseemedagainlikelytofailfrom wantofunityamongtheinhabitants;theystatingthatthey wouldgladlycontinuetopaythemohoturfatax,if Govern-ment wouldsupplythetownwithwater. ."Thesefactsare not peculiartothistownalone,but,withslightmodifications. areequallyapplicabletomostofthelargetownsofthe Deccan." Theother influencethroughgovernmentalandlegilative measureistheformationoftheVillagePanchayatwithits rights,privilegesandresponsibilities.Asalreadypointedout ithasbeenworkingsinceApril1954andtheladymember-because there must be alady member-is the Brahminwidow whohasneveronceattendedthemeeting.Noneofthethree citizensinLonikand,viz.KondibaKand,BuwaTapkirand ZurungeGuruji,whoseactivitiesarebrieflydescribedabove. isamemberofthePanchayat.Oftheotherinfluentialper-sonswhocarrygreatweightisthepresent,hereditaryPatil ofthevillageviz.AnandraoShindePatilwhothoughaman c.fabout 30-35years is perhaps the most respected and weighty citizenofLonikand.TherearefourothercitizensofLoni-, kand,threeofthemnativesofthevillageandoneatempo-raryimmigrant,aMaliteacher,whowieldgreatinfluence inthevillage.Ofthesefour,oneaMaligrocerisanelected memberoftheVillagePanchayat.Noneoftheothersbelong tothePanchayat.RamraoValunjandShripatraoKand,the remainingtwoofthefourareagriculturistsmainly,thefor-merbesidesrunningatea-shop. It willbeseenfromthebriefdescriptionoftheimpor-tantpersonagesofLonikandthatonlytwopersons,namely, Buwa TapkirandShripatraoKandhavenoadditionalsource ofinfluenceoverandabovetheirmembershipofthevillage andtheiragricultutalstatusinit.BuwaTapkirasalready pointedoutisnotaconsiderableagriculturist.Shripatra() Kandontheotherhandisaconsiderableagriculturistown-ingmorethanahundredacresoflandandemployinga whole-timeservantthroughouttheyear.Shripatraohasa well-built houseonhis landabout amileaway fromthe main 11 122AFTERACENTURYANDAQUARTER villagebutthedistancehasnotpreventedhimfromwielding influenceinthevillage. Hereisaphenomenonwhichseemstoshowthatwith theinceptionofthePanchayattwosetsofinfluentialgroups operateintwodifferentfieldsofvillagelife.Evenwithout anyrivalryoranimositybetweenthem,thefunctioningof the twogroupsislikedividedauthority.If we mayrepresent thedivisioninsociologicaltermswemayspeakofitasdivi-sion between temporal and spiritual authority.The Panchayat withitstaxationanditsvillageadministrationmaybesaid to operate in the temporal aspect of the villagers'life.Anand-raoShindePatil,KondibaandShripatraoKand,BuwaTap-kir,Valunj,andthetwoGurujisoperateinthespiritualfield. Bhumkarisinfluentialinhisownrightandisalsoamember ofthe Panchayat.But hehardlyever figuresinthereligious or thesociallifeofthe people. We havealreadydealt withthe religiouslifeand brought outtheparticularrolesoftheindividualsinthisgroup.We maynowmentionthatinthreeaffairsofsocialsignificance inwhichthewell-beingofsomeofthecitizensofLonikand wasinvolvedandinthegrandcooperativeeffortconnected with theconstruction ofthedam,more than oneoftheseLook aleadingpart. Leavingtheaffairofthedamweshallbeginwiththe part that undertheguidanceofShinde,Kandand Tapkir and theteachers,someofthevillagershaveplayedinarranging themarriageoftheonlysonofthelocalgoldsmith,Sonar. Thegentlemanistoopoortodefraytheexpensesbyhimself. Thevillagershavecontributedamongthemselvesasufficient sumtoenablehimtodoso. We started withthissocialactionofthevillagersof Loni-kand because it appears to be acuriousechoofthe firsthisto-ricallyrecorded incident about Lonikand nearly twocenturies ago.InthediaryofthePeshwaMadhavraoIS,onlyalittle lessthantwocenturiesago,thethenlocalSonarofLoni-kand-letitberememberedthatinthosetimesthevillage wasknownbythenameSukloni-it ismentioned,hadsome 8.Vad,DiariesofthePeshwas,ThoraleMadhavrao,Vol.n,p.215. ApPRAISAL 123 difficultyofadifferentnatureaboutthemarriageofhisson. Aparticularbride,thedaughterofaparticularSonarofan-othervillagehadbeenfixedforhimandthefatherofthe bridecreateddifficultieswithaviewtoabrogatethematch. TheSonarofSuklonihavingappealedtothePeshwa,the latterinstructedhisofficialstoseethatthematchcameoff. Foranadequatejudgmentonthequalityofindividual andsociallife,fortheappreciationofindividualandsocial achievementsintheprocessofadaptation,socializationand integration,andfortheevaluationofindividualandsocial welfare,someglimpseintothenatureandextentoffactions, quarrels,litigationandcrimes,ifany,inthegroupstudiedis necessary and we shall present some data whichwe havebeen abletocollectontheseitems. Foracomparativeand panoramicviewweshallbeginby quotingthegeneralobservationsofCoatsonthecultivators, the main bulk ofthe population ofLonikand-he has not given anyspecificdata-mademorethanacenturyandaquarter ago.Coatssays:"Theyarejustintheirdealingsamongst themselves,but wouldnotbescrupulousinover-reachingthe Governmentorpersonswithout.Theftisscarcelyknown amongst them;and the voiceofthecommunity isloudagainst allbreachesofdecorum,andattachesweightandrespectabi-litytovirtuousconductinitsmembers....Theyarenatu-rallytimid,and will endeavourtoredresstheirwrongsrather bystrategemthanmoregenerousmeans;whenroused,how-ever,theywillbefoundnotwithoutcourage,norbyany meanscontemptibleenemies.""Theyaremildandunobtru-siveintheirmanners,andquicklyshrinkfromanythinglike anoppositebehaviourinothers.Litigationisnotamarked partoftheircharacter.Theyareforgetfulofinjury,or,if theyharbouranimosity,theyareseldomhurriedbyitinto actsofviolenceor cruelty.""Theyarenotrestrictedbyreli-gious prohibition fromthe useof spirituousliquors,but drink-ing is considered disreputable and rarely practised.Whenthey takeadram,it isasmuchaspossibleinprivate,andasifby stealth.Nointoxicatingliquorissoldinthetown,andprob-ably very fewof the inhabitants have ever been seen drunk." In Lonikandof today there are nofactionsassuch.Caste 124 AFTERACENTURYANDAQUARTER feelingisnotabsentasisseenfromthenewerectionofthe Savantababa hallby the Malis.It isalsoseen silentlyat work inthechoiceofthevisitedbythelocalpeople,the MalispatronizingtheMalis'andtheMarathasthatofthe Marathaowner.ThefeelingofthelocalMarathasaboutthe Malis'claimthattheirdeityisMhasobaalsoindicatesan undercurrentofcastefeeling.But sofaritdoesnotseemto have takenany more militant or evenovert shape.TheMalis' notengagingBrahminpriestsisanotherfeature whichdoesnotfosterhatredorevensournessbecausethe Brahminsgenerallyareatadiscountwiththevillagersasa whole. Ofthethreecasesoflitigationwhichareproceedingand iromtimetotimeseemtoagitatesomepeople,twopertainto relationsbetweenlandlordandtenant,bothofwhichstem fromthenewTenancyAct.Inboth,thecontendingparties belong todifferentcastes.In onethe landlordistheBrahmin ladyandthetenantisaMarathaagriculturistof theplace.The lady wantsherrentedlandmadeovertoher; butforsomereasonthepersonwhoisfightingthecasefor her is that son out of her three, allofwhom are living separate-ly,who ismost dislikedby mostoftheleadingvillager... .The tenantwhohasbeenoneoftheadmirersoftheBrahmin widowandhasnotonlyrespectforher,butevennowbears friendship,isreportedtobevoicingprivatelyhiswillingness toreleasethelandif,inhisownwords,"Nani(theBrahmin widowasshe isusually- referredtoinendearingterms)were directlytoaskhim forit."Thisquarrelandland-litigationis thusofanambivalentnature,if wemayusethisphycholo-gicalterminthiscontext.Theotherquarrel,thepartiesto whichareaMarathaandaMaliismoreseriousandshows utter lack of mutual trust as well as dour determination.Even themediationofthepopularRotarianofPoonahasnotyet beenabletoresolvetheconflict.Thelandlor d,whoistuallyinadistantState,servedhistenantwithanoticeto surrenderandquithislandsasfarbackas1950,butnot clearlybeforethepassingoftheTenancyAct.Heisliberal inhispatronageofgoodcausesinhisvillageoforiginand estate, Lonikand,and has already donated Rs.500forthe new ApPRAISAL 1:!5 schoolbuildingandhaspromisedRs.3000incasehislands areamicablyhandedovertohim.Heisfurtherwillingto surrenderhisclaimstoapartofthetotallandsprovidedthe tenantrelinquisheshisright first.Thetenantisaveryinflu-entiallocal personality,yetisreadyforthecompromise.But thebargaincannotbecompletedbecauseofmutua}mistrust raisingtheinsuperabledifficultywhoshoulddohispartof thecompromise first. Thethirdlitigationisafamilyquarrel-betweenapater-nal uncle and his nephewwhose housesadjoinwith some open land in between, which is the bone ofcontention.Thisquarrel aboutlandiscomplicatedbysex,theunclesuspectingthe wife'sbrotherofhisnephewofhavingmadestealthyover-turestohisdaughters. Ofcrimesproperthereareveryfew.Theonlycaseof murderrememberedisthatofaMuslimgroceraboutfifteen yearsago.APathanfromPoonawhowastheparamourof thegrocer'swifeisbelievedtohavekilledhiminhishouse at night.The widowsoonafter issaidtohoveleft lorPoona. Theother crime isacaseofmisappropriationofpublicmoney whichwasdiscoveredin1956.AThriftandCreditSociety was formedin 1947.TheChairmanwasoneofthetwoPatils. The Society havingnot donewellhadtobewoundupin1956 whenitwasdiscoveredthattheChairmanhadmisappro-priatedabout Rs.1,100belonging totheSociety.He was duly prosecutedandwassentencedtothreemonths'imprisonment. Hiswhichhehadtolaydown,washandedoverby himtoapaternalcousinofhisinpreferencetohisown youngerbrother. Thoughthereis'prohibition' ,andnoliquor,asinCoats' time,issoldinLonikandand,though,asagaininformer 1imes,thereisnaturallynodrunkennesstobemetwithin public,itisverywellknownthatallsuchfunctionsasmar-riage,whetherinLonikanditselforinanothervillage,make ampleprovisionforextemporiseddrink.Quiteanumberof usuallyactiveand socialpeopleareknownnottoshowtheir facesin publicforoneortwodaysaftersuchaneventasa marriageinafairlywell-to-dopeasant'sfamily.Theparti-cularrecipeforpreparingthedrinkknowntobeinpractice 126 AFTERACENTURYANIlAQUAR'l'BIl inLonikandisamixtureincertainproportions,ofFrench polish,allumandaqua.pUTa. U.A.S.BANGALORE UNIVERSITYLIBRARY. 12JAN12612 Ace.NO ..................... '" CL.NO .. .. . ...- . \i:-._ ..... :